02__AVERY_CRAIN.DOC

2/8/20072:01PM13BRANDED:CORPORATEIMAGE,SEXUALSTEREOTYPING,ANDTHENEWFACEOFCAPITALISMDIANNEAVERY*ANDMARIONCRAIN**I.
INTRODUCTION15II.
BRANDING,MARKETING,ANDAPPEARANCESTANDARDSINSERVICEBUSINESSES.
17A.
BrandedService18B.
MechanismsofControl.
191.
ProductionLineRoutinization.
202.
StandardizationbyTransformation223.
EffectsofRoutinizationonCustomersandCulture.
24C.
TheWaltDisneyModelofBrandedService261.
HiringandTrainingforBrandedService262.
BrandedWorkers:AppearanceCodes.
27III.
BRANDING:SANCTIONEDBYLAW.
28A.
TradeDress:ProtectinganEmployer'sProperty-LikeInterestinItsBrand28B.
AppearanceRegulationintheWorkplace.
311.
CasesintheUnionContext.
322.
ConstitutionalChallengestoAppearanceCodes.
393.
Privacy-BasedorWrongful-DischargeClaimsatCommonLaw414.
StatutorySexDiscriminationClaims425.
ACaseStudyofCorporateBrandingAccomplishedThroughAppearanceCodesandtheLaw'sResponse.
45IV.
THEJESPERSENLITIGATION:ANINDIVIDUALWORKERRESISTSCORPORATEBRANDING45A.
TheFacts45B.
TheStateLawsuit:CommonLawClaims48*ProfessorofLaw,UniversityatBuffaloLawSchool,StateUniversityofNewYork.
B.
A.
,1966,DukeUniversity;M.
A.
T.
,1967,WesleyanUniversity;J.
D.
,1982,UniversityatBuffaloLawSchool,StateUniversityofNewYork.
IthankFredKonefskyforhisinsightfulcommentsandsuggestionsonmanydraftsofthisArticle.
**PaulEatonProfessorofLawandDirector,CenteronPoverty,WorkandOpportunity,UniversityofNorthCarolinaatChapelHill.
B.
S.
1980,CornellUniversity;J.
D.
,1983,UCLA.
MartyRosenbluthandElliottDubeprovidedoutstandingresearchassistance.
IthankMituGulatiforencouragingmetowriteonthistopic.
BothauthorsaregratefultoJimAtleson,MarkBartholomew,andJackSchlegel,andtotheparticipantsatthesymposiumon"Makeup,IdentityPerformance&Discrimination"sponsoredbytheDukeJournalofGenderLaw&PolicyforinsightfulcommentsonearlierdraftsofthisArticle.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM14DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007C.
TheTitleVIILawsuit:DiscriminationClaims491.
TheComplaint492.
TheDistrictCourtDecision503.
TheNinthCircuitPanelDecision.
514.
TheNinthCircuitEnBancDecision54V.
BRANDING,SEXSTEREOTYPING,ANDEMPLOYMENTDISCRIMINATIONLAWINJESPERSEN57A.
CreatingandDefendingtheHarrah'sBrand.
571.
"Ifoneemployeefailedtocomply,thebrandstandardfailed.
582.
TheCultofPersonalLoyalty.
593.
BillHarrah'sFeminizationofCasinos634.
TheRiseoftheBureaucraticEthicandCorporateLoyalty.
655.
TechnologyandMarketing.
706.
RefiningtheBrandThroughExpertise:TheImageConsultant76B.
Commodification:SexualizingFemaleBartenders781.
WearingMakeup:BrandingDarleneJespersen782.
SellingSexuality:TheBusinessofCasinoGaming.
803.
SexualizedBranding:The"Harrah'sLook"854.
PropertyRightsinWorkLaw,Redux.
89VI.
THEFEMINIZATIONOFBARTENDERS:FROMBARMAIDSTOBARTENDERSTOBARBABES.
92VII.
(RE)FRAMINGJESPERSEN'SCLAIM:RESISTINGBRANDING100A.
FindingAlliesinCommunityOrganizations:TheAllianceforWorkers'Rights103B.
ModesofResistanceatLaw:IndividualLawsuits.
1051.
TheAdministrativeProcess.
1052.
ThePlaintiffs'Bar:TheSoloAttorneyTakesonHarrah's.
1063.
LambdaLegalDefenseandEducationFund:TheDiscriminationClaim.
1084.
IndividualRightsVersusCollectiveRights:WhatDifferenceDoesFramingMake109C.
RecastingtheClaimasaCollectiveRightsClaim:TheRoleofUnions.
1101.
HEREandNevada'sCulinaryUnionLocals.
1102.
SuccessfulUnionStrategiesinOtherBrandingCases114VIII.
CONCLUSION12102__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED15I.
INTRODUCTIONInthehypercompetitiveAmericaneconomy,marketingandadvertisingarecriticallyimportantforbusinessesthatseektoedgeoutthecompetition,attractnewcustomers,andbuildcustomerloyalty.
Oneonlinecasinohasfoundawaytocutthroughtheclutterofadvertisingmessagesinauniquelyattention-gettingway:brandingthefacesandbodiesofhumanbeingswithitscorporatelogo.
InJune2005,GoldenPalace.
compaidKariSmith$15,000tohave"GOLDENPALACE.
COM"tattooedpermanentlyonherforehead.
SmithauctionedherforeheadasmarketingspaceviaeBay,apparentlyinanefforttoraisefundstopayforprivateschoolforherson.
1TheresultingnotorietyandnewscoveragewasextremelybeneficialtoGoldenPalace.
com,accordingtoitsmarketingdepartment.
2GoldenPalace.
comCEORichardRoweexplained:"Conventionalformsofadvertisingjustdon'tcutitanymore.
Togetpeople'sattention,youhavetostandoutfromthecrowd.
"3Whateveronemaybelieveaboutthewisdomorethicsofcontractingtousehumanbeingsasbillboards,KariSmithwaspaidfortheexactthingthatshesold—herappearance,herpersonhood,heridentity.
Suppose,however,thataservicebusiness"brands"itsworkersbyadoptingcompulsoryappearancecodesaspartofamarketingstrategytopromotedistinctiveservicesthatwillappealtocustomersandsogarnergreaterprofits.
Althoughthe"branding"doesnottakeplaceliterally,throughtattooing,itoperatesuponthebodiesandpsychesofemployeesinwaysthatcertainlyfollowemployeeswhentheyleavetheworkplaceattheendofashift,andthataresometimespermanent.
Should1.
SeeLesterHaines,OnlineCasinoTattoosWoman'sFace,REGISTER,July1,2005,http://www.
theregister.
co.
uk/2005/07/01/casino_tattoos_womans_face;UtahWomanUsesHeadtoGetChildinSchool,June30,2005,http://www.
goldenpalaceevents.
com.
2.
AaronFalk,MomSellsFaceSpaceforTattooAdvertisement,DESERETMORNINGNEWS,June30,2005,http://deseretnews.
com/dn/view/1,1249,600145187,00.
html.
3.
Haines,supranote1.
SmithwasthefirstwomantobearGoldenPalace.
com'sbrandpermanently;however,justafewmonthsearlierGoldenPalace.
comhadcontractedwithtwenty-seven-year-oldAngelBrammertohaveitsURL(UniformResourceLocater)tattooedtemporarilyoverhercleavage.
LesterHaines,CasinoBrandseBayCleavageWoman,REGISTER,Feb.
4,2005,http://www.
theregister.
co.
uk/2005/02/04/casino_brands_cleavage.
GoldenPalace.
comhasalsocontractedwithfourathletes—allboxers—tohave"GoldenPalace.
com"temporarilytattooedontheirbodieswhiletheyarecompeting.
TheathletescommandedhigherpaymentsthanMs.
SmithorMs.
Brammer:MiddleweightchampionBernardHopkinsfoughttwicewhiledisplayingtheGoldenPalace.
comtattooonhisbackandreceiveda$100,000endorsement.
CharlieBachtell,ToTattooorNottoTattoo,http://www.
goldenpalaceevents.
com/sports/tattoo02.
php(lastvisitedOct.
15,2006).
TheNevadaAthleticCommissionbannedthisbodyadvertisingonthebasisthatitwasdistractingtojudges,demeaningtothesport,andpotentiallyunsafesincetheinkcouldruboffandcontaminatetheathletes'eyes.
Id.
GoldenPalace.
comchallengedtheruling,andaClarkCountydistrictcourtjudgeoverturneditasaviolationoftheboxers'FirstAmendmentrights.
Id.
Punditspredictthatthisformofadvertisementwillbecomeincreasinglypopular.
AnewWebsite,http://www.
leaseyourbody.
com,hasbeenestablishedtoconnectcompaniesseekingtolocateindependentcontractorswhoarewillingtoserveastemporaryhumanbillboards.
InadditiontoGoldenPalace.
com,ToyotaandDunkin'Donutshaveexperimentedwith"bodyadvertising.
"ChristopherSimmons,BodyAdvertising:PittsburghWaitressPaidtoWearLeaseYourBodyTattoo,SEND2PRESSNEWSWIRE,Aug.
19,2005,http://www.
send2press.
com/newswire/print/news_2005-08-0819-002.
shtml.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM16DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007serviceworkerswhoarerequiredtoconformtothesecodesreceivecompensationfortheleaseoftheirbodiesandpsychesasthelocusoftheemployer'sbrandIfthebrandingencodessexualstereotypesthatthelawseekstoeradicate,shoulditbetoleratedatallInthisArticle,weshowhowtheadoptionofincreasinglysophisticatedformsofmarketingandbrandingstrategiesbyservicebusinessescreatesproperty-likeinterests—separateanddistinctfromworkers'physicalandmentallabor—fromwhichemployersprofit:brandedservice.
4Wethenanalyzetherolethatlawhasplayedinreinforcingthepracticeofbranding.
Inparticular,worklawdeferstomanagerialprerogativetoconstructthebusinessimageandtocontroltheworkforceasthepublicfaceofthatimage,affirmingtheemployer'spowerunderthedoctrineofemploymentatwilltocommandadherencetoappearancecodes.
Thecombinedeffectoftheemployment-at-willruleandworkers'lackofbargainingpoweratanindividuallevelthuspermitsemployerstoextractthisadditionalvaluefromworkersaboveandbeyondthecompensatedvalueoftheirlabor,withoutcost.
Inthecontextofunionizedworkforcescoveredbycollectivebargainingagreements,companieshave—atmost—beenrequiredtodemonstrateareasonablerelationshipbetweenthegroomingcodeandthebusiness'sefforttoprojectacorporateimagethatitbelieveswillresultinalargermarketshare.
5Inasmallnumberofcases,sexualizedbrandingthatexposesworkerstosexualharassmentorispredicateduponsexualstereotypesnotessentialtoperformanceofthejobhasbeencurtailedbytheantidiscriminationmandateofTitleVII.
6However,challengesunderTitleVIIhavebeeneffectiveonlywherecorporatebrandingisatoddswithcommunitynorms;wherethebrandingisconsistentwithcommunitynormsthatencodesexualstereotypes,customerpreferencesandcommunitynormsbecomethebusinessjustificationforbranding.
Weexplorethemarketingofbrandedserviceandthelaw'sresponsethroughananalysisofJespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,7inwhichtheNinthCircuitrejectedafemalebartender'sTitleVIIchallengetoHarrah's"PersonalBest"groomingandappearancepolicy,whichrequired(amongotherthings)thatwomenwearmakeup,apracticethatDarleneJespersenfoundbothpersonallyandsexuallydemeaning.
WeexaminethemarketingandbrandedservicestrategythatHarrah'sadopted,explainhowitcreatedanewandvaluableproperty-likerightforHarrah's,anddescribeJespersen'sreactiontohersexualizedcommodification.
8Wediscussthelaw'sfailuretorespondtoherindividualclaim,regardlessofhowitwasbracketed.
InanalyzingthelegaldoctrinethatemergedunderTitleVII,wepayparticularattentiontothewaysinwhichjudicialacceptanceoftheculturalstereotypesthatshapedHarrah'sbrandedservicelimitedthelaw'sabilitytorespond.
9Next,weplaceHarrah's4.
Seeinfranotes12–80andaccompanyingtext.
5.
Seeinfranotes81–177andaccompanyingtext.
6.
Seeinfranotes159–77,618–64,andaccompanyingtext.
7.
444F.
3d1104(9thCir.
2006)(enbanc).
8.
Seeinfranotes178–275andaccompanyingtext.
9.
Seeinfranotes276–464andaccompanyingtext.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED17sexualizedbrandinginthehistoricalcontextofthegenderedstructureofworkinthegamingindustryandthebartendingoccupation.
10Finally,wemakesuggestionsforreframingclaimsarisingfrombrandedserviceandtheappearanceandgroomingcodesassociatedwithit.
Weurgereconceptualizationofsex-stereotypedcorporatebrandingasacollectiveharmtoworkersandevaluateavenuesofresistance,includingunionorganizingandcollectivebargaining,class-actionsexdiscriminationorsexualharassmentclaims,andpublicconsciousness-raisingbysocialjusticeandcommunitygroups.
Althoughthesestrategies,too,arelimited—bythelaw'sassumptionsabouttheprimacyofemployerpropertyrights,thetendencyofmajoritarianlaborunionstofocusontheeconomicinterestscommontoallworkersinthebargainingunit(ratherthanissuespertainingdirectlytogenderidentity),andjudicialhostilitytowardcollectiveactionmoregenerally—theyaffordthemostpowerfulleverforalteringcommunitynormsand,ultimately,forreshapingthevaluesthatguidethelaw.
11II.
BRANDING,MARKETING,ANDAPPEARANCESTANDARDSINSERVICEBUSINESSESLikeGoldenPalace.
com,businessesoperatinginthecompetitiveAmericanmarketplacearedevelopingincreasinglysophisticatedstrategiesdesignedtohelpthem"standoutinthecrowd.
"12Usingmarketsurveysofconsumertastesandpreferences,businesseslooktocustomersforinformationaboutwhatattractsthemtoaparticularproductorservice.
Ultimately,businesseshopetodevelopa"brand"thatwilldrawandretaincustomers.
13A"brand"inthiscontextmeansthesetofpractices,products,andmarketingthatcreateauniqueidentitythatbecomesassociatedinthepublicmindwithaparticularbusiness.
14Advertisingthateducatestheconsumeraboutthebrandandreinforcesitsassociationwiththeparticularbusinessiscriticaltothesuccessofbranding.
15Ultimately,successfulbrandingyieldshighprofitmargins:Customerswillpaymoreforastrongbrand,andstockpricesareconsiderablystrongerforpopularbrands.
16Effectivecorporatebrandingproducesadistinctemotionalresponseinthecustomerwhichinturnleadstoapredictablepatternofbehavior:repeatbusiness,willingnesstopayhigherprices,toleranceforerrors,joiningclubsthat10.
Seeinfranotes465–521andaccompanyingtext.
11.
Seeinfranotes522–664andaccompanyingtext.
12.
Seesupranote3andaccompanyingtext.
13.
Thebrandingconceptisnotlimitedtobusinesses—itcanbelinkedtoanindustry,anoccupation,orevenacity.
LasVegas,forexample,isabrandedcity;despiteeffortsduringthe1980stobranditselfasacitywherefamilyfunandentertainmentabounded,itultimatelyretaineditsstrongbrandas"SinCity.
"JANELLEBARLOW&PAULSTEWART,BRANDEDCUSTOMERSERVICE:THENEWCOMPETITIVEEDGE25(2004).
14.
Id.
at1.
Brandshavetraditionallybeenassociatedwithownership(cattleandhorsesarebranded)andwithstatus(criminalsandadulteresseswerebrandedinearlyAmerica;JewsandhomosexualswerebrandedduringtheNaziregime).
Seeid.
at23–24.
15.
Id.
at2–3.
16.
Id.
at32–33(reportingthatcustomerswillpaynineteenpercentmoreforaleadingbrandnamethanforaweakbrandandthatstrongbrandsareassociatedwithstockpricesthatarefivetosevenpercenthigherthanweakbrands).
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM18DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007relatetobrands,andprovidingfavorableword-of-mouthadvertisingaboutthebrand.
17Customerswhoformanaffectiveconnectiontoabusiness'sproductsandservicesdeveloployaltyandcommitmentto—evenpassionfor—thebrand.
18Consumerswhofeelpassionforthebrandtypicallyalsoembracebrandownershipasameansofself-expression:"[C]onsumerschoosebrandsingreatparttotelltheworldandthemselveswhotheyare.
.
.
.
Theconsumerineffectbelieves,'TheonlywayIcanbewhoIamistohavespecificproductsorservices.
'"19A.
BrandedServiceWhilebrandingintheproductcontextisafamiliarconcept,"brandedservice"isrelativelynew.
Servicebusinessestheorizethatjustascustomersbecomeattachedtobrandsintheproductmarket,theyseekoutfamiliarbrandsintheservicemarketaswell.
"Brandatmospheres,""brandstandards,"and"brandedcustomerservice"drawtheconsumer,creatinga"quasi-monopoly"forthebusinessandhelpingittostandoutfromthemanybusinessesofferingsimilarproductsandservices.
20Thus,customerswillreturntofamiliarrestaurantchainsandhotelsastheytravelthroughvariouscities,seekoutthesameairlineforalltheirtravelneeds,andpreferthesamevacationresortsinvariouslocales(e.
g.
,SandalsResortsforcouples,ClubMedforsingles)inordertogainaccesstothequalityofservice,amenities,andcomforttowhichtheyhavegrownaccustomed.
Intheserviceeconomy,theservice"produced"iscreatedandconsumedsimultaneously,sothatnotangibleproductremains.
21Becausecustomersoftenparticipateinproducingtheservice,managementstrategiesthatarecustomer-focusedarethelinchpinofsuccessfulbusinesspractice.
22Theinteractivenatureofserviceworkmeansthatinordertoaffectcustomerbehaviorandtoconformtocustomerexpectations,employersmustregulateworkers'personalcharacteristics,appearance,andbehaviorinmoresophisticatedandpotentiallyinvasiveways.
SociologistRobinLeidnerexplains:Bydefinition,nonemployeesareapartoftheworkprocessofinteractiveservices.
Theirpresencedecisivelychangesthedynamicsofworkplacecontrol,17.
Id.
at20.
18.
Id.
at3–4,18.
Manycustomerswillinglyadoptanddisplaythecorporatebrand,sometimespayingpremiumpricesfortheprivilegeastheypurchaseshirts,shoes,bagsandotheritemsemblazonedwiththecorporatelogo.
HarleyDavidson'sbrandspawnedaclubwith750,000members,theHarleyOwnersGroup(HOG);manymembershavetheHOGbrandtattooedontheirbodies.
Id.
at32.
19.
Id.
at1.
20.
SeeJillEsbenshadeetal.
,Profits,Pain,andPillows:HotelsandHousekeepersinSanDiego,9WORKINGUSA265,270(Sept.
2006);BARLOW&STEWART,supranote13,at1–2.
21.
Sometimesitisdifficulttoseparatethebrandedservicefromproductsthatbecomeassociatedwiththeservice.
Forexample,in1999WestinHotelsintroducedthe"HeavenlyBed,"thefirstbrandedhotelbed.
Thisluxurybed,advertisedas"anoasisforthewearytraveler,"contributedsignificantlytoWestin'sincreasedoccupancyrates.
Esbenshade,supranote20,at270.
22.
CameronLynneMacdonald&CarmenSirianni,TheServiceSocietyandtheChangingExperienceofWork,inWORKINGINTHESERVICESOCIETY1,3(CameronLynneMacdonald&CarmenSirianni,eds.
,1996).
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED19sinceservicerecipientsmaybothtrytoexertcontrolthemselvesandbethetargetofworkers'andmanagers'controlefforts.
Also,becausethequalityoftheinteractionisfrequentlypartoftheservicebeingdelivered,therearenoclearboundariesbetweentheworker,theworkprocess,andtheproductininteractiveservicework.
Forthisreason,employersoftenfeelentitledtoextendtheircontroleffortstomoreandmoreaspectsofworkers'selves.
Workers'looks,words,personalities,feelings,thoughts,andattitudesmayallbetreatedbyemployersaslegitimatetargetsofintervention.
23Brandedservice,then,referstotheprocessofintegratingthebusinessimageintotheserviceitselfthroughhumanresourcepolicies.
24Sinceitistheservicethatultimatelycreatestheemotionalconnectionbetweentheconsumerandthebrandinaservicebusiness,regulationofworkers'self-presentationandinteractionswithcustomersiscritical.
25HelenaRubensteinadvisesthat"onlypeoplecanbrandproductsorserviceseffectively—.
.
.
wearenotjustsellingabrandedproductbutamassofbrandedpeoplewhosupportanddeliverit.
"26Thus,theserviceemployer'sregulationofworkersessentiallyimprintsthebusinessbrandontheworker'sperson.
B.
MechanismsofControlOneoftheuniqueattributesofserviceworkisits"emotionallabor"component.
27Theemotionalstateofservice-sectorworkers,unlikethatofmanufacturingworkers,isacriticalpartoftheservicerendered.
Anunhappy,alienatedfactoryworkermaynotbefondofheremployerortheday-to-daytasksthatsheperforms,butsheisstillabletoperformthemcompetentlywithafrownuponherface.
Thesamecannotbesaidformanyserviceworkers,whosejobsrequireface-to-face,oratleastvoice-to-voice,interactionwithcustomers.
Suchworkersmustconveytheimpressionthattheywillprovidewillingservicetothecustomer'ssatisfaction.
Theirgoal—toproduceaparticular"feelingstate"inthecustomer(i.
e.
,satisfaction,pleasure)—requiresthattheysuppressanycontradictoryfeelingstomaintaintheoutwardappearanceofacheerfuldemeanorinordertoproducetheappropriatestateofmindincustomers.
28Inshort,"theemotionalstyleofofferingtheserviceispartoftheserviceitself.
"2923.
RobinLeidner,RethinkingQuestionsofControl:LessonsfromMcDonald's[hereinafterLeidner,RethinkingQuestionsofControl],inWORKINGINTHESERVICESOCIETY,supranote22,at29,30.
SeealsoROBINLEIDNER,FASTFOOD,FASTTALK:SERVICEWORKANDTHEROUTINIZATIONOFEVERYDAYLIFE26–27(1993)[hereinafterLEIDNER,FASTFOOD,FASTTALK].
24.
BARLOW&STEWART,supranote13,at2,11–12,18–19.
Expertsalsorecommendexposingstafftoadvertisingandmarketing.
Aspartofthecompany'sinternalcommunicationnetwork,advertisingreinforcesandbuildsbrandculture.
Seeid.
at217–18.
25.
Id.
at29.
26.
WhoSaidWhat:MakingWorkMeaningful,ON-BRAND,OFF-BRAND:VIEWSANDNEWSFORBRANDENABLERS,Sept.
2006,at4,http://www.
brandedservice.
com/ZoneUsersFolder/Documents/on-brand_off-brand_Sept06.
pdf.
27.
SeeARLIERUSSELLHOCHSCHILD,THEMANAGEDHEART:COMMERCIALIZATIONOFHUMANFEELING5–7(1983).
Hochschildexplains:"Iusethetermemotionallabortomeanthemanagementoffeelingtocreateapubliclyobservablefacialandbodilydisplay.
Id.
at7.
28.
Macdonald&Sirianni,supranote22,at3.
Theburnoutrateforworkersrequiredtoperformemotionallaborishigh;alienationfromone'semotionsiscommon.
Id.
29.
HOCHSCHILD,supranote27,at6.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM20DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007Servicebusinesseshavedevelopedtwoprimarystrategiesforminimizingtheirdependenceonworkers'naturalfeelingstatesandcontrollingandstandardizingtheservice-sectorworkprocess.
The"productionline"approachisorientedtowardscriptingandroutinizingcustomerinteractions,substitutingtechnologyandpatternsofinteractionforskillandmotivation.
Primarilyappropriateforusewithlow-skilled,low-wagedworkers,thisstrategygainedpopularityandacceptancethroughitsusebyMcDonald'sandotherfast-foodrestaurants.
30Productionlineroutinizationtechniquesallowmanagementtohirefungible,low-costlaborandtotoleratehighturnoverrates.
Thesecondmethod,the"transformation"or"empowerment"approach,conferscontrolovertheworkprocessbytransformingtheworkerintoonewhosepersonalcharacteristics,appearance,andvaluesmatchtheimagethatthecompanyisseekingtoprojectandmarket,andthenallowingtheworkertomakehisorherownjudgmentsininteractionswithcustomers.
Such"self-regulation"techniquesseektocreateworkerswhoactlikemanagerswithoutsharingmanagerialcontrolorreceivingmanagerialpay.
Managementcontroloverself-regulated,empoweredworkersisinevitablymoreinvasiveofworkers'privateandpsychiclivesthanmoretraditionalmeansofsupervision.
31Becauseworkeridentificationwiththecompanyanditsimageinconsumers'mindsiscritical,workers'demographiccharacteristics(age,sex,race,educationlevel,classstatus,etc.
),presentation,dress,grooming,andbehaviormustfittheprescribedcorporateimage.
32Advantagesofthetransformativeapproachincludecost-savingsrealizedfromreducedmiddlemanagement,increasedproductivity,andreducedunionactivitybecausetheparticipatorymanagementtechniquestendtoengageworkersinawaythattheirhungerforrespectandvoiceisdiminished.
331.
ProductionLineRoutinizationStandardizationofserviceisnotanewconcept.
Principlesofscientificmanagementwerefirstappliedtoroutinizeindustrialmanufacturingworkduringthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury.
Thegoalofscientificmanagementwastoshiftknowledgeandcontrolovertheworkprocess(andthereforepower)fromworkerstomanagement:Bysplittinguphigh-skilledjobsintotheirconstituentpartsandassigningthepartstoless-skilledworkers,costscouldbereducedandefficiency(andthereforeoutput)increased.
Atthesametime,30.
Macdonald&Sirianni,supranote22,at6–7.
Scriptingandroutinizationmayalsobeusedwithprofessionalworkers,however,wheretheemployerseeksideologicalcontroloverthesubstantiveskillset.
Forexample,doctorsemployedbymanymanaged-carehealthorganizationsmustfollowscripted"criticalpathways"—total-quality-managementtechniquesconsistingofroadmapsthatsuggestthecourseoftreatmentonceadiagnosisismade.
Deviationsfromthepathwaycanbetrackedandrecorded,sothathospitaloversightovernonconformingphysiciansismaximized.
Alternatively,"protocols"—flowchartsthatdictatewhichdecisionswillbemadeateachstageinadiagnosticprocess—effectivelyallowmanagementtocontrolthepracticeofmedicinebyphysician-employees.
SeeMarionCrain,TheTransformationoftheProfessionalWorkforce,79CHI.
-KENTL.
REV.
543,567(2004).
31.
Macdonald&Sirianni,supranote22,at9,10–11.
32.
Id.
at7.
33.
Id.
at8.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED21controlovertheworkprocesswascentralized.
34Theassemblylinewastheprototypeoftechnologicalcontrolachievedthroughapplicationofscientificmanagementprinciplestoindustrialproductionprocesses:Productionwasdividedintodiscretetasksthatcouldbemostefficientlyperformedbytheworkerwhospecializedinthatparticularassembly,andworkers'movementswerestandardized.
Noworkerpossessedacompletepictureoftheproductionprocess;thework'sconceptionwasdivorcedfromitsexecution.
Intheservicesector,routinizationmaybeappliedtothenoninteractiveaspectsofthework—suchasclericalaspectsorassemblyoffastfoodonatray—exactlyasitwouldinanindustrialcontext.
Fortheinteractiveaspectsofthework,however,theformthatroutinizationassumeswillturnonhowcomplexthetaskis.
Forthesimplestinteractivework,scripting,uniforms,andrulesaboutworkerdemeanorandbehaviormaybesufficient.
McDonald'sistheprototypefor"productionline"routinizationintheservicesector,particularlyinlow-waged,fast-moving,consumer-goodsbusi-nesses.
McDonald'ssystematicallybreaksdowntheserviceinteractionintoitscomponentpartsandscriptsitinordertoachieveuniformity.
Itregulatesworkers'clothing(uniformsarerequired),haircuts,jewelry,makeup,fingernaillengthandcolor,demeanor,words,mood,andmanner(requiringsmiling,eyecontact,andapleasantcountenance,aswellasascriptedseriesofquestionsandresponsesininterchangeswithcustomers).
35RayKroc,McDonald'sfounder,succeededincontrollingworkroutinesandproductqualityonamassivescale,yieldinganimmenselypopularandprofitablebrand.
36Thecombinationofdetailedtraining,automation,anda"HamburgerUniversity"(wheremanage-rialpracticesareinculcated)createdfront-line,low-wagedservicejobsthatare34.
FrederickWinslowTayloriscreditedwithdevelopingtheprinciplesofscientificmanagementfortheexpresspurposeofcontrollinglabor.
Throughtheuseoftimeandmotionstudiesdesignedtomaximizeoutput,Taylorsoughttoconvertautonomous,skilledcraftsmenintofungibleautomatonsgovernedbythetechnologyoftheassemblyline.
In1911,Taylorwrote:"Theforemanandsuperintendents.
.
.
knowbetterthananyoneelsethattheirownknowledgeandpersonalskillfallsfarshortofthecombinedknowledgeanddexterityofalltheworkmenunderthem.
"FREDERICKWINSLOWTAYLOR,THEPRINCIPLESOFSCIENTIFICMANAGEMENT31–32(1911).
Taylorexhortedmanagers:"Thedutyofgatheringinallofthisgreatmassoftraditionalknowledgeandrecordingit,tabulatingit,andinmanycases,finallyreducingittolaws,rules,andeventomathematicalformulae,isvoluntarilyassumedbythescientificmanagers.
"FREDERICKWINSLOWTAYLOR,SCIENTIFICMANAGEMENT,COMPRISINGSHOPMANAGEMENT,THEPRINCIPLESOFSCIENTIFICMANAGEMENTANDTESTIMONYBEFORETHESPECIALHOUSECOMMITTEE40(1947),availableathttp://ets.
umdl.
umich.
edu/cgi/t/text/text-idxc=acls;;idno=heb01156.
SeegenerallyHARRYBRAVERMAN,LABORANDMONOPOLYCAPITAL:THEDEGRADATIONOFWORKINTHETWENTIETHCENTURY85–121(1974);DAVIDMONTGOMERY,THEFALLOFTHEHOUSEOFLABOR:THEWORKPLACE,THESTATE,ANDAMERICANLABORACTIVISM,1865–1915,at9–57,214–56(1987);DAVIDMONTGOMERY,WORKERS'CONTROLINAMERICA:STUDIESINTHEHISTORYOFWORK,TECHNOLOGY,ANDLABORSTRUGGLES9–10(1979).
Foraninterestinganalysisoftheseissuesastheypertaintothequestionofwhoownsthenewtechnologyandintellectualpropertyoftoday'sworkplace,seeNathanNewman,TradeSecretsandCollectiveBargaining:ASolutiontoResolvingTensionsintheEconomicsofInnovation,6EMP.
RTS.
&EMP.
POL'YJ.
1(2002).
35.
Leidner,RethinkingQuestionsofControl,supranote23,at29,34.
36.
Id.
at31–32.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM22DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007"almostidiot-proof";workersbecamefungibleandhighturnoverwasnolongercostly.
37Fromtheworkers'perspective,productionlineroutinizationtendstorobworkers'tasksoftheirvarietyandinterest,andisassociatedwithhigherinjuryrates(particularlyrepetitive-motioninjuries)becauseitaffectsthenatureandpaceofthework.
38Itisalsolinkedtostagnationofworkers'creativeandproblem-solvingcapacities,andtoboredomandalienation.
39Itsprimarypsychologicaleffectistorequiresuppressionoftheselfintheserviceofothersandenforceddepersonalization;workersmustseparatethemselvesemotionallyfromthescriptstheyarerequiredtoutterortheresponsesthatcustomersmaketothemthatdeviatefromthescript.
Theeffectsofsuchscriptingandtherequirementofservicewithcheerarepotentiallydemeaning.
However,routinesmayalsobeembracedbyworkersasfunctional,eitherbecausetheroutinesassistthemincontrollingserviceinteractionsorbecausetheroutinesprovideshieldsbehindwhichworkerscantakeshelterfromtheinsultsandindignitiesthatcomewithcontactwiththepublic.
402.
StandardizationbyTransformationFormorecomplexinteractivework,suchasthejobsofbartenders,cocktailservers,andflightattendants,scriptingisinadequatetothetask.
Suchworkistypicallybrandedandcontrolledintwoways:(1)theemployerdeliberatelyselectsemployeeswithcharacteristicsthatdovetailwiththebrandservicethattheemployerseekstomarket;and(2)theemployerthenbuildsonthat"fit"withtrainingthatorientstheworkerspsychologicallytowardthebusiness'sbrandvaluesandwithregulationsthatscriptworkerself-presentation(uni-forms,appearancecodes,andgroomingrules).
41a.
Selectingfor"BrandFit"Transformingworkersinto"brandpartners"inevitablyimpactsselectionprocesses:Human-resourcesprofessionalsareadvisedtoselectfor"brandfit.
"42BarlowandStewartsuggesthiringapplicants"whohaveanaturalresonance"withthebusinessbrand.
43ConsidertheretailerAbercrombie&Fitch.
Itactivelysoughtcollegestudentswhoresembleditsbrandimage:young,attractive,37.
Id.
at33,35–36.
38.
See,e.
g.
,Esbenshade,supranote20,at270,282(discussingspillovereffectsofWestin'sHeavenlyBedprogramonhousekeepingstaff,whowererequiredtomakeuplarger,heavierbedswithmoreintricatepillowandsheetingarrangements;theluxurybedswereassociatedwithunsafeliftingratiosandadditionaltimespentonmakingupbeds).
39.
LEIDNER,FASTFOOD,FASTTALK,supranote23,at4.
SeegenerallyBARBARAGARSON,THEELECTRONICSWEATSHOP:HOWCOMPUTERSARETRANSFORMINGTHEOFFICEOFTHEFUTUREINTOTHEFACTORYOFTHEPAST(1988);BARBARAGARSON,ALLTHELIVELONGDAY:THEMEANINGANDDEMEANINGOFROUTINEWORK(1975).
40.
LEIDNER,FASTFOOD,FASTTALK,supranote23,at5.
41.
Id.
at25–27.
42.
ON-BRAND,OFF-BRAND:VIEWSANDNEWSFORBRANDENABLERS,June2006,at2,http://www.
brandedservice.
com/ZoneUsersFolder/Documents/on-brand_off-brand_june06.
pdf.
43.
BARLOW&STEWART,supranote13,at214.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED23white,male,andpreppie—"walkingbillboards"44whosported"theA&Flook.
"45Thissortofselectionobviouslyrisksviolatingantidiscriminationlaws.
46Thesignificanceofthelaw'ssanctionofbrandingisclearesthere:Theremedyfordiscriminatoryselectionprocessesmaytriggerjudicialordersaimedatmarketingpracticesthemselves.
IntheAbercrombie&Fitchsettlement,forexample,theconsentdecreeobligatedthecompanytoalteritsmarketingmaterialstoreflectdiversity.
47AmoresubtleexampleofselectingforbrandfitinvolvesSouthwestAirlines'highlysuccessfulefforttobranditscustomerserviceasfunandhigh-spirited.
Despitecustomerdisenchantmentwiththeno-frillsaspectsofSouthwestsuchasnoreservedseatsandnofirst-classseats,thecomedicphilosophyoftheairlinepersuadescustomerstotoleratetheno-frillsaspectsandtobookrepeatbusinessinspiteofit.
48Southwestsearchescarefullyforworkerswhowillbecapableofprovidingbrandedservice:Aspartofitsinterviewprocess,ittestsapplicantsfortheirabilitytomakefunofthemselvesandfortheiraltruisticpropensities(selectingworkerswhodisplaybothcomedicandcaringqualities).
49b.
InculcatingBrandValuesAlthoughemployersmayseektoscriptorroutinizeemotionsatwork—obligatingemployeestopersonalizethescriptwithsimulatedsincerity,eyecontact,andasmile50—maximally-effectivebrandingisnotcompletelyscripted.
Ascriptedencounterisunlikelytobeperceivedasauthentic,andthustheemotionalconnectionthatallowsthebusinesstoexploitthebrandwillnotbemade.
51Accordingly,employersmayinstitutetrainingprogramsthatseektotransformworkers'personalities,appearances,andthought-processessothat44.
Id.
at158–59.
45.
PatrickF.
Dorrian,PendingNinthCircuitCaseKeytoViabilityofImage-BasedBiasClaims,PanelistsSay,EMP.
DISCRIMINATIONREP.
,May25,2005,http://emlawcenter.
bna.
com/pic2/em.
nsf/id/BNAP-6CPKWHOpenDocument.
46.
Seeid.
Abercrombie&Fitchwassuedforraceandsexdiscriminationbasedonthishiringpractice.
Plaintiffs(female,Latino/Latina,African-American,andAsian-Americanapplicants)whodidnotfitthecompany's"look"broughtaclass-actiondiscriminationsuit.
InNovember2004,thecompanyagreedtosettlethesuitfor$40millionplus$10millionincostsandattorneys'fees.
BarbaraL.
Jones,KeepingUpAppearances:HowtoAdviseYourEmployerClientsonAddressingIssuesofDress,MINN.
LAW.
,Aug.
15,2005,availableathttp://findarticles.
com/p/articles/mi_qn4185/is_20050820/ai_n14916495.
ThesettlementwasapprovedbythecourtinDecember2005.
Afjustice.
com,$40MillionPaidtoClassMembersinDecember2005inAbercrombie&FitchDiscriminationLawsuitSettlement,http://www.
afjustice.
com(lastvisitedDec.
24,2006).
Similarly,atemporaryemploymentagencyinFrancehasbeensuedforratingjobapplicantsaccordingtoskillsandskincolor,inanefforttoprovideemployeeswhoconformedtotheirbusinessclients'demographicpreferencesforfrontlineservicepositions.
Someclients,includingtheDisneylandResortParisthemepark,imposedexplicitlimitsonthenumberofblackworkerstheywouldaccept.
MollyMoore,FrenchDiscriminationSuitCallsgalitéintoQuestion,WASH.
POST,Jan.
15,2006,atA20.
47.
Dorrian,supranote45.
48.
BARLOW&STEWART,supranote13,at79–80.
49.
Id.
at175.
50.
Leidner,RethinkingQuestionsofControl,supranote23,at35.
51.
SeeBARLOW&STEWART,supranote13,at64–65.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM24DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007theymakepredictablejudgmentsthattheemployerwouldapprove—eveninvariableworkscenariosthatarethemselvesnotalwayspredictable.
52Therefore,themostsophisticatedbrandingintegratesthepersonalitiesoftheworkerswiththeservice,positioningthemasan"essentiallivingexpression"ofthebrand:"thebrandinaction.
"53Human-resourcespoliciesseektobrandworkers"fromtheinsideout";trainingprogramsandpoliciesshouldproduceastaffthatacts,looks,sounds,andevenfeelsinsyncwiththebrand.
54Ideally,thebrandandtheserviceshouldmergewithoneanotherinthecustomer'smind.
55Becauseitimpactspersonalityandpsyche,thisformofroutinizationaffectsworkers'identitiesmoredeeplythansimpleproductionlineroutinizationdoes.
Forexample,AmwayCorporationhasasophisticatedbrandingprogramthatutilizesthetransformationalformofroutinizationtomaximizetheefficacyofitsdistributorsassalespeopleandrecruitersforotherdistributors.
RobinLeidnerexplains:Amwaygoesfarbeyondprovidingdistributorswithroutinesfordoingtheirwork.
Thecompanytriestoaffecttheirlivesinaglobalandpermanentway,moldingthemthroughaprocessitcalls"duplicating.
"Thereisnopartofdistributors'livesthatAmwaydoesnotseeasrelevanttothesuccessofthebusiness,andthereforenoneisimmunefromcorporateinfluence.
Amwaytriestoshapetheworkers'familylives,politicalconvictions,religiousbeliefs,personalgoals,andself-concepts.
ItencouragesdistributorstobreakofftieswithfriendsorrelativeswhoarecriticalofAmway.
.
.
.
56Workerssubjecttotransformativeroutinizationmusteitherembracethechangesordonfalsepersonalitiesatwork.
Forworkerswhoseidentitiesconflictwiththeemployer'simposednormsofbehavior,attitude,andappearance,theeffectcanbeself-alienating.
57Inanefforttomakethisprocesseasierforworkersandtominimizetheirresistance,employersoftenfurnishpsychicstrategiestohelpworkersreconciletheconflictsbetweentheirworkandtheirself-image.
583.
EffectsofRoutinizationonCustomersandCultureInadditiontoitsbenefitsformanagementandimpactonworkers,routinizationofservice-sectorworkhasspillovereffectsoncustomersandonthesurroundingculture.
a.
EffectsofRoutinizationonCustomersAsignificantdifferencebetweenroutinizationintheindustrialcontextandroutinizationintheservicecontextisthereplacementofthedyadicstruggleforcontrolwithatriadofworkers,management,andcustomers.
Inordertobe52.
LEIDNER,FASTFOOD,FASTTALK,supranote23,at36–38.
53.
BARLOW&STEWART,supranote13,at74–75.
54.
Seeid.
at116.
55.
Id.
at76.
56.
LEIDNER,FASTFOOD,FASTTALK,supranote23,at38.
57.
Indeed,thedifficultyofretainingone'sauthenticityandpersonalautonomyisexperiencedbysomeworkersasachallengetogenderidentity.
Id.
at184(notingthatrequiringinsuranceagentstoconformtoascriptpotentiallychallengedtheirsenseofmanliness).
58.
Id.
at189.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED25effective,routinizationmustalsocontrolthebehaviorofcustomers.
Routinesassociatedwithfront-linecustomerservicestandardizecustomers'behaviorbylimitingtheirdemandstoapredeterminedspectrum(e.
g.
,amenunoticethatinstructs"nosubstitutions").
59Wheretheroutinedeniesworkerstheflexibilitytorespondtocustomers'requests,orthelogicoftheroutinedoesnotmatchsocialnorms,orthecustomersimplyrefusestoparticipate,customersarelikelytorespondwithfrustrationdirectedattheworkers.
60Interactionscanbescriptedtoreduceorpreventcustomerresistance,ortomutetheeffectsofcustomerfrustrationbyusingempathicorchoice-preservinglanguage.
61Routinizationcanalsoentailtheinvoluntaryshiftingoflabortotheconsumer,asNonaGlazerhasexplained.
62Consumersscanandbagtheirowngroceries,servethemselvesatbuffets,saladbars,andsoftdrinkmachines,bustheirowntablesinquick-orderrestaurants,andpumptheirowngasoline—allworkthatwasoncepaidlabor.
Employersuseroutinizationandtechnologytobreaktheserviceintoitscomponentpartsandshiftworktotheconsumerthattheemployerpreviouslypaidworkerstoperform.
b.
EffectsofRoutinizationonCultureFinally,routinizationimpactsthecultureatlargebyshapingsocialnorms.
Because"[r]outinizationassumesthatpeoplearelargelyinterchangeable,thattheyarenotdeservingofsincerity,[and]possiblythattheycaneasilybeduped,"63itcontributestoanatmosphereofdeceptionandillusion.
ConsidersociologistRobinLeidner'sanalysisoftheculturalimpactofroutinization:Theeffortsofserviceorganizationstoroutinizehumaninteractionsviolateimportantculturalstandardsaboutthestatusoftheself,standardsthathonorauthenticity,autonomy,sincerity,andindividuality.
Althoughthesevaluesarecompromiseddailyincountlessways,theyareidealsmostAmericanstakeseriously.
Inroutinizedserviceinteractions,thecollisionbetweenidealsandpracticesisparticularlymarked,andtheuncomfortablecontradictionsarehardtoignore.
Serviceroutinescompromisetheidentitiesofworkersmostobviously,buttheprinciplesandself-conceptionsofservice-recipientsarechallengedaswellastheyareforcedtorespondtoorganizationalmanipulation.
.
.
.
.
Authenticity,autonomyandsincerityallowthedevelopmentandexpressionoftheuniqueselfthatisculturallyascribedtoeveryperson.
IndividualityishighlyhonoredinAmericanculture(eventhoughconformityisrichlyrewarded),andthisvalueisespeciallyhardtoreconcilewithroutinizedinteractions.
.
.
.
Routinizedinteractiveserviceaffrontstheindividualityofbothworkerandservice-recipient.
Itassumesthatworkers'individualityisnotsubstantialenoughorworthyenoughofdeferencetointerferewiththeir59.
Id.
at31–32.
60.
Id.
at8.
61.
Id.
at32–33.
62.
SeegenerallyNonaY.
Glazer,ServantstoCapital:UnpaidDomesticLaborandPaidWork,inFAMILIESANDWORK236(NaomiGerstel&HarrietEngelGrosseds.
,1987);NONAY.
GLAZER,WOMEN'SPAIDANDUNPAIDLABOR:THEWORKTRANSFERINHEALTHCAREANDRETAILING(1993).
63.
LEIDNER,FASTFOOD,FASTTALK,supranote23,at11(alterationsadded).
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM26DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007adoptionofqualitiesdesignedforthembyothers.
Anditfurtherassumesthatservice-recipients,groupedaccordingtomarketsegment,willbeableandwillingtofitintostandardproceduresandacceptstandardizedtreatment.
64C.
TheWaltDisneyModelofBrandedServiceIntheearly1980s,TomPetersandRobertWatermanrevolutionizedmanagementstrategywithabest-sellingbookthatexploredtheartandscienceofmanagementtechniquesusedbyleadingcompanieswithrecordsofprofitabilityandinnovation.
65OneofthecompaniesfeaturedwasWaltDisney,whichsubsequentlyestablishedtheDisneyInstitutetoteachitsbrandedqualityserviceandmanagementtoothers.
BecauseDisney'ssophisticatedservice-brandingmethodologiesandhuman-resourcespolicieshavebecomesoinfluential,theyareworthsummarizinghere.
1.
HiringandTrainingforBrandedServiceDisneybeginsbylookingfor"brandfit.
"ItsinterviewsaredesignedtoferretoutworkerswhowillhavetheattitudethatDisneyseeks.
Disneyadherestothemaxim,"Hireforattitude,trainforskill.
"66Duringtheapplicationprocess(whichDisneyreferstoas"castingtheshow"),67Disneyshowsavideothatgivesprospectiveapplicantsinformationaboutemploymentconditions,includingitsdresscodeandgroomingregulations;abouttenpercentofapplicantsleaveatthatpoint,butthosewhostayacceptthecircumstancesoftheiremployment.
68Onceaworkerishired,"basictraining"at"DisneyUniversity"takesafullweek.
69ThetrainingcoversDisney'shistory,aculturalindoctrinationtotheWaltDisneyphilosophy,andanoverviewofallaspectsoftheDisneyproperty.
70ThemessageisthatDisneycastmembersareateamwithauniformlook;individualityoranythingthattendstoattractattention(otherthanthescriptedDisneythemelook)isdiscouraged.
71Inanefforttoinculcatetheproperworkerattitudetowardsservice,WaltDisneyreferstoitsworkersas"castmembers"or"hosts"anditscustomersas"guests";uniformsare"costumes"andworkers—fromsweeperstobakeryworkerstoMickeyMouseandDonaldDuck—putona"show.
"72Turnoverislow(fifteenpercentinthe1990s),moraleishigh,andcustomerservicetoutedasoutstanding.
7364.
Id.
at216–17,218–19.
65.
SeeTHOMASJ.
PETERS&ROBERTH.
WATERMAN,INSEARCHOFEXCELLENCE:LESSONSFROMAMERICA'SBEST-RUNCOMPANIES(1982).
66.
SeeDouglasP.
Shuit,MagicforSale:Part2of2,WORKFORCEMGMT.
,Sept.
1,2004,at35.
67.
Id.
68.
Id.
69.
CherylHall,DisneySchoolFashionsWorkersinItsImage,DALLASMORNINGNEWS,May9,1993,at1H;seeDisneyInstitute,http://www.
disneyinstitute.
com(lastvisitedDec.
24,2006).
70.
Hall,supranote69,at1H.
71.
DianneKlein,DisneyHotelCrewGetstheWord:NoBeardsandNoGlitz,L.
A.
TIMES,Mar.
8,1988,§2,at1.
72.
DanMalovany,BackstageatDisneyWorld;TheInternationalThemeoftheDisneyWorldBakery,25(4)BAKERYPROD.
&MKTG.
120,Apr.
24,1990;Hall,supranote69,at1H.
73.
Hall,supranote69,at1H.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED272.
BrandedWorkers:AppearanceCodesDisney'sappearanceregulationsarelegendaryandhavebeenemulatedbymanyothercompanies.
74WhenDisneylandfirstopenedin1955inCalifornia,WaltDisneyestablishedappearance-codeguidelinesinanefforttodistanceitsfacilitiesfromtheAmericanimageofamusementparksas"sleazycarnivals,"insteadportrayingitselfas"aclean,wholesomefamilyenvironment.
"75Thepurposeoftheappearancecodewastoensurethatworkersappearedclean-cutandfresh-faced,withoutgaudymakeup,excessivejewelry,disheveledlocks,oroutlandishhairdos.
By1958,thegeneralguidelineshadmetamorphosedintostrictandspecificqualitystandardsthattooktheformofdo'sanddon'ts:dowearundergarments;don'twearfingernailsextendingmorethanone-quarterofaninchpastthefingertips;don'tweareyeshadow;nofrostingorstreakingofhair;onlycertaincolorsofnailpolishwereacceptable;limitationsontheamountandsizeofjewelryapplied;mencouldnotgrowbeards,mustaches(althoughWaltDisneyhimselfhadamustache),orwearsideburnsbelowtheears.
76Violationofthecodewasgroundsfordischarge.
Thestrict1950sstandardsweremodifiedslightlyovertheyearsasfashiontrendsshifted:earringswerepermittedforwomen(atfirstonlystuds,thenlaterlargerearrings);asummeruniformofBermudashortsandkneesockswasinstituted;eyeshadowandeyelinerwereauthorizedin1994;mustaches(butnotbeards)werepermittedin2000;cornrowsandhoopearringswereembracedin2003.
77The"Disneylook"isdefinedinaforty-pagebook,completewithsketchesofdo'sanddon'ts.
78Disney'sbrand-servicestandardsandthehuman-resourcesstrategiesthatcreatethemhavebeensosuccessfulthatDisneyhasprofitedfrommarketingthebrandingmethoditself.
AvisittotheDisneyInstitute'sWebpagerevealsadiverseandimpressivearrayofcorporateclientswhohavetraveledtoFloridaforinstruction.
79Perhapsnotcoincidentally,GaryLoveman,whobecamethechiefoperatingofficerofHarrah'sEntertainmentin1998(andlateritsCEO),consultedforDisneyinhisearlydaysasanacademicatHarvard.
80Clearly,brandedserviceanditsassociatedhuman-resourcespoliciesarebigbusiness.
74.
DavidCole,HospitalStrengthensDressCode;PolicyCoversHairdos,Makeup,Tattoos,MILWAUKEEJ.
SENTINEL,May30,2000,at2B(describingKenoshaHospitalandMedicalCenterdresscodethatspellsoutstrictrulesonmakeup,hairstyles,jewelry,andtattoos,modeledontheWaltDisneyappearancecode).
75.
LeslieDoolittle,Disney'sAll-AmericaLookNowIncludesEyeShadow,ORLANDOSENTINEL,June29,1994,atA1.
76.
Id.
77.
JeffGottlieb,WhiskersWhileYouWorkDisneyMayChangeRules,L.
A.
TIMES,Mar.
26,2000,atB1;E.
ScottReckard,BareUpperLipNoLongeraMustforDisneyWorkers,L.
A.
TIMES,Mar.
28,2000,atC1;RichardVerrier,ForDisneyWorkers,AHipperPlaceonEarth,L.
A.
TIMES,July12,2003,§3,at1.
78.
Hall,supranote69,at1H.
79.
DisneyInstitute,supranote69.
DukeUniversityisamongtheclientsthathasreceivedtrainingfromtheDisneyInstitute.
Id.
80.
Seeinfranotes360–61andaccompanyingtext.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM28DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007III.
BRANDING:SANCTIONEDBYLAWThelaw'sresponsetocorporatebrandingsignalsdeferencetocorporateinterestsindevelopingandmarketingapublicimage.
Intheserviceeconomy,thefirm'sinterestinbrandingitsworkforcehasbeenelevatedtoquasi-propertystatus.
InthisPartweoutlinethelaw'sapparentsanctionofbrandingthroughtradedressprotectionundertheLanhamActandthroughprotectionundertheworklawofmanagerialprerogativetocontroltheworkforce.
A.
TradeDress:ProtectinganEmployer'sProperty-LikeInterestinItsBrandThewaythatserviceworkersandtheirservicesare"packaged"—thedesignandcoloroftheiruniforms,thescriptedroutinestheyusetodelivertheirservices,orthedécorofthecompany'sretailpremises—areelementsoftheemployer'sbrandingofitsservice/productthataredescribedintrademarklawas"tradedress.
"Onecourtdefinedthetermasfollows:"'Tradedress'refersto'theimageandoverallappearanceofaproduct.
'Itembodies'thatarrangementofidentifyingcharacteristicsordecorationsconnectedwithaproduct,whetherbypackagingorotherwise,[that]make[s]thesourceoftheproductdistinguishablefromanotherand.
.
.
promote[s]itssale.
'"Tradedress"'involvesthetotalimageofaproductandmayincludefeaturessuchassize,shape,colororcolorcombinations,texture,graphics,orevenparticularsalestechniques.
'".
.
.
[R]ecently"'tradedress'hastakenonamoreexpansivemeaningandincludesthedesignandappearanceoftheproductaswellasthatofthecontainerandallelementsmakingupthetotalvisualimagebywhichtheproductispresentedtocustomers.
A]ny"thing"thatdressesagoodcanconstitutetradedress.
Protectabilityisanothermatterentirely.
81Anemployer'sinvestmentintradedressthatarisesoutofthecreationandenforcementofdresscodes,suchasuniforms,createsaproperty-likeinterestthatisprotectedfrominfringementbycompetitorsundercommon-lawandstatutorytrademarklawonlyiftheunregistered"tradedress"isboth"distinctiveinthemarketplace,therebyindicatingthesourceofthegooditdresses,"and"primarilynonfunctional,"and,inaddition,"thetradedressofthecompetinggoodisconfusinglysimilar.
"82Forexample,theCourtofAppeals81.
Abercrombie&FitchStoresv.
Am.
EagleOutfitters,280F.
3d619,629–30(6thCir.
2002)(citationsomitted).
ForasummaryofthedevelopmentoftradedressprotectionundertheTrademarkActof1946(LanhamAct),P.
L.
79-489,60Stat.
427(codifiedasamendedat15U.
S.
C.
§§1051–1141n(WestSupp.
2007)),anditsrelationtoimagebranding,seeJosephCockman,Note,RunningfromtheRunway:TradeDressProtectioninanAgeofLifestyleMarketing,89IOWAL.
REV.
671(2004).
82.
Abercrombie&FitchStores,280F.
3dat629.
SeeTwoPesos,Inc.
v.
TacoCabana,Inc.
,505U.
S.
763(1992)(holdingthatrestaurantdécorthatisinherentlydistinctiveandnonfunctionalistradedressentitledtoprotectionfrominfringementbyacompetitorunder§43(a)oftheLanhamAct,60Stat.
441(codifiedasamendedat15U.
S.
C.
§1125(a));QualitexCo.
v.
JacobsonProds.
Co.
,514U.
S.
159(1995)(holdingthatacolorisprotectibleasatrademarkunder§43(a)oftheLanhamActonlyifithasacquiredasecondarymeaning).
SeealsoWal-MartStores,Inc.
v.
SamaraBrothers,Inc.
,529U.
S.
205(2000)(holdingthat"product-designtradedresscanneverbeinherentlydistinctive"andthat"a02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED29fortheSecondCircuitfoundthattheDallasCowboysCheerleaders,Inc.
,had"avalidtrademarkinitscheerleaderuniform,"whichconsistedof"whitevinylboots,whiteshorts,awhitebeltdecoratedwithbluestars,ablueboleroblouse,andawhitevestdecoratedwiththreebluestarsoneachsideofthefrontandawhitefringearoundthebottom.
"83Thecourtfoundthat"theparticularcombinationofcolorsandcollocationofdecorationsthatdistinguish[theDallasCowboysCheerleaders']uniformfromthoseofothersquads"constitutedan"arbitrarydesignwhichmakestheotherwisefunctionaluniformtrademarkable"undertheLanhamAct.
84Moreover,thecourtfoundthatPussycatCinema—inproducingasexually-explicitfilmfeaturinganactresswhoworean"almostidentical"cheerleader'suniform—notonlycreatedthe"likelihoodofconfusion"aboutwhethertheDallasCowboysCheerleaderssponsoredorapprovedtheuseofthetrademarkeduniforminthefilm,butalsoriskedinjuringtheDallasCowboysCheerleaders'goodnameandreputation.
85Whiledistinctive,nonfunctionalaspectsofserviceworkers'uniforms,appearance,andserviceroutinesmayinsomecircumstancesbeprotectible"tradedress,"manyelementsofanemployer'sinvestmentin"packaging"itsserviceworkerscanbefreelycopiedbycompetitors.
86Forexample,inHILimitedPartnershipv.
WinghouseofFlorida,87HootersclaimedthatWinghouse,acompetingsportsbarandgrillinFlorida,wasliablefortrade-dressinfringementbecauseitrequireditsfemaleemployeestowearuniformsofblacktanktopsandblackrunningshortsthatHootersallegedwere"confusinglysimilar"totheuniformswornbyHootersGirls.
Thedistrictcourtconcludedthat,"asamatteroflaw,theWinghouseGirl,withherblacktanktopandblackrunningshorts,isnota'knockoff'oftheHootersGirl.
"88ThecourtexplainedthatwhatdistinguishestheHootersGirlfromothersportsbarandgrillserversisherdistinctiveuniform,consistingofawhitetanktopshirtprominentlyfeaturingtheHootersnameand"owl"logoacrossherchest,andorangenylonrunningshorts.
AlthoughHootersGirlsoccasionallywearblackuniforms,asamatteroflaw,thoseuniformsarenotdistinctive,norhavetheyacquiredsecondarymeaningassociatedwithHootersrestaurants.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Hooterssimplycannotpreventacompetitorfromusingaserveroutfitasdifferentasablacktanktopandblackrunningshorts.
IfHooterscouldstopproduct'sdesignisdistinctive,andthereforeprotectible[under§43(a)oftheLanhamAct],onlyuponashowingofsecondarymeaning").
83.
DallasCowboysCheerleaders,Inc.
v.
PussycatCinema,Ltd.
,604F.
2d200,202,203(2dCir.
1979).
84.
Id.
at203–04.
85.
Id.
at205.
Foradiscussionofthegenderstereotypinginthecourt'sanalysisofthe"likelihoodofconfusion"elementintheDallasCowboysCheerleaderscase,seeAnnBartow,LikelihoodofConfusion,41SANDIEGOL.
REV.
726,813–14(2004).
86.
TheSupremeCourtobservedthat"[t]radedressmustsubsistwiththerecognitionthatinmanyinstancesthereisnoprohibitionagainstcopyinggoodsandproducts.
Ingeneral,unlessanintellectualpropertyrightsuchasapatentorcopyrightprotectsanitem,itwillbesubjecttocopying.
"TrafFixDevices,Inc.
v.
Mktg.
Displays,Inc.
,532U.
S.
23,29(2001).
87.
347F.
Supp.
2d1256(M.
D.
Fla.
2004),aff'd,451F.
3d1300(11thCir.
2006).
88.
347F.
Supp.
2dat1259.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM30DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007Winghousefromusingthatparticularcolorandcombination,thenitcouldpreventanyothercompetitorfromusinganycolorcombinationoftanktopandrunningshorts.
Thiswouldbeanimpermissibleburdenoncompetition.
Moreover,aserveruniformconsistingofatanktopt-shirtandnylonrunningshortsisfairlycommontosportsbarandgrills.
Hooterscannotmonopolizethisgenericthemeanymorethananupscalesteakrestaurantfeaturingtuxedo-cladserverscouldprecludecompetitorsfromusingthesameorsimilaruniform.
89Insomesituations,thehumanbeingwearingthe"tradedress"mergeswiththebrandimagedelineatedbytheemployer'sappearancecode.
Insuchcases,the"functionality"andcentralityofthehumanbeinginconveying(orinbeing)theemployer'sbrandedproductdisqualifiestheemployer'sinterestfromtradedressprotectionunderthelaw.
90Moreover,themoreephemeralaspectsofthewayanemployerliterallydressesandmarketsitsworkers—suchasauniform's"professional"or"sexy"appearance—alsocannotbeprotectedas"tradedress,"eventhoughthesemaybeessentialcomponentsofthebrandimagetheemployerintendstoconveytoitscustomers:Althoughproducersandmarketersofgoodscanadoptandseektoprotectaseeminglyinfinitevarietyofproductpackagesandproductconfigurations,therecognitionthattradedresscancomprise"anything,""'evenparticularsalestechniques,'"shouldnotbetakentomeanthatacompanycanprotectaproduct'smarketingthemeoranyotherincorporealaspectsofthegoodincapableofbeingperceivedbythesenses.
Theauraaboutaproduct,thecachetthatownershipordisplayofitcreates,andthekindofappealithastocertainconsumersdonotdressagoodintrade.
Rather,thoseintangible"things"emanatefromthegood,itsdress,andthemarketingcampaignthatpromotesthedressedgood.
91Thedifficultyofprotectingitsinvestmentinemployeedressandgroomingstylesfromcopyingbycompetitors,however,doesnotleaveanemployerwithoutmeanstobuildupitsown"brand"ofemployeeappearanceandsetitselfapartfromitscompetitors.
Themechanismemployedwillberigorous89.
Id.
at1258–59.
90.
Forexample,intheWinghousecase,thedistrictcourtnotedthatthe"HootersGirl"is"[t]heonlycomponentof[Hooters']tradedressthatiseitherdistinctiveorhasachievedsecondarymeaning.
"Id.
at1259.
Thecourtobservedthat,becausethe"elementsoftradedressmustbeconsideredintoto,theoverwhelminglypredominantfeatureofHooters'tradedressistheHootersGirl.
"Id.
at1258.
TheHootersGirlisnotentitledtotradedressprotectionbecausetheevidenceestablishestoalegalcertaintythattheHootersGirlisprimarilyfunctional.
AsHootershasrepresentedtostateandfederalregulatoryagenciesinvestigatingcomplaintsofdiscrimination,theHootersGirlisnotamarketingtool.
Rather,HootershasadmittedthattheHootersGirl'spredominantfunctionistoprovidevicarioussexualrecreation,totitillate,entice,andarousemalecustomers'fantasies.
SheistheveryessenceofHooters'business.
ThisessentialfunctionalitydisqualifiestheHootersGirlfromtradedressprotection.
Id.
at1258–59.
TheEEOCatonepointinstitutedaninvestigationofHooters'restaurantchainforitsrefusaltohirementoworkasservers.
AfterthecompanymountedapublicrelationscampaignagainsttheEEOC,theagencydroppedtheinvestigation.
SeeHootersChainIsFreedofJobBiasInquiry,N.
Y.
TIMES,May2,1996,atB10.
Seealsoinfratextaccompanyingnote555.
91.
Abercrombie&FitchStoresv.
AmericanEagleOutfitters,280F.
3d619,630–31(6thCir.
2002).
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED31enforcementofemployeedressandgroomingrules:allotherthingsbeingequal,theemployerwhoseemployeesdeliverthebrandimagebest,measuredbystrictconformancewithitsappearancerules,willbetheemployerwhoattractsthemostcustomers.
Moreover,regardlessofwhetheraspectsofanemployer'stradedressareprotectedfrominfringementbycommonlaworstatutorytrademarklaw,thenotionthatserviceemployees'dressandappearance(asregulatedbytheemployer'srules)arepartofthecompany'sbrandmeansthatemployershaveaproperty-likeinterestnotsimplyintheirbrandedservice,butintheiremployees.
Theemployer"owns"(orleases,forthedurationofworktime)therightstousetheemployee'sface,bodytype,manner,andevenemotionsinserviceofpleasingthecustomer.
Theworkerwhoisrequiredtowearaparticularuniform,hairstyle,facialexpression,oramountandstyleofmakeup—a"facialuniform"—isdonatingbodyspacefortheemployer'sbrandingobjectives.
Undertheprevailingunderstandingoftheemploymentcontract,workersarecompensatedforphysicalandmentallabor,butnotforthe"humanbillboard"functionthattheymayalsoperform.
Thelawparticipatesinthisexchangebyignoringthevalueoftheemployees'autonomyandidentity,whileatthesametimeprotectingemployers'rightstousethebrandstandardsthattheyhavedevelopedtoextractsignificantadditionalvaluefromworkerswithoutcompensatingthemforit.
EvenwheretheLanhamActorthecommonlawdoesnotconfertradedressprotectionforthebrand,thelawsgoverningtheemploymentrelationprotecttheemployeragainstworkers'effortstoresisttheimpositionandeffectsofbranding.
Theprimarysourceofprotectionisemploymentatwill,butthevariouslegalregimesostensiblydesignedtocreateorenforceworkers'rights—includinglaborlaw,constitutionaldoctrine,thecommonlaw,andantidiscriminationlaw—aregenerallyinterpretedtoprotecttheemployer'sinterestsinbrandingasapartofitsmanagerialprerogativetocontrolproduction.
Weturnnexttoanexaminationofthewaysinwhichvariouslegaldoctrinesoperatetoprotecttheemployer'sproperty-likeinterestinadvancingitsbrandwheneveritconflictswithemployeerights.
B.
AppearanceRegulationintheWorkplaceWorklaw'sresponsetobrandinghasbeenplayedoutincaseschallengingemployers'uniformrequirements,appearancecodes,andgroomingpolicies.
Manyothercommentatorshavereviewedthelaw'streatmentofappearanceregulationsintheworkplace,andwedonotwishtocoverthesameground.
9292.
See,e.
g.
,KatharineT.
Bartlett,OnlyGirlsWearBarrettes:DressandAppearanceStandards,CommunityNorms,andWorkplaceEquality,92MICH.
L.
REV.
2541(1994);PauletteCaldwell,AHairPiece:PerspectivesontheIntersectionofRaceandGender,1991DUKEL.
J.
365(1991);MaryAnneCase,DisaggregatingGenderfromSexandSexualOrientation:TheEffeminateManintheLawandFeministJurisprudence,105YALEL.
J.
1(1995);CatherineL.
Fisk,Privacy,Power,andHumiliationatWork:Re-examiningAppearanceRegulationasanInvasionofPrivacy,66LA.
L.
REV.
1111(2006);KarlE.
Klare,Power/Dressing:RegulationofEmployeeAppearance,26NEWENG.
L.
REV.
1395(1992);RobertPost,PrejudicialAppearances:TheLogicofAmericanAntidiscriminationLaw,88CAL.
L.
REV.
1(2000);GowriRamachandran,Intersectionalityas"Catch-22":WhyIdentityPerformanceDemandsAreNeitherHarmlessNorReasonable,69ALB.
L.
REV.
299(2005–06);MaryWhisner,GenderSpecificClothingRegulation:AStudyinPatriarchy,5HARV.
WOMEN'SL.
J.
73(1982);KimberlyA.
Yuracko,TraitDiscriminationasSex02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM32DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007Wesummarizehereafewofthemajordoctrinalbasesforchallenges,usingillustrativecasesthathighlighttheroleofbrandingindefendingappearancecodesagainstlegalchallenge.
Thecasesariseinfourarenas:(1)intheunioncontext,eitherundertheNationalLaborRelationsAct(NLRA)93orpursuanttogrievancessubjecttoarbitrationundercollectivebargainingagreements;(2)asconstitutionalchallengesbroughtbypublicsectoremployees;(3)ascommon-lawprivacyandwrongful-dischargeclaimsbroughtbyprivatesectoremployees;and(4)asdiscriminationclaims.
Inallofthesecases,employersdefendtheemploymentpracticesthatarelinkedtobrandingbyshowingtheconnectionbetweentheirpropertyinterestinmanagingandcontrollingthebusinessandthebrand'sefficacyinconveyingaparticularcorporateimagetothepublic.
1.
CasesintheUnionContextCasesundertheNLRAdealwithworkers'rightstoorganizeandtobargaincollectivelyoverconditionsofwork,includingappearancecodes.
TheyrequiretheBoardandthecourts(or,incasesarisingundercollectivebargainingagreements,thearbitrator)tobalanceemployers'rightstomanageandcontroltheoperationofthebusinessagainstworkers'statutoryrightstoengageinconcertedactivityforthepurposesofmutualaidorprotection,whichareexplicitlyprotectedagainstemployerinterferencebyNLRAsections7and8(a)(1).
Inaddition,aunionizedemployerthatpromulgatesagroomingorappearancestandardwithoutfirstnegotiatingwithitsunionviolatesNLRAsection8(a)(5);groomingandappearancestandardsarechangesinworkingconditionsandthereforeare"mandatory"subjectsofbargainingundertheAct,meaningthattheemployermustbargaintoimpassewiththeunionpriortoimplementingtherule.
94a.
CasesInvolvingUnionInsigniaTheSupremeCourtheldearlyonthatworkerscoveredbytheNLRAhaveastatutorily-protectedrighttowearunioninsignia(e.
g.
,buttons,pins)intheworkplace.
InRepublicAviationCorp.
v.
NLRB,95theCourtruledthatemployersmayrestrictthewearingofunioninsigniaonlywhere"specialcircumstances"justifytherestriction.
Theemployerbearstheburdenofprooftoestablishthatspecialcircumstancesexist.
96Althoughcasesfromthemanufacturingcontexttypicallyinvolveproductionorsafetyjustifications,casesfromtheservicesectoraddedanadditionaljustification.
Whereworkershavecontactwiththepublic,theBoardandcourtsgiveweighttotheemployer's"image"-basedjustification,Discrimination:AnArgumentAgainstNeutrality,83TEX.
L.
REV.
167(2004);KimberlyA.
Yuracko,PrivateNursesandPlayboyBunnies:ExplainingPermissibleSexDiscrimination,92CAL.
L.
REV.
147(2004).
93.
29U.
S.
C.
§§151–188.
94.
Transp.
Enters.
,240N.
L.
R.
B.
551(1979);MichaelJ.
Yelnosky,WhatDoUnionsDoAboutAppearanceCodes,14DUKEJ.
GENDERL.
&POL'Y521(2007).
Unionstypicallycedecontroloverappearancecodesandotherworkrulestotheemployerthroughthevehicleofthe"managementrightsclause"thatappearsinmostlaborcontracts.
SeeKlare,supranote92,at1426.
95.
324U.
S.
793,801–03(1945).
96.
PathmarkStores,Inc.
,342N.
L.
R.
B.
378,379(2004).
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED33particularlywheretheimageisadoptedtorenderthebusinesscompetitive.
97Intheimagecases,employerswhorigorouslyenforcedressandgroomingcodesagainstallincursionsaremostlikelytoprevailbecauseitisdifficulttoestablishanti-unionanimus;inaddition,rigorousenforcementofthecodesupportstheemployer'sargumentthatmaintenanceofitsimagethroughthebrandedappearanceofitsworkersisvitaltoitsbusinessinterests.
Inoneoftheearliestcasesarisingfromaservicesectorenvironment,NLRBv.
Harrah'sClub,98theNinthCircuitrefusedtoenforcetheBoard'srulingthataHarrah'sresortinStateline,Nevada,hadviolatedsection8(a)(1)oftheNLRAbyenforcinganonadornmentpolicythatprohibitedthewearingofunionbuttonsonworkers'uniforms.
ThecourtnotedHarrah'slongstandingandstrictregulationofemployeedressandappearance,aswellasitsconsistentenforcementofthepolicythroughdailyinspectionsbymanagementpersonnel.
99Thepolicywasunrelatedtounionactivityandwasnotlimitedtounionbuttons;itwasenforcedrigorouslyagainstbadges,pins,andbuttonsproclaimingreligious,political,orsocialaffiliations.
Moreover,nolabororganizingcampaignwasongoing;indeed,workersatthisfacilitywerealreadyunionizedandhadalaborcontract.
Thecourtreasonedthat,althoughthewearingofunionbuttonsisgenerallyaprotectedactivityundersection7oftheNLRA,inthiscasetherewasnoevidencethatthe"several"workerswearingunionbuttonshadaprotectedpurposethatfitwithinthe"collectivebargainingorothermutualaidorprotection"languageofsection7.
100Thecourtalsorefusedenforcementontheseparategroundthat,instrikingabalancebetweenworkers'rightstoself-organizationundersection7andtheemployer'srighttooperateitsbusiness,theBoardhadaccordedtoolittledeferencetoHarrah'srightto"maintaindiscipline.
"Thecourtexplainedthespecialdeferencethatitfeltwasnecessarytoappearancecodesanduniformsinaservicebusinessthatseekstoprojectaparticularimage:Mostbusinessestablishments,particularlythosewhich,likerespondent,furnishserviceratherthangoods,trytoprojectacertaintypeofimagetothepublic.
Oneofthemostessentialelementsinthatimageistheappearanceofitsuniformedemployeeswhofurnishthatserviceinpersontocustomers.
Theevidenceshowsthatrespondenthaspaidcloseattentiontoitspublicimagebyauniformpolicyoflongstandingagainstthewearingofjewelryofanykindontheuniform.
Respondentshouldnotberequiredtowaituntilitreceivescomplaintsorsuffersadeclineinbusinesstoprovespecialcircumstances.
Businessmenarerequiredtoanticipatesuchoccurrencesandavoidthemiftheywishtoremaininbusiness.
Thisisavalidexerciseofbusinessjudgment,anditisnottheprovinceoftheBoardorofthiscourttosubstituteitsjudgmentfor97.
TheBoardrecentlyoutlinedthespecialcircumstancesthatwilltypicallyjustifydeviationfromtheruleasfollows:"[Restrictionsonunioninsigniaarejustified]whentheirdisplaymayjeopardizeemployeesafety,damagemachineryorproducts,exacerbateemployeedissension,orunreasonablyinterferewithapublicimagethattheemployerhasestablished,orwhennecessarytomaintaindecorumanddisciplineamongemployees.
"KomatsuAmericaCorp.
,342N.
L.
R.
B.
649,650(2004).
98.
337F.
2d177(9thCir.
1964).
99.
Id.
at177–78.
100.
Id.
at179.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM34DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007thatofmanagementsolongastheexerciseisreasonableanddoesnotinterferewithaprotectedpurpose.
.
.
.
Wethinkthattheregulationinquestion,underthecircumstances,isreasonable.
101Servicebusinessesarenotautomaticallyexemptfromtherequirementthatspecialcircumstancesbeshown;however,aninvestmentinandacommitmenttoadistinctcorporateimageappearstobecritical.
Anemployer'sdesiretopresenttothepublicanimageofaneatlygroomedanduniformeddrivermaynotsuffice—particularlywheretheemployerallowsothertypesofpinsorbuttonsunrelatedtoitsbusiness.
102NorwilltheBoardandcourtscountenancerestrictionswherethereisnoshowingbytheemployerthatthebuttonorinsigniainterfereswithcustomerserviceorpatientcare.
103However,wheretheemployercanshowthatitsgoalisconsistentwithimprovedcustomerservice,avalidbusinessjustification,courtsgenerallyallowtherestriction.
InBurgerKingv.
NLRB,104forexample,thecourtruledthatafast-foodchaincouldprohibitthewearingofunionbuttonsonemployer-supplieduniforms;thechainhadarightto"projectaclean,professionalimagetothepublic.
"105InStarwoodHotels&ResortsWorldwideInc.
,106theBoardruledthataSanDiego-basedStarwoodresorthotelwasjustifiedinprohibitingin-room,food-deliveryserversfromwearingunionbuttonsinpublicareas.
TheBoardgavegreatweighttothehotel'seffortstoprojecta"Wonderland"image,asexpressedthroughmarketingcampaignsthatemphasizedthatguestscouldfulfilltheir"'fantasiesanddesires'"andget"'whatever[they]wantwhenever[they]wantit.
'"107Thehotelalsoadoptedthehost/guestmetaphor,referringtoitslobbyasits"livingroom,"andvieweditselfasperformingitsbrandedcustomerservice,referringtoitsemployeesas"talent"or"castmembers,"theirsupervisorsas"talentcoaches,"andthehotelexperienceitselfas"wonderland.
"108Inanefforttofurtheritsimage,thehotelcommissioneduniforms,atconsiderableexpense,thatprovideda"trendy,distinct,andchiclook"forworkerswhohavepubliccontact.
109Itrequiredworkerstowearasmall"W"pinontheirupper-leftchestareaandprohibitedallotheruniformadornments.
Inaddition,thehotelinstructedworkerstointeractwithguestsbyintroducingthemselvesbynametoeachguestandtomakeeveryinteraction"Genuine,Authentic,Comfortable,101.
Id.
at180.
102.
SeeUnitedParcelServ.
,312N.
L.
R.
B.
596(1993),enforcementdenied,41F.
3d1068(6thCir.
1994).
103.
SeeMt.
ClemensGen.
Hosp.
v.
NLRB,328F.
3d837(6thCir.
2003)(allowingwearingofunionbuttonsonuniformsofhospitalworkers);Meijer,Inc.
v.
NLRB,130F.
3d1209(6thCir.
2003)(allowingwearingofunionpinsonuniformsofemployeesinretailstore).
104.
725F.
2d1053(6thCir.
1984).
105.
Id.
at1055.
ButseeWal-MartStores,Inc.
,340N.
L.
R.
B.
No.
76(2003)(employerviolatedNLRAwhenitrefusedtoallowanoff-dutyemployeetowearapro-unionT-shirtinitsretailstore,sincenointerferencewiththeon-dutyworkenvironmentwasshown).
106.
348N.
L.
R.
B.
No.
24(Sept.
29,2006),180L.
R.
R.
M.
(BNA)1321(NLRB2006),2006NLRBLEXIS437.
107.
2006NLRBLEXIS437,at*4(alterationsadded).
108.
Id.
at*30(factualstatementindecisionofadministrativelawjudge).
109.
Id.
at*4(Boarddecision).
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED35Engaging,Conversational,withPersonality,Fun.
"110Thehotel'sgoalwasto"create'anemotionalattachment'forguests,tomovefrom'neversaynotoletmeworkthemagic,'tolookforopportunitiesto'grantwishes,'"andtomakethe"W"experience"'[a]dreamcometrue.
'"111Againstthisbackdrop,thehotelarguedthattheunionbuttonwastheequivalentof"graffitiontheMonaLisa.
"112TheBoardrefusedtosecond-guessthelegitimacyoftheemployer'sbusinessplantocompeteeffectivelywithotherresorthotels,rulingthatithadmetitsburdenofshowingspecialcircumstancesjustifyingtheprohibition.
Thecombinationoftheemployer'sinvestmentindevelopingitsbrandedserviceandtheemployer'spainstakingeffortstoenforcethebrandconvincedtheBoardthatthebrandwassufficientlycentraltopromotingtheemployer'scorporateimagetotrumpemployees'rightsundertheNLRAtowearunionbuttons.
b.
RefusalstoBargainoverAppearanceCodesAlthoughthelawissettledthatappearanceandgroomingcodesaremandatorysubjectsofbargaining,mostunions(atleastinthelasttwenty-fiveyearsorso)seemtohaveacceptedappearanceandgroomingcodeswithoutobjectionatacollectivelevel.
113Ratherthanchallengingthecodesthemselvesasinvasionsofemployeeprivacyorautonomy,unionsshiftedtogrievingindividualcaseswherethecodeswereappliedininequitablewaysorthedisciplinarysanctionwasdisproportionatetotheruleviolation.
Thisisconsistentwithamoregeneralreluctancebyunionstomountcollectivechallengestoworkplacerulesasdignityinvasions,atleastwhentherulesareconsistentwithprevailingsocialnorms.
PaulineKimobservedthesametrendinthecontextofchallengestoworkplacedrug-testingrules:Althoughunionsinitiallybroughtworkforce-widechallengestodrug-testingrules,overtimethedisputesbecamebothmoreindividualizedandmorenarrowlylimitedtoeconomicrelief.
114Kimexplains:Theearlyworkforce-widecasesspokeintermsofbasichumandignityandfundamentalrights,askingwhattypesofinterestsweresufficientlyweightytojustifyburdeningtheseimportantrights.
Bycontrast,thelatercaseshardlyspeakatallintermsofprivacyordignity.
Rather,theyfocusoncompliancewithproceduralsafeguardsandtheprotectionofthematerialinterests,forexamplejobsandwages,oftheirmembers.
Workerswhofeltaggrievedbecauseofthemannerinwhichatestwasadministered,orbytheintrusivenessofthetestitself,couldnotrecoverdamagesfordignitaryharms,andthosewhosufferednotangiblejoblosswereessentiallyremedilessunderthecollectivebargainingsystem.
Thus,althoughthepresenceofaunionundoubtedlyinsuredthatitsmembersreceivedproceduralprotectionstheyotherwisemightnothavehadandlikelyworkedtochecktheworstabuses,collectiveresistanceto110.
Id.
at*4–5.
111.
Id.
at*31(factualstatementindecisionofadministrativelawjudge).
112.
Id.
at*42.
113.
Cf.
Klare,supranote92,at1396(describingcasefromthe1970sinwhichworkerresistancetoabanontank-topshirtsinsideaplantprecipitatedalockout).
114.
PaulineT.
Kim,CollectiveandIndividualApproachestoProtectingEmployeePrivacy:TheExperiencewithWorkplaceDrugTesting,66LA.
L.
REV.
1009(2006).
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM36DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007mandatorydrugtestingbecameroutinizedovertime,focusingonconsistentapplicationoftherules,ratherthanonprotectingthedignitaryandprivacyinterestsofworkers.
115Therehavebeentwodeviationsfromthisgeneralpatterninthecontextofcorporateappearancecodes.
Thefirstinvolvessituationswheretheappearancecodeimposescoststhatcouldbereadilymonetized.
Inthesecases,unionsdemandbargainingoverthecostsofcompliancewiththecodes(suchascostsofpurchasingorlaunderinguniforms)116and,whennecessary,havebroughtso-calleddonninganddoffingclaimsundertheFairLaborStandardsAct117seekingpaymentfortimenecessarytochangeinandoutofuniforms,toputonandtakeoffsafetygear,etc.
118Thesecondinvolvesappearancecodesthatareimposeduponaunionizedworkforcethatwasnotpreviouslyexposedtosuchrequirements.
Forexample,Disney'sAmericanunions—bowingtothewishesofthemajorityoftheirmemberships,whohadbeenindoctrinatedbytheDisneyscreeningandtrainingprocesstoacceptDisney'sappearancecodeasaconditionofemployment—toleratedDisney'scodeaslongasitwas"reasonable.
"119However,unionsattheDisneylandHotelraisedchallengestothecodewhenDisneylandwasacquiredbyDisneyinthe1980s.
Disneyresisted,andthechallengeswereapparentlyunsuccessful.
120Afewworkersdidflaunttheappearancecodebywearingunionbuttons,andtheunionsapparentlypressedtheworkers'rightsinthesecasesbeforetheNLRB.
121Subsequently,someofDisney'sunionssuccessfully115.
Id.
at1029.
116.
Inoneinterestingcase,anarbitratorfoundthatanemployerviolatedthecollectivebargainingagreementwhereitunilaterallyimplementedcasual"dressdowndays"andmandatedadresscodeforworkersonthosedays.
Becausethemandatedcasualdresscodewasveryrigidandspecifiedthecolorandtypeofclothingeachemployeemustwear,itimposedsignificantcostsonworkerswhoattemptedtocomplywithit;accordingly,thearbitratorvieweditasviolatingthewageprovisioninthecollectivebargainingagreement.
AerospaceCmty.
CreditUnion,112Lab.
Arb.
Rep.
(BNA)58(1999)(Kelly,Arb.
).
117.
29U.
S.
C.
§§201–219(2004).
118.
See,e.
g.
,IBP,Inc.
v.
Alvarez,546U.
S.
21(2005).
119.
SeeCarlaRivera,UnionsVowtoFightDisneylandHotelCode,L.
A.
TIMES,Mar.
18,1988,§1,at3(quotingunionbusinessrepresentativeforworkersatanewlyacquiredDisneylandHotel,whocommented,"Wehavenoproblemwithareasonabledresscode,butthisoneisridiculousandoutdated.
").
Disneyrepresentativesmaintainedthattheyhavenevernegotiatedovertheappearancecodewithanyunionandtheyrefusedtobegininthe1980sattheDisneylandHotel.
TedAppel,DisneyEmployeesCriticizeDressCode,UNITEDPRESSINT'L,Mar.
22,1988.
120.
TheseunionsrepresentedworkforcesattachedtobusinessoperationsthathadbeenacquiredbyDisney,sothattheemployeeshadnotbeenthroughtheDisneyscreeningandtrainingprocessandthuswerenotaccustomedtotheDisneyappearancestandards;theysawthemasachangeintherules.
SeeKlein,supranote71,at2(reportingthatnewsoftheDisneyappearancecodeupsetemployeesofthenewlyacquiredDisneylandHotel,andunionrepresentativesfortheOperatingEngineersreportedplanstofilegrievancesoverthecode);Rivera,supranote119,at3(reportingplannedunionchallengetoprohibitiononmustaches,beards,heavymakeup,andlongfingernails).
Unionbusinessagentsdemurred,however,whenaskedwhethertheunionwouldusethestrikeweapontopressitsdemands.
Id.
121.
SeeAndreaFord,DisneyLooksfortheUnionLabel,L.
A.
TIMES,Apr.
20,1989,§2,at3(reportingthatoneemployeeattheDisneylandHotelhadunionlapelpins,commemoratingtheworker'snumberofyearsofunionmembership,madeintoearringsinanefforttoconformtotheappearancecode,butwasorderednottowearthembecausetheywerestill"insignia";theunion02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED37negotiatedforworker-friendlyrulesonuniformcare122andsoughtandobtainedcompensationforthetimespentchangingintothecostumesfromstreetclothes.
123FrenchlaborunionsatEuro-Disney,accustomedtoacultureandlegalcontextmoreprotectiveofworkerautonomy,havebeenfarlesstolerant;theyvigorouslyprotestedtheappearancecode,arguingthatitrepresentedan"attackonindividualliberty.
"124c.
CasesArisingUnderCollectiveBargainingAgreementJust-Cause-for-DischargeClausesArbitratorsarefrequentlypresentedwithcaseswhereindividualworkersaredischargedordisciplinedforfailuretocomplywithemployerappearancecodes.
Appearancecodesrelatedtoemployers'desiretoprojectaparticularimagetocustomersaregenerallyconsideredtobewithinmanagerialprerogative,particularlywherethenatureofthebusinessissensitivetotheimageportrayedandtheworkershavecontactwiththepublic.
125However,therighttoregulateappearanceisnotabsolute:Employersmustestablishtherelationshipbetweentheimagethattheyseektoprojectandtheneedtoregulateemployeeappearance.
126Arbitratorsareparticularlysensitivetoemployerworkrulesthatextendbeyondtheworkarenaandencroachonworkers'privatelives.
127ArbitratorsfollowtheleadoftheBoardandcourtsintheunioninsigniacases,requiringemployerstoproduceevidencethatworkers'failuretocomplywiththegroomingruleorappearancecodewilldamagethebusiness'spublicimageorotherwisenegativelyimpactcustomerservice.
Arbitratorsinsuchcasestypicallyacknowledgetheemployer'slegitimateinterestinconstructingandmaintainingitspublicimage,anduphold"reasonable"grooming,dress,andappearancecodes.
However,mostarbitratorsholdtheemployertoahighstandardofprooftodemonstratethelinkbetweenthepolicyandtheimagethattheemployerseekstoportray.
Customerdisapprovalorcomplaintsaresignificantinestablishingthejustificationforappearancecodesandgroomingpolicies.
Forexample,inPacificSouthwestAirlines,128thearbitratorrejectedtheairline'sargumentthatitsrulerequiringmaleflightattendantstobebeardlesswasessentialtoconveyaconservativeimage,consistentwithperceptionsofcompetenceandreliability.
Theairlinearguedthatitsimageconstitutedavitalassetinacompetitiveindustry.
Thearbitratorrejectedthatjustification,findingnoevidencethatthetypeofbeardthatthegrievantwishedtogrow(oneinchlong,neatlytrimmed)challengedthecodeinthisapplicationevenwhereitdeclinedtochallengethefacialhairrestrictions).
122.
SeeTimBarker,Disney,UnionAgreeonUnderwear,VENTURACOUNTYSTAR,June8,2001,atA7(describingTeamsters'efforttonegotiateforpropercleaningofundergarments).
123.
SeeLaborBoardGetsDisneyCase,UNITEDPRESSINT'L,Jan.
4,2000.
124.
ADisneyDressCodeChafesintheLandofHauteCouture,N.
Y.
TIMES,Dec.
25,1991,§1,at1.
125.
SeeFRANKELKOURI&EDNAELKOURI,HOWARBITRATIONWORKS1119–20(6thed.
2003).
126.
Id.
at1117.
127.
SeeNorthwestAirlines,68Lab.
Arb.
Rep.
(BNA)31,34–36(1977)(Bloch,Arb.
);BadgerConcreteCo.
,50Lab.
Arb.
Rep.
(BNA)901,908–09(1968)(Krinsky,Arb.
).
128.
73Lab.
Arb.
Rep.
(BNA)1209(1979)(Christopher,Arb.
).
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM38DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007woulddamagetheairline'spublicimageoritsbusinessactivities.
Theabsenceofcustomercomplaintsorstatisticalevidencesupportingtheairline'sbeliefsaboutcustomerperceptionswasfatal.
Thearbitratorsetahighbarfortheemployer'sproof:"TheCompanywasrequiredtoprovethatifflightattendantswereallowedtowearneatlytrimmedbeards,passengerswouldchoosenottoflywithPSA.
"129Findingthattheemployer'sassertedjustificationwas"speculative,"thearbitratorvoidedtherule.
Thesereferencestotherelevanceofcustomerreactionshowhowimportantculturalnormsareinarbitrators'assessmentsofthereasonablenessofemployerappearancecodes.
Employerappearancecodesaredirectlytiedtosocialnormsregardingdress,hairlength,andfashiontrends.
Becausethesetrendsshiftovertime,employerappearancecodesthatareconsideredreasonableinoneeramaynotbesoinanother,particularlyiftheyimpactworkers'off-dutyappearance.
130Forexample,inthe1960sand1970s,hairlengthandthepresenceofbeardsorfacialhairbecameassociatedwithnonconformityandradicalpoliticalviews.
Inanefforttoprojectaconservativebusinessimage,manyemployersimposedrestrictionsonmen'shairlengthorfacialhair.
Arbitratorsenforcedtheserulesinsomecasesbutweresensitivetotheirapplicationoutsidetheworkplaceinothercases,oftenreferencingculturalnorms.
Whentheemployer'spolicyisconsistentwithculturalnorms,arbitratorshavebeenmorelikelytoviewitasreasonableandrelatedtotheemployer'sinterestincontrollingitspublicimage.
Forexample,inAlphaBetaCo.
,131thearbitratordeferredtomanagement'sjudgmentinenforcinga"goodgrooming"ruleagainstaclerk'shelperwhohadcuthishairinthreedifferentlengths(oneinchlongontopofhisheadandtaperedtoapointonthebackofhishead,croppedclosetothescalponthesides,andshavedalongathinsix-inchlineoneachsideofhishead).
Thearbitratornotedthatthestorewaslocatedinasmallfarmingcommunityandthatcoworkersdescribedthegrievant'shaircutas"outlandish"and"bizarre.
"132Nevertheless,thearbitratorfoundthatsuspensionofthegrievantwastoosevereapenaltywhenreasonablealternativejobpositionsnotinvolvingpubliccontactwereavailable.
133Bycontrast,inBigStarNo.
35,134thearbitratorreinstatedasupermarketcashierandcheckerswhohadbeenterminatedforfailuretomaintainproperhairlengthandforhaving"unkempt"or"messy"hair.
Thearbitratorfoundthattheemployerhadfailedtoestablishasufficientconnectionbetweenhairlengthandbusinessnecessityandexpressedconcernthatthehairlengthrulewouldaffectthecheckers'appearanceoutsidetheworkplace,requiringtheyoung129.
Id.
at1213–15.
130.
See,e.
g.
,SpringdayCo.
,53Lab.
Arb.
Rep.
(BNA)627,629(1969)(Bothwell,Arb.
)(observingthat"[c]ustomandfashionindressandbehaviorchangefromtimetotime,andemployeesshouldbepermittedtoconformreasonablywiththesechanges").
131.
93Lab.
Arb.
Rep.
(BNA)855(1989)(Horowitz,Arb.
).
132.
Id.
at857,858(notingthat"considerabledeferencemustbegiventostoremanagementinruralareaswherelocalstandardsmaynotbethesameasthoseinthemorepopulatedareas133.
Id.
at859.
134.
73Lab.
Arb.
Rep.
(BNA)850(1980)(Murphy,Arb.
).
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED39grievantsto"deviatesharplyfromthestandardsoftheirmaleandfemaleassociatesorsacrificetheirjobsandtenure.
"135Finally,inparticularcasesthearbitratormayacceptthevalidityoftheruleitselfbutsecond-guessitsapplicationtothegrievant,eitherbecausethegrievantasanindividualseemssympathetic136orbecausethedisciplinaryactiontakenbytheemployerseemsexcessiveordisproportionatetotheoffenseundertraditionalindiciaofindustrialdueprocessimportedintothecollectivebargainingagreementthroughthejust-cause-for-dischargeclause.
1372.
ConstitutionalChallengestoAppearanceCodesInthepublicsector,employeeshavechallengedappearancecodesthatinfringetheirconstitutionalrightstoliberty,speech,orexpression.
Courtsinthesecasesweighthestate'sinterestasanemployerinmanaging,controlling,anddirectingitsworkforcetoprovideefficientpublicservice,againsttheemployees'constitutionallyprotectedlibertyandexpressionorspeechinterests.
Intheseminalcase,Kelleyv.
Johnson,138theSupremeCourtsustainedacountypoliceforce'sgroomingcodeagainstaconstitutionalchallenge.
Withthesupportofhisunion,139apoliceofficerchallengedthepolicedepartment'sgroomingregulationrequiringthatanofficer'ssideburnsnotflarebeyondtwoinchesinwidthorconnecttohismustache.
TheCourtassumedarguendothatpublicsectorworkerspossessaFourteenthAmendmentlibertyinterestinmattersofpersonalappearance,butnonethelessfoundthatthegroomingregulationwasjustifiedbythepolicedepartment'sinterestsinensuringthatofficersarerecognizabletothepublicandinsupportingthepoliceforce's"espritdecorps.
"140Subsequentpublicemploymentcaseshavebeenfairlyconsistentinsustaininggroomingregulationsandappearancecodesindeferencetoastate'srightstomanageandcontrolitspublicserviceoperations.
Workersseekingtochallengesuchruleshavebeenrequiredtoshowthatthestate'sregulationsare"whollyirrational,"thuserecting"averypowerful,almostirrebuttable135.
Id.
at855–56.
SeealsoRomeCableCommc'ns,70Lab.
Arb.
Rep.
(BNA)28,32(1978)(Dallas,Arb.
)(refusingtoacceptcompany'simagejustificationwheregrievant'shairstylewas"similartothehairstyleswornbyalargeproportionofyoungmeninhisagegroupthroughoutthecountry"and,therefore,wasunlikelytonegativelyimpactthecompany'simageorsales).
136.
See,e.
g.
,Dravo-DoyleCo.
,54Lab.
Arb.
Rep.
(BNA)604,605–07(1971)(Krimsly,Arb.
)(refusingtoapplyarulebarringlonghairandbeardstoanemployeewhoworkedinanareawheretherewasonlyincidentalcontactwiththepublic,andnotingthat,despitethegrievant'slonghair,sideburns,andshort"Vandyke"beard,hisgeneralappearancewasoneof"cleanlinessandneatness").
137.
See,e.
g.
,AlphaBetaCo.
,93Lab.
Arb.
Rep.
(BNA)855,859(1989)(Horowitz,Arb.
)(findingthateventhoughgroomingrule'sapplicationwasvalid,suspensionwasanexcessivepenaltyinlightofreasonablealternativeofrequiringgrievanttowearahatuntilthehairgrewback);seegenerallyRogerAbrams&DennisNolan,TowardaTheoryof"JustCause"inEmployeeDisciplineCases,1985DUKEL.
J.
594.
138.
425U.
S.
238(1976).
139.
Theunionthatrepresentedtheofficer,theInternationalBrotherhoodofPoliceOfficers,filedanamicusbriefarguingthattheregulationwasunconstitutional.
Seeid.
at255n.
6.
140.
Id.
at248.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM40DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007constitutionalpresumptionthatworkrulesdevisedbymanagement"arevalid.
141Judicialreviewisonlymarginallylessdeferentialtomanagerialauthoritywhenthedesiredworker"dress"takestheformofspeechandispro-unionincontent,suchaswhereworkerswearunionbuttonsinviolationofnonadornmentcodes.
Arecentunioninsigniacaseinvolvedapublicsectoremployer;therefore,theNLRAwasnotapplicable.
InCommunicationsWorkersv.
EctorCountyHospitalDistrict,142theCourtofAppealsfortheFifthCircuit(sittingenbanc)confrontedaFirstAmendmentchallengetoahospital'suniformnonadornmentpolicybroughtbyacarpenterwhohadbeendisciplinedforwearinga"UnionYes"buttononhisuniformwhileworkinginpatient-careareasofthehospital.
143Thecourtfirstaskedwhetherthebuttonrepresentedspeechonamatterofpublicconcern,thethresholdinquiryinFirstAmendmentemployee-speechcasesunderConnickv.
Myers144andGarcettiv.
Ceballos.
145TakingjudicialnoticeofthefactthatTexaslawprohibitedcollectivebargainingforpoliticalsubdivisions(includingcountyhospitals),146thecourtfoundthattheunionbutton"toucheduponorinvolvedmattersofpublicconcernonlyinsubstantiallyandinaweakandattenuatedsense"andthatthespeechwasnotmadeinatraditionalpublicforum;rather,communicationwasincidenttotheworker'sperformanceofhisdutieswhilewearingthehospital'suniform.
147Nevertheless,thecourtproceededtobalancetheinterestsoftheemployerhospitalinpromotingefficientpublicserviceagainsttheworker'sFirstAmendmentinterestsasacitizenincommentingonamatterofpublicconcern,anditfoundthattheemployer'sinterestsoutweighedtheworker'sspeechinterests.
Thecourtsanctioneduniformrequirementsonthebasisthatthey"foster[]discipline,promote[]uniformity,encourage[]espritdecorps,andincrease[]readiness,"andnotedthat"standardizeduniformsencourage[]thesubordinationofpersonalpreferencesandidentitiesinfavoroftheoverallgroupmission,"apermissibleemployergoalbecauseofitsefficiency-enhancingtendency.
148Inaddition,uniformrequirementsprovidea"neatandprofessionalappearancetomembersofthepublicservedbytheemployer.
.
.
and.
.
.
allowpatientsandvisitorstoidentifytheemployees.
"149Allowingworkerstoadorntheiruniformswithbuttonswouldunderminethesepurposesbysignaling141.
Klare,supranote92,at1405.
142.
467F.
3d427(5thCir.
2006).
143.
Thehospital'sdresscodepolicyrequiredallemployeestowearauniformwhileonduty(grayworkshirtandgraypantsforcarpenters,electricians,andplumbers)andspecifiedthattheonlypinspermissiblewereprofessionalassociationpinsandcurrenthospitalserviceawardpins.
Thehospitalmadethreeotherexceptionsasamatterofpractice:inconjunctionwiththeannualfootballgamebetweentwocompetinghighschoolteams,employeeswerepermittedtoweartheschoolcolorsoftheschoolthattheysupported;pinsrelatingtothe"GreatAmericanSmokeOut"encouragingcigarettesmokerstoquitsmokingwerepermitted;andduringblooddrives,employeeswerepermittedtowear"donor"pins.
Theseexceptionswerejustifiedonespritdecorpsgrounds.
144.
461U.
S.
138(1983).
145.
126S.
Ct.
1951(2006).
146.
EctorCountyHosp.
,467F.
3dat433n.
10.
147.
Id.
at437–38.
148.
Id.
at439(emphasisinoriginal).
149.
Id.
at440.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED41defianceagainstsupervisors,exacerbatingtensionsbetweenworkersoveranemotionalsubject,andthusadverselyaffect"mission,disciplineandespritdecorps.
"150Thecourtalsoworriedabouttheslipperyslopeeffectofallowingunionbuttonsonuniforms:"If'UnionYes'—and/or'UnionNo'—buttonsareallowed,somustemployeesbeallowedtowearontheiruniformsatworkbuttonsaddressingothertopicsofequalorgreaterpublicconcern,suchas,forexample,'AbortionisMurder,''NoGayMarriage,''DeportIllegalsNow'andthelike,"thatwould"plainlybedeleterioustotheHospital'smission.
"151Refusingtoaccordanydeferentiallevelofprotectiontolaborspeech,thecourtdeemedthehospital'snonadornmentpolicy"contentandviewpointneutral,"andthereforesustainable.
1523.
Privacy-BasedorWrongful-DischargeClaimsatCommonLawCommonlawclaimsmadebynonunionworkerssquarelyconfrontboththeemployer'spropertyrightstomanageitsbusinessandthepresumptionthatallemploymentisat-will.
Whetherframedasinvasionofprivacyclaimsbycurrentemployeesoraswrongfuldischargeclaimsbyworkersterminatedforrefusingtocomplywithappearancecodes,suchclaimsaretypicallyunsuccessful.
153Thisoutcomeisnotuniquetotheappearancecodecontext;itappliestomostemployer-promulgatedworkplacerules.
154Appearanceregulation,however,directlylinksmanagement'spropertyinterestinshapingandcontrollingitscorporateimageanditsproperty-likeinterestinregulatingtheappearanceofitsworkers,particularlyinaservicesectorbusiness.
Thislinkagecreatesapowerfulelixirofpropertyintereststhatdictatestheoutcomeofemployeechallengestoworkplaceappearancecodes.
Ineffect,appearanceregulationssignaltheemployer'squasi-ownershipoftheworker'sperson.
AsCatherineFiskobservedwhendiscussingGeorgeSteinbrenner'srequirementthatJohnnyDamoncuthishairasaconditionofsigningonwiththeYankees,"[i]nsistingonadherencetothedresscodesaystotheworld,'you'remyplayernowandIcanmakeyouwearyourhairanywayIplease.
'"155Corporatebrandingenforcedthroughappearanceregulationexpandsthescopeofmanagerialcontrolovertheworkers'bodies,inwaysthatundermineindividualautonomyandidentity(suchasJohnnyDamon,whoseidentityasa"marqueeplayer"hadbecomeuniquelyrecognizabletothepublic).
156Nevertheless,becausetheemployer'sproperty-basedbusiness150.
Id.
at447.
151.
Id.
at441.
152.
Id.
153.
SeeFisk,supranote92,at1127(arguingforapplicationofaprivacy-basedanalysistoworkplaceappearancecodes,becauseimpositionofsuchcodesisasmuchaboutmanagerialpoweroverworkersasagroupasitisaboutgenderdiscrimination,butnotingthatinmoststatesworkplaceprivacyrightsare"narrowandweak").
154.
See,e.
g.
,Kim,supranote114,at1023–26(discussingchallengesbyindividualstoworkplacedrugtestingpolicies).
155.
Fisk,supranote92,at1121.
ThedifferencebetweenJohnnyDamonandtheworkersuponwhomwefocusinthisArticleisthat,asFiskpointsout,professionalathletesarewell-compensatedforenduringsuchinfringementsontheirautonomy.
Id.
156.
Id.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM42DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007managementandmarketinginterestsintersectwithitscommon-lawrighttocontrolanddisciplineitsworkforce,courtsarelikelytoupholdsuchregulations,evenwhentheappearanceregulationisunreasonableandextendssubstantiallybeyondthepracticesofotherbusinessesinthesameindustry.
157Thesamecombinationofmanagerialinterestscombinestotrumpworkers'interestsinjobsecurity,asthewrongfuldischargecaselawdemonstrates.
InthenextPart,wefurtherexaminethecommonlaw'sresponsetoappearancecoderegulationthroughthevehicleofthewrongfuldischargeclaimsfiledinNevadastatecourtintheJespersencase.
1584.
StatutorySexDiscriminationClaimsStatutorychallengestosex-baseddress,grooming,andappearancepoliciesunderfederalandstateantidiscriminationlawshaveoccasionallybeensuccessful.
Nevertheless,asageneralrule,thecourtstendtoupholdemployers'"reasonable"sex-basedappearanceregulationsunderavarietyoftheories.
159SomefederalcourtshavefoundthatTitleVII'sprohibitionofsexdiscriminationinemployment160eitherdoesnotreachsex-specificdressandgroomingrulesatall,161oritdoesnotreachappearancerulesthatimposeonlyademinimusburdenononesex.
162Similarly,somefederalcourtshaveconcludedthatonlyemployerrulesthatarebasedonanimmutabletrait(suchassexorrace)orsex"plus"afundamentalright(suchasreligionortherighttomarry)canbechallengedunderTitleVII,andthatdressandgroomingrequirementsdonotaffecteitherimmutablecharacteristicsorfundamentalrights.
163Moreover,sex-specificdressandgroomingrulesthatreflectprevailingcommunitystandardshavebeenfoundnot"discriminatory"undertherationalethatanemployerhastotakegenderintoaccountinordertotreatmenandwomenequallyindevisingappearanceregulations.
164Morerecently,severalfederalcourtshaveruledthat157.
Forexample,onecommentatornotedthatbothstateandfederalcourtsupheldHarrah'srighttoenforceitssex-basedgroomingpolicyeventhoughownersofothercasinosandthepresidentoftheRhodeIslandHospitalityandTourismIndustrycharacterizedHarrah'semployeeappearancestandardsas"offensive"andasgoing"overboard"—outsidethenormofemployer-promulgatedappearancestandardsfortheindustry.
SeeScottMayerowitz,Harrah'sDrawsCriticism;EmployeeAppearanceStandardsGo"Overboard,"PROVIDENCEJ.
(R.
I.
),July13,2004,availableathttp://www.
hotel-online.
com/News/PR2004_3rd/Jul04_HarrahsPolicies.
html.
Seeinfranote190andaccompanyingtext(describingHarrah'sgroomingpolicy).
158.
Seeinfranotes195–205andaccompanyingtext(discussingJespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,131P.
3d614(Nev.
2004)(unpublishedtabledecision),No.
40587(Nev.
June7,2004)(onfilewithauthors)).
159.
Manycommentatorshavearguedthatthedoctrinalapproachesbythecourtshavesignificantconceptualfailings.
See,e.
g.
,Fisk,supranote92,at1131–36(discussingfailingsandcitingcommentators).
SeegenerallyROBERTBELTONETAL,EMPLOYMENTDISCRIMINATIONLAW:CASESANDMATERIALSONEQUALITYINTHEWORKPLACE380–94(7thed.
2004)(discussingTitleVIIchallengestoworkplacedress,grooming,andappearancerequirements).
160.
TitleVII§703(a)(1),42U.
S.
C.
§2000e-2(a)(1)(2000).
161.
SeeWillinghamv.
MaconTel.
Publ'gCo.
,507F.
2d1084,1092(5thCir.
1975)(enbanc);Tavorav.
N.
Y.
MercantileExch.
,101F.
3d907,908(2dCir.
1996)(percuriam).
162.
SeeDodgev.
GiantFood,Inc.
488F.
21333,1337(D.
C.
Cir.
1973);Tavora,101F.
3dat908.
163.
SeeWillingham,507F.
2dat1091;Bakerv.
Cal.
LandTitleCo.
,507F.
2d895,896–97(9thCir.
1974).
164.
SeeFaganv.
Nat'lCashRegisterCo.
,481F.
2d1115,1117n.
3(D.
C.
Cir.
1973).
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED43sex-specificappearancecodesarediscriminatoryonlyiftheyimpose"unequalburdens"onwomenandmen.
165Theproblem,ofcourse,isindeterminingwhatconstitutesa"burden"andhowburdensshouldbeweighedandcompared.
Inexaminingtherelativeburdensofdressandgroomingrulesonmaleandfemaleworkers,courtshavesometimesscrutinizedthesexstereotypesunderlyingtheemployer'sregulation,upholdingsex-specificrulesbasedon"common"but(presumably)benignstereotypesandinvalidatingrulesbasedonoffensivestereotypesthataredemeaningtowomenasaclass.
166Forexample,anemployer'seven-handedenforcementofsex-differentiated"professional"dressandgroomingrequirementsthatemphasizedapleasingappearanceforbothmaleandfemaletelevisionanchorswithstoodaTitleVIIchallenge.
167Ontheotherhand,itwasfoundtobesexdiscriminationforabanktorequireonlyfemaleworkerstowearuniformsbasedontheemployer'ssex-stereotypedassumptionsthatwomen(butnotmen)arenotlikelytoknowhowtodressinanappropriate"professional"mannerforwork.
168Ifacourtfindsthatanemployer'sexpressgender-specificdressandgroomingpolicydiscriminatesonthebasisofsexunderoneofthesetheories,thecourtwillrulethatthepolicyisanunlawfulemploymentpracticeunlesstheemployercandefenditasabonafideoccupationalqualification(BFOQ)undersection703(e)(1)ofTitleVII.
169Thecriticalquestioniswhethertheemployer'sdiscriminatorypolicyis"reasonablynecessary"tothe"normaloperation"ofthe"particular"business—the"essenceofthebusiness"test.
170TheSupremeCourthasconstruedthestatutoryBFOQdefensetosexdiscrimination"narrowly.
"171Inaddition,thecourtshaveruledthatcustomerpreferencescannotbeusedasaBFOQdefensetojustifysexdiscrimination.
172Consequently,employershaveamajorhurdleinlitigationiftheyarerequiredtoprovethatafemale-onlyhiringpracticeorasex-baseddressandgroomingruleisaBFOQ.
165.
SeeFrankv.
UnitedAirlines,216F.
3d845(9thCir.
2000);Craftv.
Metromedia,Inc.
,766F.
2d1205(8thCir.
1985).
TheEEOCComplianceManualexpresslypermitsdifferentdresscodesformenandwomenaslongasemployersimpose"equivalent"burdensonbothsexes.
EEOCComplianceManual§619.
4(d).
166.
SeePriceWaterhousev.
Hopkins,490U.
S.
228,235(1989)(plurality)(findingdirectevidenceofanunlawfulemploymentdecisionbasedonsexwhereanemployerreliedonsexstereotypesinrecommendingthatafemaleaccountantwouldhaveabetterchanceofbecomingapartnerifshewould"walkmorefemininely,talkmorefemininely,dressmorefemininely,haveherhairstyled,andwearjewelry").
167.
Craft,766F.
2dat1215–16(upholdingthedistrictcourt'sviewthatatelevisionstation's"appearancestandardswereshapedonlybyneutralprofessionalandtechnicalconsiderationsandnotbyanystereotypicalnotionsoffemalerolesandimages");JudithOlansBrown,LucyA.
Williams&PhyllisTropperBaumann,TheMythogenesisofGender:JudicialImagesofWomeninPaidandUnpaidLabor,6UCLAWOMEN'SL.
J.
457,511(1996).
168.
Carrollv.
TalmanFed.
Sav.
&LoanAss'nofChi.
,604F.
2d1028(7thCir.
1979).
169.
42U.
S.
C.
§2000e-2(e)(1)(2000).
170.
Id.
SeeWilsonv.
Sw.
Airlines,517F.
Supp.
292(N.
D.
Tex.
1981);Diazv.
PanAm.
WorldAirways,442F.
2d385(5thCir.
1971).
171.
SeeInt'lUnion,UAWv.
JohnsonControls,499U.
S.
187,201(1991).
172.
SeeDiaz,442F.
2dat389("[I]twouldbetotallyanomalousifweweretoallowthepreferencesandprejudicesofthecustomerstodeterminewhethersexdiscriminationwasvalid.
Indeed,itwas,toalargeextent,theseveryprejudicestheAct[TitleVII]wasmeanttoovercome.
").
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM44DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007Definingwhatconstitutesthe"essenceofthebusiness"forpurposesofaBFOQdefenseisnotalwayseasy,andthesedeterminationsimplicateanemployer'sdecisionsaboutitsbusinesspurposeaswellashowitwillmarketorbranditsproducts.
Forexample,iftheemployer'sbusinessconsistsofsellingsexualtitillationorentertainment,suchasinastripcluborPlayboyClub,theemployermaydiscriminateonthebasisofsexbyhiringonlyattractivewomenasstrippersorPlayboy"Bunnies"andrequiringthem,asapartofthejob,todressandgroomthemselves(andtoappearandbehave)inamannerthatwillbesexuallyprovocative.
173Inthesecircumstances,sex-stereotyped(andsexualized)"branding"oftheworkerispermissible.
Ontheotherhand,wherethe"essence"ofanemployer'sbusinessdoesnotinvolvesex,thecourtshaveprohibitedrequirementsthatwomenworkerswearprovocativeclothingorrevealinguniformsthatsubjectthemtounwelcomesexualharassmentfromotheremployeesorcustomers.
174Thedifficultsexdiscrimination/BFOQcasesarisewhenemployershireonlyyoungattractivewomenforcertainservicejobsorrequirefemaleserviceworkerstowearsexuallyprovocativeclothingandglamorousmakeup.
Assumingthatacourtfindsthehiringpracticesorappearanceregulationstobediscriminatory,thesuccessofanemployer'sBFOQdefenserestsondiscerningwhethertheemployerisprimarilyinthebusinessofselling"sex"orisusingsexualalluretomarketotherservicesandproducts,suchasarestaurantmeal(servedbybuxomHooterswaitresseswearingtanktopsandrunningshorts)175orairlinetravel(servedbyyoung,sexyfemaleflightattendantsin"hotpants").
176Atleastinprinciple,ifnotalwaysinpractice,sexdiscriminationdoctrineoffersameanstorestrainemployerbrandingpracticesthatsexualizeanddemeanwomenworkersbyrequiringthattheyappear,dress,andgroomthemselvesinsex-stereotypedwaysthatarenotnecessarytoperformtheirjobs.
Wediscusstheseissuesfurtherbelow,inconjunctionwithourcasestudyofJespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
177173.
SeeYuracko,PrivateNursesandPlayboyBunnies,supranote92,at157;Wilson,517F.
Supp.
at301.
174.
See,e.
g.
,EEOCv.
SageRealtyCorp.
,507F.
Supp.
599,611(S.
D.
N.
Y.
1981)("Whileitmaywellbea[BFOQ]for[anemployer]torequirefemalelobbyattendantsinitsbuildingstowearcertainuniformsdesignedtopresentauniqueimage,inaccordancewithitsphilosophyofurbandesign,itisbeyonddisputethatthewearingofsexuallyrevealinggarmentsdoesnotconstitutea[BFOQ].
").
175.
Forexample,seethediscussionofHooters'attemptstoprotectits"tradedress"interestsinitsskimpyHootersGirls'waitressuniformsfromacompetitor,supranotes87–90andaccompanyingtext.
AchallengetoHootersRestaurants'female-onlyhiringpoliciesforitsfront-of-the-houseservingjobsisdiscussedsupranote90andinfratextaccompanyingnote555.
176.
Flightattendants'challengestoairlinefemale-onlyhiringpolicies,torestrictionsonmaritalstatusforfemaleattendants,andtodresscodes,appearancerules,andweightlimitsforfemaleattendantsarediscussedinfranotes618–64andaccompanyingtext.
177.
280F.
Supp.
2d1189(D.
Nev.
2002),aff'd,392F.
3d1076(9thCir.
2004),vacated,409F.
3d1061(9thCir.
2005),aff'denbanc,444F.
3d1104(9thCir.
2006).
SeeinfraPartsIV.
C,V.
B,VII.
B.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED455.
ACaseStudyofCorporateBrandingAccomplishedThroughAppearanceCodesandtheLaw'sResponseThelaw'sresponsetocorporatebrandinghasbeenhighlycontextual,differingbyindustryandbyemployerpractice.
Accordingly,discussingbrandingintheabstractrisksmissingthedeeperinsightsavailablethroughstudyofamorenuancedandcontextualizedfactualsetting.
InthenextthreeParts,weutilizeacasestudytoinformourexaminationofhowthecorporatebrandingprocessfunctionsandhowworklawresponds.
WechoseJespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
forseveralreasons.
First,ithassparkedagreatdealofinterestamongscholars.
Second,itoffersausefulfactualcontextforassessinghowthepracticeofbrandinghasevolvedascorporationshavemorphedintonationalandmultinationalenterprisesinwhichbothmarketingandhumanresourcespracticesarecentrallycontrolled,andhowtheseshiftshaveaffectedthegendercompositionofoccupations.
Third,Jespersen'sstoriedtravelsthroughstateandfederalcourtofferanunparalleledwindowontohowthelawrespondstoindividualeffortstoresistbranding,whetherframedasacommonlawclaimorasanantidiscriminationclaim.
Inaddition,althoughHarrah'sRenocasino(whereDarleneJespersenworked)wasnotunionized,otherHarrah'sfacilitiesare.
BecauseHarrah'sgroomingcodewasappliedonacorporate-widebasis,anopportunityexistedtoframethelegalclaimsincollectiveterms,hadHarrah'sunionchosentointervene.
ThesefactsprovidethefoundationforourconsiderationinthefinalsectionofthisArticleastohow,ifatall,thelaw'sresponsemightbedifferentweretheresistancetooccuratacollectivelevel.
IV.
THEJESPERSENLITIGATION:ANINDIVIDUALWORKERRESISTSCORPORATEBRANDINGA.
TheFacts178InAugust2000,DarleneJespersenwasterminatedfromheremploymentatHarrah'scasinoinReno,Nevada,whereshehadworkedforovertwentyyearsasabartenderinthesportsbar.
Shewasfiredsolelybecausesherefusedtocomplywithanewcompany-widegroomingpolicythatrequiredHarrah'sfemalebeverageservers,includingfemalebartendersandbarbacks,towearmakeupconsistingoffoundation,blush,mascara,andlipstick.
Menworkinginthesejobswereprohibitedfromwearingfacialmakeupofanykind.
Jespersen'sworkhistoryatHarrah'swasexemplary.
Afterbeinghiredasadishwasherin1979,shewasrapidlypromotedtoajobasabarbackandthenbartender,apositionshehelduntil2000.
Hersupervisorsconsistentlypraisedherwork,andhercustomerswrotethather"excellentserviceandgoodattitudeenhancedtheirexperienceatthesportsbarandencouragedthemtocomeback.
"179Althoughshehadneverwornmakeup,shebrieflytriedusingmakeup178.
Thefollowingfactsaretakenfromtheenbancdecision,Jespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,444F.
3d1104(9thCir.
2006)(enbanc),thethree-judgepaneldecision,Jespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,392F.
3d1076(9thCir.
2004),theCorrectedOpeningBriefofPlaintiff-Appellant,Jespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,392F.
3d1076(9thCir.
2004)(No.
03-15045),andcontemporaneousmediareports.
179.
Jespersen,392F.
3dat1077.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM46DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007athersupervisor'srequestwhenHarrah'sfirstinstitutedamakeuprequirementforfemaleemployeesintheearly1980s,butsheabruptlystoppedandneverworeitagain.
Shetestifiedinherdepositionthatwearingmakeuphadmadeherfeel"'verydegradedandverydemeaned,'"thatitadverselyaffectedher"'credibilityasanindividualandasaperson,'"180and"'forcedhertobefeminine'andtobecome'dolledup'likeasexualobject.
"181Subsequently,despitetheexistenceofaninformalmakeuppolicy,Harrah'ssupervisorsrelentedanddidnotrequirehertowearmakeup;Jespersencontinuedtoreceiveoutstandingevaluations.
Inearly2000,Harrah'sinstituteda"BeverageDepartmentImageTransformation"(BDIT)programattwentyofitstwenty-sixcasinosthroughoutthenation,includingtheRenocasinowhereJespersenworked.
182"Thegoaloftheprogramwastocreatea'brandstandardofexcellence'throughoutHarrah'soperations,withanemphasisonguestservicepositions.
"183TheBDITprograminitiallyhadgroomingandappearancerequirementsforbeverageservers,calledthe"PersonalBest"program,whichmandated"unisex"uniformsforallbartenders—consistingof"blackpants,whiteshirt,blackvest,andblackbowtie"184—aswellassomesex-basedgroomingstandardsabouthair,nails,andmakeupforallbeverageservers,185whichJespersenagreedtofollow.
186Harrah'srequiredthebeverageserviceemployeestoundergo"PersonalBestImageTraining"beforetheirfinalfittingsfortheiruniforms.
187Followingthetraining,Harrah'stookbothaportraitandafull-bodyphotographofeachemployeelookinghisorher"PersonalBest.
"188Thesetwophotographswereplacedineachemployee'spersonnelfile,tobeusedbysupervisorseachday"asan'appearancemeasurement'tool'"189tomonitorwhethertheemployeewaslivinguptothenewstandards.
InApril2000,relyingontheadviceofanimageconsultant,Harrah'samendedthe"PersonalBest"policytorequirethatall180.
Jespersen,444F.
3dat1108(quotingJespersen'sdepositiontestimony).
181.
Jespersen,392F.
3dat1077(quotingJespersen'sdepositiontestimony).
182.
CorrectedOpeningBriefofPlaintiff-Appellant,supranote178,at7.
183.
Jespersen,392F.
3dat1077.
184.
Jespersen,444F.
3dat1107.
TheenbancmajorityinJespersenreferredtothebartenders'uniformsas"unisex.
"Id.
at1112.
185.
Id.
at1107.
ThetextofthesestandardsarequotedinJespersen,392F.
3dat1077n.
1.
186.
Thepolicyprohibitedmalebartendersandbarbacksfromwearing"[e]yeandfacialmakeup,"butsaidnothingaboutmakeupforfemalebartendersandbarbacks.
Jespersen,392F.
3dat1077n.
1(alterationadded).
187.
Jespersen,392F.
3dat1078.
188.
Id.
Harrah's"PersonalBest"photographsofDarleneJespersenareavailableontheWebsiteofLambdaLegalDefenseandEducationFund,athttp://www.
lambdalegal.
org/cgi-bin/iowa/documents/record2.
htmlrecord=1614(lastvisitedDec.
30,2006).
Inaninterviewaftershewasfired,Jespersendescribedhowshewasphotographedforher"PersonalBest"photos:"Igotherewithnomake-up.
Theyputonsomeclearlipgloss.
TheyalsowantedtoputsomepowderonmyfacesoIwouldn'tshineinthephotoandIagreedtothatbecausetheyhaddonethattosomeoftheguysfortheirphotos.
"GenderPublicAdvocacyCoalition,GenderPACNationalNewsInterviewsDarleneJespersen,GPACNEWS,Jan.
29,2001(quotingDarleneJespersen),availableathttp://www.
gpac.
org/archive/news/notitle.
htmlcmd=view&archive=news&msgnum=0273[hereinafterGPACInterviewwithJespersen].
189.
Jespersen,392F.
3dat1078.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED47femalebeverageservers—includingfemalebartenders—wearfoundation,blush,mascara,andlipstickatalltimes.
190Jespersencontinuedtoworkwithoutmakeup,andonJuly30,2000,Harrah'ssentherhomeforviolatingthe"PersonalBest"policy,191givingherthirtydaystoapplyforanotherjobinthecompany.
192Overthenextmonth,shewasunabletofindanotherpositionatHarrah'sRenopropertiesthatshewasqualifiedtofulfill,thatdidnotrequiremakeup,andthatofferedcompensationcomparabletoherbartenderjob.
193190.
Theamended"PersonalBest"policyprovided,inpart:AllBeverageServicePersonnel,inadditiontobeingfriendly,polite,courteousandresponsivetoourcustomer'sneeds,mustpossesstheabilitytophysicallyperformtheessentialfactorsofthejobassetforthinthestandardjobdescriptions.
Theymustbewellgroomed,appealingtotheeye,befirmandbodytoned,andbecomfortablewithmaintainingthislookwhilewearingthespecifieduniform.
Additionalfactorstobeconsideredinclude,butarenotlimitedto,hairstyles,overallbodycontour,anddegreeofcomforttheemployeeprojectswhilewearingtheuniform.
***BeverageBartendersandBarbackswilladheretotheseadditionalguidelines:OverallGuidelines(appliedequallytomale/female):oAppearance:MustmaintainPersonalBestimageportrayedattimeofhire.
oJewelry,ifissued,mustbeworn.
Otherwise,tastefulandsimplejewelryispermitted;nolargechokers,chainsorbracelets.
oNofaddishhairstylesorunnaturalcolorsarepermitted.
Males:oHairmustnotextendbelowtopofshirtcollar.
Ponytailsareprohibited.
oHandsandfingernailsmustbecleanandnailsneatlytrimmedatalltimes.
Nocoloredpolishispermitted.
oEyeandfacialmakeupisnotpermitted.
oShoeswillbesolidblackleatherorleathertypewithrubber(nonskid)soles.
Females:oHairmustbeteased,curled,orstyledeverydayyouwork.
Hairmustbeworndownatalltimes,noexceptions.
oStockingsaretobeofnudeornaturalcolorconsistentwithemployee'sskintone.
Noruns.
oNailpolishcanbeclear,white,pinkorredcoloronly.
Noexoticnailartorlength.
oShoeswillbesolidblackleatherorleathertypewithrubber(nonskid)soles.
oMakeup(facepowder,blushandmascara)mustbewornandappliedneatlyincomplimentary[sic]colors.
Lipcolormustbewornatalltimes.
(emphasisadded).
Jespersen,444F.
3dat1107(emphasisaddedbycourt).
191.
Jespersenlatersaid,"Iwastolditwasbecauseofthelighting,thatthe(casino)lightingwashedmyfaceout.
.
.
.
Butthemendidn'thavetodoit.
"PeterSchelden,Gay,TransgenderedSeekWorkplaceEquality,SPARKSTRIB.
(Nev.
),Mar.
17,2005,availableathttp://www.
nevadalabor.
com/unews/jesprallytrib.
html(lastvisitedJune21,2005).
JespersenarguedonappealthatHarrah's"has.
.
.
[not]explainedhowitslightingconditionscouldoperatedifferentlyonthefacesofmaleandfemaleemployees.
"CorrectedOpeningBriefofPlaintiff-Appellant,supranote178,at33(alterationadded).
192.
Jespersen,392F.
3dat1078.
193.
GPACInterviewwithJespersen,supranote188.
Accordingtoanewsaccountofatelevisedinterviewon"CBSThisMorning,"withJespersenandJanJones,Harrah'svicepresidentforcommunicationsandgovernmentrelations,Jones,toldtheCBSanchorthatHarrah'shad"'over74positions'.
.
.
availabletoJespersenwhichpaidthesamebutdidnotrequiremakeup.
Jespersentwicerefuted[Jones],stating'Iwasreassignedbacktopersonnel.
Ihad30daystofindanotherjob.
Forthose30days,Iwasnotbeingpaid.
None(ofthejobs)wouldsupportmeandmakeupwouldbe02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM48DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007Harrah'sterminatedheremploymentonAugust10,2000.
194JespersensubsequentlybroughttwolawsuitsagainstHarrah's,oneinNevadastatecourtbasedontortandcontractlawandtheotherinfederalcourtbasedonantidiscriminationlaw.
B.
TheStateLawsuit:CommonLawClaimsOtherthanafewNevadanewspaperreports,195littleattentionhasbeenpaidtothelegalclaimsthatJespersenpursuedinNevadastatecourtconcurrentlywithherfederaldiscriminationlawsuit.
JespersenbroughtthreeclaimsinWashoeDistrictCourtagainstHarrah'sOperatingCompany:tortiousdischargeinviolationofpublicpolicy,breachofanimpliedcontractofcontinuedemployment,andbreachoftheimpliedcovenantofgoodfaithandfairdealing.
196ThedistrictcourtruledinfavorofHarrah'smotionforsummaryjudgment.
Onappeal,followingadenovoreview,athree-judgepaneloftheNevadaSupremeCourtunanimouslyaffirmedthejudgmentofthelowercourtinanunpublisheddecisionissuedonJune7,2004.
197FollowingNevadaprecedent,198theNevadaSupremeCourtrefusedtoallowatortclaimforviolationofNevada'spublicpolicyofprohibitingdiscriminationonthebasisofsex199where"theLegislaturehasprovidedanadequateremedyforinjuriesofthistype.
"200Moreover,goingbeyonditsstatutorypreemptionanalysis,thecourtrefusedtorecognizeatortclaimforwhatmusthaveseemedarathernovellegalclaimassertedbyJespersen'scounsel—thatNevadashouldrecognize"apublicpolicyagainstgenderstereotypingorgenerallyagainstemployersterminatingemployeesforviolatingacompanypolicy.
"201ThecourtobservedthatJespersenhadnotallegeda"retaliatory"dischargeandthe"circumstancesofJespersen'sterminationarenotso'rareandexceptional'astowarrantrecognitionofatortiousdischargeanissueagain,'shepolitelynoted.
"AndrewBarbano,TheTrueFaceofNevadaGambling,SPARKSTRIB.
(Nev.
),Oct.
8,2000,availableathttp://www.
nevadalabor.
com/barbwire/barb00/barb10-8-00.
html.
194.
CorrectedOpeningBriefofPlaintiff-Appellant,supranote178,at7.
195.
See,e.
g.
,EdVogel,NevadaSupremeCourt:CourtUpholdsNo-CosmeticsFiring,LASVEGASREV.
-J.
,June8,2004,availableathttp://www.
reviewjournal.
com/lvrj_home/2004/Jun-08-Tue-2004/news/24055099.
html.
196.
SeeJespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,131P.
3d614(Nev.
2004)(unpublishedtabledecision),No.
40587,slip.
op.
at1(Nev.
June7,2004)(onfilewithauthors).
197.
Id.
TheNevadaSupremeCourtreviewsallcasesthatareappealedfromthetrialcourtsinninejudicialdistricts.
Since1999,mostcasesarereviewedbythree-judgepanelsratherthanthefullcourtofsevenjudges,whichreviewscasesenbanctwiceayear.
SeeTheSupremeCourtofNevada,OverviewoftheNevadaSupremeCourt,http://www.
nvsupremecourt.
us/info/about/(lastvisitedDec.
20,2006).
198.
TheJespersencourtcitedChavezv.
Sievers,43P.
3d1022(Nev.
2002),forthepropositionthatthestateantidiscriminationstatute,NEV.
REV.
STAT.
ANN.
§613.
330,"providesaremedyforemploymentdiscriminationtotheexclusionofanyclaimsfortortiousdischarge,atleastwhentheemployeehasalreadyrecoveredtortdamagesunderthestatute.
"Jespersen,No.
40587,slipop.
at3.
199.
Jespersen,No.
40587,slipop.
at4n.
7(notingthatNEV.
REV.
STAT.
ANN.
§233.
010"statesthatNevada'spublicpolicyprohibitsdiscriminationonthebasisofsex").
200.
Id.
at4.
201.
Id.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED49claiminthiscase.
"202Inotherwords,employersaregenerallyfreetofireorotherwiseretaliateagainstat-willemployeeswhoviolatecompanyrules,evenifthoserulesstereotypeemployeesonthebasisofgender.
Theunderlyingassumptionsarethatgenderstereotypingintheworkplaceiscommonandnotunlawful,thatcompanyrules—regardlessofhowpersonallyoffensive,silly,stupid,orunlawfultheymightseemtoanemployee—aremeanttobeobeyedexceptin(undefined)"rareandexceptional"circumstances,andthatarequestthatawomaneitherputonmakeuporloseherjob,inthecircumstancesJespersendescribed,wasnotoneofthose"rareandexceptional"cases.
WhattheNevadaSupremeCourtdescribedistheessenceofemploymentatwill:Theemployeemusttakeit(thejobontheemployer'sterms)orleaveit.
EvenemploymentatwillcanbemodifiedinNevadabyanimpliedcontractof"continuedemployment"foundinthe"circumstancesofemployment"or"establishedpoliciesandprocedures.
"203TheNevadaSupremeCourtwrote:JespersendoesnotassertthatHarrah'spromisedtoforgoenforcingamakeuprequirementduringtheentiretyofheremployment,ornottochangeormodifyitspolicy,orthatheremploymentwouldbeterminatedonlyforcause,orthatshewouldhaveemploymentforlifeorforaspecifiedperiodoftime.
Thus,evenifthenon-enforcementofthepolicydidcreateanexpectationthatJespersenwouldbecontinuallyallowedtoforgowearingmakeup,thisexpectationisinsufficienttoconvertanat-willemploymentintooneallowingterminationonlyforcause.
204Jespersen'smere"expectation"thatthecompany'smakeuprulesdidnotapplytoher,evenconsideredinlightofthefactsthatledhertoformtheexpectationinthecourseofhermorethantwentyyearsofemploymentatHarrah's,wasnotsufficient,asamatteroflaw,toalterherstatusasanemployeeatwill.
Her"expectation,"althoughbasedonpastpractices,didnotgiverisetolegalrights.
Inaddition,becauseJespersen'sclaimforbreachoftheimpliedcovenantofgoodfaithandfairdealingdependedonafindingthatshehadanimpliedcontractofcontinuedemployment,thatlegalclaimalsofailedasamatteroflaw.
205C.
TheTitleVIILawsuit:DiscriminationClaims1.
TheComplaintOnOctober18,2000,JespersenfiledasexdiscriminationcomplaintwiththeEEOCandtheNevadaEqualRightsCommission.
206OnJuly6,2001,afterexhaustingheradministrativeremedies,DarleneJespersenfiledafederalcivilrightscomplaintintheUnitedStatesDistrictCourtfortheDistrictofNevada202.
Id.
at4–5.
203.
Id.
at5–6.
204.
Id.
at6.
205.
Id.
at5,6.
206.
CorrectedOpeningBriefofPlaintiff-Appellant,supranote178,at7.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM50DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007againstherformeremployer,Harrah'sOperatingCompany.
207JespersenclaimedthatHarrah'shadengagedinunlawfulemploymentpracticesunderTitleVII208byintentionallydiscriminatingagainstheronthebasisofsex.
Jespersen'sclaimfordisparatetreatmentwasframedunderthreeinterrelatedtheorieswithdifferentlegalandfactualbases.
First,sheallegedthatHarrah'spolicyrequiringwomen,butnotmen,towearmakeupwas"discriminatoryperse"becauseitimposesdifferent"termsandconditionsofemployment"onmaleandfemaleemployeesonthebasisoftheirsex,andbecauseit"requir[es]thatwomenconformto.
.
.
sex-basedstereotypesasatermandconditionofemployment.
"209Second,JespersenallegedtheclassicelementsofaMcDonnellDouglas210primafaciecaseofsexdiscrimination—thatshewasafemalewho"performedherjobsatisfactorily"andthatshewasterminatedfromemploymentandreplacedbyamalewhowas"asqualifiedorlessqualified"thanshewas.
211Andthird,JespersenallegedthatHarrah'shad"engagedinintentionaldiscrimination"byenforcingitsmakeuppolicyagainsther"becauseof[her]genderandbecauseofitsstereotypicalviewsconcerning[her]gender.
"212SheaskedthecourttodeclareHarrah'ssex-basedgroomingpolicyinviolationoffederallawandtoenjoinitsenforcement.
Forherself,shesoughtbackpayandfrontpay,compensatoryandpunitivedamages,andattorneysfees.
2132.
TheDistrictCourtDecisionThedistrictcourtgrantedHarrah'smotionforsummaryjudgmentonallofherTitleVIIclaims.
214Thecourthadthreerationalesfordenyingherclaimsfordisparatetreatmentonthebasisofsex.
First,notingthat"groomingandappearancestandardsthathavedifferentbutequalrequirementsformenandwomenarenotviolativeofTitleVII,"thecourtconcludedthatHarrah'sgroomingpolicy"imposeddifferentbutequalburdensonbothsexes,"because207.
Complaint&JuryDemand,Jespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,280F.
Supp.
2d1189(D.
Nev.
2002),http://www.
nevadalabor.
com/unews/jespersuit.
html[hereinafterJespersenCom-plaint].
208.
42U.
S.
C.
§2000e-2(2000).
209.
SeeFirstClaimforRelief,JespersenComplaint,supranote207,at2.
210.
McDonnellDouglasCorp.
v.
Green,411U.
S.
792(1973).
211.
SeeSecondClaimforRelief,JespersenComplaint,supranote207,at3.
Thisclaimalsoallegedthatmenwhowere"similarlysituated"toher"werenotrequiredtocomplywiththesamepolicy,andthusdidnotsufferthesameadverseemploymentaction.
"Id.
212.
SeeThirdClaimforRelief,JespersenComplaint,supranote207,at3.
213.
Seeid.
at2–3.
214.
Jespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,280F.
Supp.
2d1189,1195(D.
Nev.
2002).
Jespersen'sremainingclaimswereeitherwithdrawnordismissedandnotappealed.
JespersenallegedthatHarrah'smakeuppolicyhadadisparateimpactonfemaleemployeesinviolationofTitleVII,42U.
S.
C.
§2000e-2(2000).
InresponsetoHarrah'smotionforthecourttoreconsideritsdenialofsummaryjudgmentonthisclaim,thedistrictcourtonDecember4,2002,dismissedthisclaimasamatteroflaw.
Jespersen,280F.
Supp.
2dat1195.
Jespersen'sTitleVIIclaimofretaliationforbothoppositionandparticipationconductwasvoluntarilywithdrawnbytheplaintiff.
Id.
at1190n.
1.
Inaddition,inresponsetoHarrah'smotionforsummaryjudgment,Jespersen'spendentstatelawclaimsforintentionalinflictionofemotionaldistressandfornegligentsupervisionandtrainingweredismissedbythedistrictcourtasamatteroflawbecauseoflackofevidencesupportingtheclaims.
Id.
at1194–95.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED51"prohibitingmenfromwearingmakeupmaybejustasobjectionabletosomemenasforcingwomentowearmakeupisto[Jespersen].
"215Moreover,thepolicy"allowedwomentoweartheirhairupordownwithoutrestrictiononlength,butprohibitedmenfromhavingtheirhairreachbelowthetopsoftheirshirtcollars.
"216Second,thecourtalsocitedholdingsfrom1970scircuitcourtcasesforthe"premise"thatitisonlyaviolationofTitleVIIforanemployertodiscriminateonthebasisof"immutablecharacteristics,"notaspectsofappearancesuchashairstyles,dress,orgroomingthattheemployeecancontrolandalter.
217Finally,thecourtrejectedJespersen'sclaimthat,becauseHarrah'sgroomingpolicy"negativelyimpactswomenbyportrayingthemin[a]stereotypicalmanner,"218itwasunlawfulunderthesexdiscriminationanalysisadoptedinPriceWaterhousev.
Hopkins.
219CitingrecentNinthCircuitcaselaw,thecourtconcludedthatPriceWaterhousedoesnotextendtosex-baseddress,appearance,andgroomingstandards.
2203.
TheNinthCircuitPanelDecisionJespersenappealedtotheNinthCircuitCourtofAppeals,challengingthegrantofsummaryjudgmenttoHarrah'sonherTitleVIIdisparatetreatmentclaims.
Inlate2004,athree-judgepanelissuedadecisionaffirmingthejudgmentofthedistrictcourt,althoughthemajoritydisagreedwithsomeoftheanalysisofthelowercourtandonejudgedissented.
221First,thecourtagreedwithJespersen'sargument222thatthedistrictcourt'srelianceon1970scasesholding"thatTitleVIIonlyprohibit[s]discriminationbasedon'immutablecharacteristics'associatedwithaworker'ssex"wasnotacorrectstatementofthelaw.
223Thecourtacknowledgedthatits"latercasesrecognized.
.
.
thatanemployer'simpositionofmorestringentappearancestandardsononesexthan215.
Jespersen,280F.
Supp.
2dat1192,1193(alterationadded).
216.
Id.
at1192–93.
217.
Id.
at1192.
218.
Id.
at1194.
219.
490U.
S.
228(1989).
220.
Jespersen,280F.
Supp.
2dat1193(citingNicholsv.
AztecaRest.
Enters.
,Inc.
,256F.
3d864(9thCir.
2001)).
ThedistrictcourtinJespersenarticulatedthe"rule"inPriceWaterhouseasbeing"thatemployerscannotdiscriminateonthebasisofsexstereotyping.
"Id.
Thereisnowadebateinthefederalcourtsandamonglegalacademicsaboutwhethertheplurality'sanalysisofsexualstereotypinginPriceWaterhousewasa"ruling"oftheCourt,providingaseparate(andratherbroad)basisforasexdiscriminationclaim,orwhetheritwasmerelyastatementthatevidenceofsexualstereotyping,asapartofanemployer'sdecision-makingprocessthatresultsinanadverseemploymentaction,maybeusedasdirectevidenceofunlawfuldiscriminatoryintent.
See,e.
g.
,Spearmanv.
FordMotorCo.
,231F.
3d1080,1085(7thCir.
2000);Hammv.
WeyauwegaMilkProds.
,Inc.
,332F.
3d1058,1066–68(7thCir.
2003)(Posner,J.
,concurring).
Forascholarlycritiqueofthestereotypingtheory,seeMichaelSelmi,TheManyFacesofDarleneJespersen,14DUKEJ.
GENDERL.
&POL'Y467,472–79(2007).
221.
Jespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,392F.
3d1076(9thCir.
2004).
JudgeWallaceTashima,joinedbyJudgeBarrySilverman,issuedtheopinionofthecourt,andCircuitJudgeSidneyThomasfiledadissentingopinion,id.
at1083.
Foradescriptionofthebackgroundofthejudgesinthepaneldecision,seeDevonCarbadoetal.
,TheStoryofJespersenv.
Harrah's:MakeupandWomenatWork,inEMPLOYMENTDISCRIMINATIONSTORIES105,127–28(JoelW.
Friedmaned.
2006).
222.
SeeCorrectedOpeningBriefofPlaintiff-Appellant,supranote178,at12–19.
223.
Jespersen,392F.
3dat1080.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM52DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007theotherconstitutessexdiscriminationevenwheretheappearancestandardsregulateonly'mutable'characteristicssuchasweight.
"224The"latercases"oftheNinthCircuitthatthecourtreliedonweretwoclass-actionsexdiscriminationclaimsbroughtbyfemaleflightattendantswhosuccessfullychallengedairlinesex-basedweightrestrictions:Gerdomv.
ContinentalAirlines225andFrankv.
UnitedAirlines.
226Thecourtnotedthatinbothcases"itwasapparentfromthefaceofthepolicies.
.
.
thatfemaleflightattendantsweresubjecttoamoreonerousstandardthanweremales.
"227TheJespersencourtconcludedthatemployersviolatedTitleVIIonlywhentheyadopteddifferentsex-basedappearancestandardsthatimposeunequalburdensoneachsex.
228AgroomingcodethatwasmoreburdensomeforonesexthantheotherconstituteddisparatetreatmentthatisunlawfulunlessitisjustifiedasaBFOQ.
229ThecourtconcludedthatJespersenhadnotproducedsufficientadmissibleevidencetoraiseajuryquestiononthe"unequalburdens"test.
230Thecourtwantedadmissibleevidenceof"thecostandtimenecessaryforemployeesofeachsextocomplywiththepolicy.
"231Moreover,theburdenofthemakeuppolicyforwomenhadtobemeasuredinrelationtotheburdensofallthegroomingrequirementsforbothsexes,"beyondtherequirementsofgenerallyacceptedgoodgroomingstandards.
"232JespersenhadsubmittednoevidencetothedistrictcourtofthecostofmakeuprequiredforafemalebartenderunderHarrah'spolicyorthetimeitwouldtakeforhertoapply,maintain,andremovethemakeupeachday.
233224.
Id.
225.
692F.
2d602(9thCir.
1982)(enbanc).
226.
216F.
3d845(9thCir.
2000).
227.
Jespersen,392F.
3dat1080.
InGerdom,theweightlimitationappliedonlytowomen,andnottomen,becauseatthetimetherulewasadoptedandenforced,onlywomenwereallowedtobeflightattendants.
SeeGerdom,692F.
2dat604.
InFrank,theairline,usinginsurancecompanysex-basedheightandweighttables,requiredfemaleattendantstomaintainthe"medium"buildforwomen,butallowedmaleflightattendantstomaintaina"large"buildformen.
Frank,216F.
3dat848.
228.
SeeJespersen,392F.
3dat1080.
229.
Id.
Becausethiswasadenovoreviewofthedistrictcourt'sgrantingofasummaryjudgmentmotion,theNinthCircuitpanelreevaluatedtheevidencethathadbeensubmittedbythepartiesbelow.
Id.
at1079.
230.
Id.
at1081–82.
Theevidenceintherecordconsistedofthegroomingpolicyitself;aletterfromHarrah'sFoodandBeverageManagertoitsRenoemployees;Jespersen'sdepositiontestimonyaboutherpersonalreactionstothemakeuprequirement;Harrah'spositiveperformancereviewsofherworkovertheyears,includinga1996awardfor"outstanding"work;lettersandnotesfromHarrah'scustomerspraisingherwork;andsigneddeclarationsbyseveralmembersofHarrah'smanagementandbytheimageconsultantwhohaddevelopedthegroomingpolicy.
See,e.
g.
,Jespersen,280F.
Supp.
2d1189,1191(D.
Nev.
2002)(overrulingJespersen'sevidentiaryobjectionstodeclarationssubmittedbyHarrah's).
TheletteranddeclarationswerepreparedbyHarrah'semployees,GregKiteandBrentF.
Skidmore,Harrah'sFoodandBeverageManager,andtheimageconsultant,ReimiMarden,thepresidentandownerofTheWinningEdge.
SeeCorrectedOpeningBriefofPlaintiff-Appellant,supranote178,at7,30,33.
231.
Jespersen,392F.
3dat1081.
232.
Id.
at1081&n.
4.
233.
Id.
at1081.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED53AlthoughJespersen'sappellatebriefhadcitedpublishedacademicliteraturethatanalyzesthehighcostofcosmeticsandthetimeittakestoapplythem,234thecourtrefusedtotakejudicialnoticeofthisgeneralizeddatainthefaceofnorecordevidenceofthecomparativetimeandcostburdensofthecompany'spoliciesonmaleandfemalebartendersascomparedto"ordinarygood-groomingstandards.
"235Norwouldthecourtallowthequestiontogotoajurytoresolveitbasedon"simplecommonsense,"whereJespersenhadproducednoadmissibleevidenceinsupportofherfactualassertion.
236TheNinthCircuitpanelmajoritydidnotaddressJespersen'sappellateargumentthatshesatisfiedthe"unequalburdens"testasarticulatedinCarrollv.
TalmanFederalSavings&LoanAss'nofChicago,237acasethattheNinthCircuithadcitedwithapprovalinFrankv.
UnitedAirlines.
238CarrollheldthatabankthatrequiredfemaleemployeestowearuniformsbutallowedmaleemployeestodressinprofessionalattirehaddiscriminatedonthebasisofsexinviolationofTitleVII.
Thebank'suniformrequirementforonlyfemaleemployeeswasfoundtobe"demeaningtowomen"becauseitwas"basedonoffensivestereotypes.
"239JespersenhadarguedthatHarrah's,liketheemployerinCarroll,wasrequiringthatwomen"mustdona'uniform'consistingofafacialmakeoverappliedwithexactingdetailtopresentanapprovedimageoffeminineattractiveness,whilemenaredeemedsufficientlyprofessionalandattractiveintheirnaturalstate.
"240Again,beforethethree-judgepanel,JespersenarguedthatevenifHarrah'ssex-basedgroomingpolicywasvalidunderan"unequalburdens"test,itwasunlawfulunderPriceWaterhousev.
Hopkins241becauseitrequiredDarleneJespersentoconformtoa"stereotypicalfemininebeauty:arosycheek,adarkenedeyelash,afaircomplexion,acaptivatinglipcolor.
"242Likethedistrictcourtbelow,thepanel,citingNinthCircuitprecedent,243heldthatPriceWaterhousegender-stereotypinganalysisappliedtosexualharassmentcases,but234.
CorrectedOpeningBriefofPlaintiff-Appellant,supranote178,at28n.
4(citingNAOMIWOLF,THEBEAUTYMYTH120–21(1991)).
235.
Jespersen,392F.
3dat1081.
236.
Id.
237.
604F.
2d1028(7thCir.
1979).
238.
Frank,216F.
3d845,855(9thCir.
2000).
ForJespersen'sargumentrelyingonCarroll,seeCorrectedOpeningBriefofPlaintiff-Appellant,supranote178,at19–25.
239.
Carroll,604F.
2dat1032–33.
240.
CorrectedOpeningBriefofPlaintiff-Appellant,supranote178,at21.
241.
490U.
S.
228(1989).
242.
CorrectedOpeningBriefofPlaintiff-Appellant,supranote178,at39.
ApartneratPriceWaterhousetoldAnneHopkinsthatshecouldimprovehercandidacyforpartnershipintheaccountingfirmifshewould"walkmorefemininely,talkmorefemininely,dressmorefemininely,wearmakeup,haveherhairstyled,andwearjewelry.
"PriceWaterhouse,490U.
S.
at235.
TheSupremeCourtfoundthistobeevidenceofunlawfulsexdiscrimination.
Id.
at251.
Seesupranote166andaccompanyingtext.
243.
InNicholsv.
AztecaRest.
Enters.
,Inc.
,256F.
3d864(9thCir.
2001),amalewaiterwhosebehaviordidnotconformtotraditionalmalestereotypeswaspermittedtosuehisemployerforsame-sexsexualharassmentunderthereasoningofPriceWaterhouse.
TheNicholscourtobserved,however,that"[o]urdecisiondoesnotimplythatthereisanyviolationofTitleVIIoccasionedbyreasonableregulationsthatrequiremaleandfemaleemployeestoconformtodifferentdressandgroomingstandards.
"Id.
at875n.
7.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM54DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007nottocasesinvolvingonlygroomingandappearancestandards.
244Thecourtconcludedthatthe"unequalburdens"testwastheonlytestadoptedbytheNinthCircuitforsex-basedgroomingcodes.
245JudgeThomasdissented,arguingthatJespersenhadraisedatriableissueoffactontwotheories:(1)thatHarrah'shadactedonthebasisofunlawfulsexstereotypes,and(2)thatthemakeuppolicy"imposedunequalburdensonmenandwomen,becausethepolicyimposesarequirementonwomenthatisnotonlytime-consumingandexpensive,butburdensomeforitsrequirementthatwomenconformtooutdatedandimpermissiblestereotypes.
"246Thedissentwasconcerned,inpart,aboutthedistinctionsofsocialclassthatfollowedfromthemajority'sattempttodistinguishHarrah'suseofsex-basedgroomingstandardsfromthesex-stereotypedassumptionsaboutgroomingthatwerefoundunlawfulinPriceWaterhouse:"Thedistinctioncreatedbythemajorityopinionleavesmenandwomeninserviceindustries,whoaremorelikelytobesubjecttopoliciesliketheHarrah's'PersonalBest'policy,withouttheprotectionthatwhite-collarprofessionalsreceive.
"247Underanunequal-burdensanalysis,JudgeThomaswouldrequireanexaminationofthecomparativeburdensofeachsex-basedrule,notacomparisonoftheeffectsoftheoverallstandardsonmenandwomen.
Significantly,hewouldprohibitemployerdressandgroomingstandards"thatrestuponamessageofgendersubordination,"248notjustthosethatcostmoreintimeandmoney.
4.
TheNinthCircuitEnBancDecisionOnMay13,2005,theCourtofAppealsfortheNinthCircuitorderedarehearingenbancinJespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,and,onJune22,2005,elevencircuitjudgesheardoralargumentsinSanFrancisco.
249OnApril14,2006,theNinthCircuitissueditsenbancdecision,withfourjudgesdissentingintwoseparateopinions.
250Themajorityopinion,writtenbyChiefJudgeMarySchroeder,affirmedthedeterminationsofboththedistrictcourtbelowandthepanelmajoritythatJespersenhadnotpresentedsufficientevidencetosurvivesummaryjudgmentunderan"unequalburdens"testofHarrah'sgroomingpolicy.
251ButthemajoritydisagreedwiththeconclusionsofthelowercourtandthepanelmajoritythatsexstereotypedappearancestandardscanneverviolateTitleVII.
Rather,thecourtruled:244.
Jespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,392F.
3d1076,1083(9thCir.
2004).
245.
Id.
246.
Id.
at1083(Thomas,J.
,dissenting).
247.
Id.
248.
Id.
at1086.
249.
RehearingenbancwasorderedinJespersen,409F.
3d1061(9thCir.
2005).
Atoralargumentbeforetheenbanccourt,Jespersen'scounsel,JenniferPizer,seniorcounseloftheLambdaLegalDefenseandEducationFund,Inc.
,argued,amongotherthings,that"herclientwasandrogynous,anditwasanaffronttohertowearmakeup.
"DavidKravets,CourtArguesIfEmployersCanDemandWomenWearMakeup,ASSOCIATEDPRESS,June22,2005,availableathttp://www.
sfgate.
com/cgi-bin/article.
cgif=/n/a/2005/06/22/state/n170801D13.
DTL&hw=jespersen&sn=001&sc=1000.
250.
Jespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,444F.
3d1104(9thCir.
2006)(enbanc);id.
at1113(Pregerson,J.
dissenting);id.
at1117(Kozinski,J.
,dissenting).
251.
Id.
at1106(majorityopinion).
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED55Withrespecttosexstereotyping,weholdthatappearancestandards,includingmakeuprequirements,maywellbethesubjectofaTitleVIIclaimforsexualstereotyping,butthatonthisrecordJespersenhasfailedtocreateanytriableissueoffactthatthechallengedpolicywaspartofapolicymotivatedbysexstereotyping.
252Inapplyingthe"unequalburdens"test,thecourtruledthat,toestablishaprimafaciecaseofdiscriminatoryintentincasesinvolvinganemployer'ssex-basedappearancestandards,theplaintiffmustproduceevidenceofthedisparateeffectsthatthepolicy—consideredinitsentirety—hasonmenandwomen.
253ThecourtdistinguishedJespersen'ssituationfromtheGerdomandFrankcases,254whichhadinvalidatedweightrestrictionsforfemaleflightattendants,onthegroundsthattheseinvolvedpoliciesthatontheirfaceburdenedonlywomen.
255Moreover,whereastheweightrestrictionsinGerdomhadalsobeenfoundtobefaciallydiscriminatorybecausetheyattempted"tocreateasexualimagefortheairline,"256theJespersencourtmadethe(conclusory)assertionthatHarrah's"PersonalBest"requirementswerenot"ontheirface.
.
.
moreonerousforonegenderthantheother"becausethey"appropriatelydifferentiate[d]betweenthegenders.
"257ThecourtalsorefusedJespersen'sinvitationtotakejudicialnoticeofthedifferentburdensformenandwomen—intermsoftimeandcost—ofmeetingHarrah'sgroomingrequirements.
BecauseJespersenhadpresentednoevidenceonthisissue,shefailedtomeetherburdenforpurposesofopposingHarrah'smotionforsummaryjudgment.
Jespersensimilarlyfailedtodefeatsummaryjudgmentonhertheoryofsexstereotyping,althoughthecourtdid"notpreclude,asamatteroflaw,aclaimofsex-stereotypingonthebasisofdressorappearancecodes.
"258ThecourtdistinguishedthefactsunderlyingJespersen'ssex-stereotypingclaimfromthefactsinPriceWaterhouse,259byemphasizingthatHarrah'spolicy"[did]notsingleoutJespersen,"andthepolicyappliedtobothmaleandfemalebartenders,whoallworethesame"unisex"uniforms"whileinteractingwiththepublicinthecontextoftheentertainmentindustry.
"260Inaddition,thecourtconcludedthat—unlikethesituationinPriceWaterhousewhereafemaleaccountantwasexpected"tobeaggressiveandmasculinetoexcelatherjob,butthenwasdenied252.
Id.
253.
Id.
at1109.
254.
Gerdomv.
Cont'lAirlines,692F.
2d602(9thCir.
1982)(enbanc);Frankv.
UnitedAirlines,216F.
3d845(9thCir.
2000).
255.
Jespersen,444F.
3d.
at1109–10.
256.
Id.
at1109.
257.
Id.
258.
Id.
at1113.
Therecognitionofthevalidityofatheoryofsex-stereotypinginJespersenwasasignificantchangeintheNinthCircuit'sapproachtosex-baseddressandgroomingcodes,whichJespersen'sattorney,JenniferPizer,describedasa"silverlining"inthecourt'sdecision,whichwas"actuallyastepforward"fromitsanalysisinitspaneldecisionandinpriorcases.
AnalysisoftheHumptyDumptyDecisionfromJespersenAttorneyJennyPizer:Addendumtothe4-16-2006Barbwire,"HumptyDumptyJustice,"BARBWIRE,Apr.
14,2006,availableathttp://www.
nevadalabor.
com/barbwire/barb06/docs/barb4-16-06pizer.
html.
259.
PriceWaterhousev.
Hopkins,490U.
S.
228(1989).
260.
Jespersen,444F.
3dat1111–12.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM56DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007partnershipfordoingsobecauseofheremployer'sgenderstereotype"thatsheshouldappearandbehave"morefemininely"261—[t]hereisnoevidenceinthisrecordtoindicatethatthepolicywasadoptedtomakewomenbartendersconformtoacommonly-acceptedstereotypicalimageofwhatwomenshouldwear.
Therecordcontainsnothingtosuggestthegroomingstandardswouldobjectivelyinhibitawoman'sabilitytodothejob.
TheonlyevidenceintherecordtosupportthestereotypingclaimisJespersen'sownsubjectivereactiontothemakeuprequirement.
262InresponsetoJespersen'sargumentthatthemakeuprequirement"invitessexualizedattentionfromthepublic,"263thecourtrespondedthat"[t]hisisnotacasewherethedressorappearancerequirementisintendedtobesexuallyprovocative,andtendingtostereotypewomenassexobjects.
.
.
.
Noristhisacaseofsexualharassment.
"264First,becauseJespersenwas"askedonlytowearaunisexuniformthatcoveredherentirebodyandwasdesignedformenandwomen,"Harrah'soveralldressandgroomingpolicydidnot"onitsface,indicateanydiscriminatoryorsexuallystereotypicalintent.
"265Second,unlikethesituationsintheReneandNicholscases,266wheretheplaintiffsmadeactionableTitleVIIclaimsbasedonthe"sexualharassmentofanemployeebecauseofthatemployee'sfailuretoconformtocommonly-acceptedgenderstereotypes,"267JespersendidnotallegethatHarrah's"PersonalBest"policysubjectedhertoahostileworkenvironment.
Thecourtconcludedthat—facedwithonly"thesubjectivereactionofasingleemployee"and"noevidenceofstereotypicalmotivationonthepartoftheemployer"—itcouldnotletJespersen'scasegototrialunderatheoryofsex-stereotyping.
268JudgePregersen'sdissent,joinedbyJudgesKozinski,Graber,andW.
Fletcher,agreedwiththemajoritythatJespersenhadfailedtoproducesufficientevidenceunderan"undueburdens"analysisandthatdressandgrooming261.
Id.
at1111.
262.
Id.
at1112.
WhentheenbancmajorityinJespersenarticulateditsviewsonJespersen'ssubjectiveresponsetowearingmakeup,itimplicitlyinvokedboth"slipperyslope"and"floodgates"metaphors:WerespectJespersen'sresolvetobetruetoherselfandtotheimagethatshewishestoprojecttotheworld.
Wecannotagree,however,thatherobjectiontothemakeuprequirement,withoutmore,cangiverisetoaclaimofsexstereotypingunderTitleVII.
Ifweweretodoso,wewouldcomeperilouslyclosetoholdingthateverygrooming,apparel,orappearancerequirementthatanindividualfindspersonallyoffensive,orinconflictwithhisorherownself-image,cancreateatriableissueofsexdiscrimination.
Id.
263.
CorrectedOpeningBriefofPlaintiff-Appellant,supranote178,at25.
264.
Jespersen,444F.
3d.
at1112.
265.
Id.
ThecourtdistinguishedHarrah'sbartenderuniformsfromtherevealinguniformthefemalelobbyattendantwasrequiredtowearinEEOCv.
SageRealtyCorp.
,507F.
Supp.
599(S.
D.
N.
Y.
1981),whichsubjectedhertooffensivestaresandsexualcommentsfrommenusingthebuildinglobby.
266.
Renev.
MGMGrandHotel,Inc.
,305F.
3d1061(9thCir.
2002)(enbanc);Nicholsv.
AztecaRest.
Enters.
,Inc.
,256F.
3d864(9thCir.
2001).
267.
Jespersen,444F.
3dat1112.
Seegenerallyid.
at1112–13.
268.
Id.
at1113.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED57standardsmotivatedbysex-stereotypingcanbechallengedunderTitleVII.
269Nevertheless,hebelievedthatJespersenhadpresentedsufficientevidencetosupportaclaimofsex-stereotyping:Harrah'sfiredherforrefusingtowear"afacialuniform(fullmakeup)"thatwasrequiredonlyforfemalebartenders,andthecompany'simageconsultants"createdafacialtemplateforeachwoman"and"dictatedhowandwherethemakeuphadtobeapplied.
"270Moreover,Harrah'srelianceonsex-stereotypedculturalassumptionsaboutwhetherandhowwomenshouldusecosmeticstoachievea"professionalappearance"wassufficientevidenceofitsdiscriminatoryintenttodefeatasummaryjudgmentmotion.
271InaseparatedissentjoinedbyJudgesGraberandW.
Fletcher,JudgeKozinskiagreedwithandjoinedinJudgePregersen'sdissent,exceptforitsconclusionthatJespersenhadnotproducedsufficientevidenceof"undueburden"tocreateatriableissueoffact.
272Asking"Isthereanydoubtthatputtingonmakeupcostsmoneyandtakestime,"JudgeKozinskiconcludedthatthecourt"could—andshould—takejudicialnoticeoftheseincontrovertiblefacts.
"273HealsobelieveditwasinappropriateforthecourttodismissJespersen's"discomfort"aboutwearingmakeupas"unreasonableoridiosyncratic.
"274JudgeKozinskiwrote:Women'sfaces,justlikethoseofmen,canbeperfectlypresentablewithoutmakeup:itisaculturalartifactthatwomenraisedintheUnitedStateslearntoputon—andpresumablyenjoywearing—cosmetics.
ButculturalnormschangeA]large(andperhapsgrowing)numberofwomenchoosetopresentthemselvestotheworldwithoutmakeup.
IseenojustificationforforcingthemtoconformtoHarrah'squaintnotionofwhata"realwoman"lookslike.
275V.
BRANDING,SEXSTEREOTYPING,ANDEMPLOYMENTDISCRIMINATIONLAWINJESPERSENA.
CreatingandDefendingtheHarrah'sBrandWhywouldHarrah'sOperatingCompany,awhollyownedsubsidiaryofHarrah'sEntertainment(which,by2006,was"thelargestcasinooperatorintheworld"),276choosetolitigatetheJespersencasethroughseveralappealswhen,atanypoint,itcouldhaveeasilymadeasubstantialmonetarysettlementoffer277to269.
Id.
(Pregersen,J.
,dissenting).
270.
Id.
at1114.
271.
Id.
at1116–17.
Seealsoinfratextaccompanyingnotes449–52(discussingJudgePregersen'sdissent).
272.
Jespersen,444F.
3dat1117(Kozinski,J.
,dissenting).
273.
Id.
274.
Id.
275.
Id.
at1118.
276.
PeterEdmonston&MichaelJ.
delaMerced,$15BillionDealforHarrah'sMayPutOtherCasinosintoPlay,N.
Y.
TIMES,Oct.
3,2006,atC3.
Seealsoinfranote355andaccompanyingtext.
277.
ToputapotentialmonetarysettlementwithJesperseninperspectivewithotherexpensesamajorgamingoperatorlikeHarrah'swouldhave,itisinterestingtoconsiderwhatHarrah's02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM58DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007oneformerserviceemployeeForHarrah'sboththecostsandrisksoflitigatingwerehigh,butthestakeswereworththegamble:Harrah'sEntertainmentwasdeterminedtoprotectitsabilitytocreate,maintain,andimprovetheHarrah'sbrandbyregulatingthedress,appearance,andgroomingofeveryfrontlineserviceworker.
Fromthebeginningofthelawsuit,Harrah'sanditsindustrysupportersinthesales,service,entertainment,andhotelindustries278viewedthecaseasathreattocorporatebranding.
Harrah's2003brieftotheNinthCircuitarguedthatthecompany'sdressandgroomingprogram"wasacomprehensiveinitiativetoimprovetheoverallserviceperformanceoftheBeverageDepartment,whichincludedthecreationofanationalbrandstandard.
Ifoneemployeefailedtocomply,thebrandstandardfailed.
"2791.
"Ifoneemployeefailedtocomply,thebrandstandardfailed.
"Thenotionthatoneemployee'sfailuretowearmakeupcoulddestroyHarrah'scorporatebrand,whichonitsfaceseemshyperbolic,isexplainedbythehistoryofhowthebrandwascreated(andisenforced)andhowitsmeaninghasevolvedwithchangesintheformandstructureofthecorporateorganization.
DarleneJespersen,positionednearthebottomofHarrah'scorporatehierarchyandboundtothecompanybyherownnotionsofloyaltyandherprideinherabilitiestoservehercustomers,couldscarcelyhaveunderstoodhowherbare,cleanfacecouldthreatentheHarrah'sbrand.
AtHarrah's,thecompanybrandwasinitiallycreatedin1937bythefounderofthecompany,BillHarrah,andenforcedprimarilythroughpersonalloyaltytohimandhisphilosophy,butalsobythebureaucraticrulesandhierarchiesofmanagementhecreatedtorunhiscasinos.
Afterhisdeathin1978,andduringaperiodofexpansivegrowthandcorporatereorganization,thebureaucraticethicandloyaltytothenormsandrulesofthecorporationreplacedpersonaldependenceonthefounder.
280By1998,theenterprise—nowagiantordinarilyspendson"comps"inordertoearnandmaintaintheloyaltyofvaluedcustomers.
BusinesswriterRobertL.
Shookreportedthat"[i]ntheyearending2002,Harrah'scompedanestimated$300milliontocustomers,orabout7.
5percentofthecompany'sgrossrevenues.
.
.
.
"ROBERTL.
SHOOK,JACKPOT!
HARRAH'SWINNINGSECRETSFORCUSTOMERLOYALTY288(2003).
Seealsoinfranote371andaccompanyingtext.
278.
ThreeamicicuriaejointlyauthoredabriefinsupportofHarrah'sOperatingCompanybeforetheCourtofAppealsfortheNinthCircuit.
SeeBriefofCounselforEmploymentLawEquityetal.
asAmiciCuriaeSupportingDefendant-Appellee,Jespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,392F.
3d1076(9thCir.
2004)(No.
03-15045),2003WL22340442.
TheCouncilforEmploymentLawEquity("CELE")isanonprofitorganizationofmajoremployersinsalesandserviceoperations.
Id.
at1.
Theothertwoorganizations,theAmericanHotelandLodgingAssociationandtheCaliforniaHotelandLodgingAssociation,arenationalandstatewideassociationsthatpromotetheinterestsofthehotelandlodgingindustry.
279.
Appellee'sAnsweringBriefat34,Jespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,392F.
3d1076(9thCir.
2004)(No.
03-15045),2003WL22716702.
ThefactthatHarrah'sofferedJespersenherjobbackwithoutrequiringhertowearmakeupbeliesHarrah'sclaimabouttheeffectofoneemployee'snoncompliancewiththemakeupruleonitsbrand.
Seeinfranotes561–62andaccompanyingtext.
SeealsoJespersen,444F.
3dat1114n.
2(Pregersen,J.
,dissenting)(notingthat"thereislittledoubtthat[Harrah's]'PersonalBest'policyisnotabusinessnecessity,asHarrah'squietlydisposedofthispolicyafterJespersenfiledsuit").
280.
SeeCHARLESHECKSCHER,WHITE-COLLARBLUES:MANAGEMENTLOYALTIESINANAGEOFCORPORATERESTRUCTURING19–21(1995).
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED59entertainmentbusiness—hadanewleader,GaryLoveman,anoutsiderbroughtinfromtheHarvardBusinessSchool,whointroducednewtechnologiesandmarketingstrategies,firedlong-timemanagersandreplacedthemwithprofessionalmanagers,therebybreakingoldtiestotheHarrah'sbureaucracy.
281WhatLovemandemandedofhismanagersandserviceemployeeswascompletefealtytothecorporatemissionofcreatingcustomerloyalty.
282Branding,andenforcingthebrandthroughregulationofserviceemployees,becamecentraltothatmission.
Lovemanassumedthatuniformappearanceoftheserviceworkersaddedvaluetotheservicestheydeliveredtocustomers.
283Moreover,theassumptionunderlyingthenewgroomingruleswasthattheyalsopleasedtheemployees,aligningtheinterestsofcorporation,customer,andemployeefortheprofitofthecorporation.
2842.
TheCultofPersonalLoyalty:BillHarrah'sImage—Honest,Clean,andTrustworthyThecompanythatDarleneJespersensuedin2001wasquitedifferentfromthecompanythathiredherasadishwasherin1979andshortlythereafterpromotedhertobartender.
ThetransformationofHarrah'sfromanowner-operatedlocalbingoparlorintotheworld'slargestgamblingcorporation—whichoverlaps,inpart,withthetwentyyearsofJespersen'stenureasaHarrah'sbartender—helpsexplainthedisjunctionbetweentheviewsoftheplaintiffandthedefendantintheJespersenlawsuitaboutthenatureoftheemploymentrelationship,aboutgenderrelationsintheworkplace,andaboutmanagementprerogativesandemployeeautonomy.
Herstorybeginsnotlongafterthedeathofitsfounder,BillHarrah,andendsafteranumberofsignificanttransformations.
Duringthistime,Jespersenwasunwittinglycaughtupin,andsubjectedto,changesincorporateoperatingandmarketingstrategies,intechnology,infinancingandinvestment,andinmanagementstyle.
AllofthesechangeswerefacilitatedbychanginglegalregimesthatexpandedlegalizedgamblingoutsideofNevada—throughouttheUnitedStatesandonNativeAmericanlands.
Manyofthechangeswereunderwayinthelate1970s,butthenexttwodecadeswitnessedsignificantalterationsinthewaythatHarrah'sranitsbusinessandmanageditsemployees.
ThetransformativenatureofthesedevelopmentswasperhapsfeltmoststronglyatHarrah'sRenocasinowhereJespersenworked.
AfteropeningasmallbingoparlorinReno,Nevada,in1937,WilliamF.
("Bill")Harrahbegantobuildhisgamingandentertainmentempireinearnestin1946withtheopeningofhisfirstcasinoinReno.
285Withinadecade,Harrahexpandedhisgamingoperations281.
Seeinfratextaccompanyingnotes360–62,368–71.
282.
See,e.
g.
,SHOOK,supranote277,at174.
283.
Inthis,LovemanwasfollowingtheleadofmanyothercorporateserviceproviderssuchasDisneyandMcDonald's.
See,e.
g.
,KARLALBRECHT,ATAMERICA'SSERVICE:HOWCORPORATIONSCANREVOLUTIONIZETHEWAYTHEYTREATTHEIRCUSTOMERS130(1988)(discussingthevalueofemployeeappearanceatDisneythemeparks).
284.
SeeSHOOK,supranote277,at174.
285.
SHOOK,supranote277,at11,21,315.
ForabiographyofBillHarrah,seeLEONMANDEL,WILLIAMFISKHARRAH:THELIFEANDTIMESOFAGAMBLINGMAGNATE(1981).
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM60DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007toLakeTahoe,286andby1962,hehadaddeda400-roomhoteltohisRenocasino.
287ThefinancialsuccessoftheseexpansionswastoagreatdegreeassuredbytheNevadamonopolyonlegalizedgambling.
288UnliketherapidlygrowingcasinooperationsinLasVegas,BillHarrah'snorthwesternNevadagamingoperationshadneverbeenassociatedwithcriminalsorwithunderworldfinancing,andhehadapersonalreputationofbeinghonest,meticulous,andabove-boardinhisaccountingpractices.
289TheenhancedregulatoryregimethatNevadaadoptedinthe1950sleveledtheplayingfieldforcasinooperatorslikeBillHarrahwhodidnotusetheircasinostolaundermoneyfromillegalcriminalactivitieselsewhereandwhoeschewedskimmingandviolentdebtcollectiontactics.
290Significantly,theHarrah'snameandimagewasbuiltonthepersonalreputationofamanwhohadnotaintofcrimeandnolinktothenotoriousItalianandJewishmobsterswhomadetheirfortunesontheLasVegasStrip.
291Fromthebeginning,BillHarrahreliedontheimageofhonestyandrespectabilityhecultivatedathiscasinosinordertoexpandhiscustomerbase.
292Harrahwasastrictdisciplinarianwhenitcametopunctuality,honesty,andfairtreatmentofcustomers.
293In1975,hetoldthenewHarrah'spresident,LloydDyer,"[T]hethreethingsIwantdoneare:Iwantthecustomertreatedproperly;Iwanttheemployeestreatedproperly—ifwedothatwewon'thavetoworryaboutunions;andIwanttheplacemaintainedandcleanatalltimes.
"294AsHarrah'scompanygrew,itwasabletobuildontheearlyreputationoftheHarrah'sname,stressingthedistinctionsbetweenrespectablegamingwithhonestemployeesintheclean,well-lightedenvironmentofhiscasinosandcrookedgamblingwithsleazydealersinthedarkcasinosthatweretypicalintheearlyyearsofNevadagambling.
295Toincreasecustomerconfidenceinhisemployees,Harrahtendedtohire"wholesomeyoungpeopleformplacessuchasIdahoandUtah[who]wouldpresentamoretrustworthyimage.
"296DuringtheearlyyearswhenHarrah'sLakeTahoecasinowasonlyasummerresortand286.
SHOOK,supranote277,at57,315.
287.
Id.
at21,315.
288.
TheNevadamonopolyeffectivelyresultedfromthe1950anti-gamblingcrusadeofSenatorEstesKefauver.
See,e.
g.
,DAVIDG.
SCHWARTZ,SUBURBANXANADU:THECASINORESORTONTHELASVEGASSTRIPANDBEYOND68–72(2003);SHOOK,supranote277,at112.
289.
See,e.
g.
,SHOOK,supranote277,at28,30–31.
290.
NevadaestablishedtighterregulatorycontrolsovercasinoswiththeestablishmentoftheGamingControlBoardaspartoftheNevadaTaxCommissionin1955,followedbytheNevadaGamingCommissionin1959.
See,e.
g.
,SHOOK,supranote277,at41,112–13.
291.
SCHWARTZ,supranote288,at103("[F]ormanyobservers,Harrahstoodoutfavorably,instarkcontrasttooperatorsofJewishandItalianextractionwith'tarnished'images.
").
292.
SHOOK,supranote277,at28.
293.
Id.
at30–33.
294.
Id.
at28(quotingfrominterviewwithLloydDyer,presidentofHarrah'sfrom1975to1980,aboutBillHarrah's"philosophy").
295.
SeeSHOOK,supranote277,at29(quotingLloydDyerabouthowthe"physicalatmosphereofHarrah'swasdifferentthanothercasinos");seealsoid.
at28(discussingBillHarrah'srefusaltohire"shills"—"casinoemployeeswhoplayedalongsidetherealcustomers"—becauseeveniftheshilldidnotcheat,"customersmightfeelthattheshillscouldhurttheirodds"and,"[t]oBillHarrah,customerperceptionofothercustomersmatteredalot").
296.
Id.
at34.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED61theRenocasinobusinesssurgedinsummers,Harrahwouldstaffhisservicejobswithcollegestudentsbecausetheywere"brightandeager"and"theirclean-cutlookspresentedasenseoftrust.
"297Tocreatetherightlook,theappearanceofHarrah'semployeeswashighlyregulated.
BusinesswriterRobertShookobserves,Everyone[onthecasinofloor]wasrequiredtowearapairofblackpressedslacksandacleanwhiteshirt.
Thekenogirlsworeblackskirts,anditwasimperativefortheirstockingseamstobestraight.
BillHarrahalsoinsistedthathispeoplehavingcontactwithcustomersbeingoodphysicalcondition.
Employeeswhowereexcessivelyoverweightweretoldtoshedsomepoundsorriskbeingletgo.
.
.
.
Whenseniormanagersreportedtoworkeachmorning,theywererequiredto"weighin.
".
.
.
.
ItwasalwayseasytospotanewHarrah'semployeeonabreakfromthecasinofloorbecausethatwasthepersonconstantlystudyinganotebookofthecompany'strainingrulesandregulations.
Inadditiontodresscodes,thenotebookoutlineddetailsabouthairstyleandtheuseofcosmetics.
Men,forexample,werenotpermittedtohavebeards.
.
.
.
.
Theruleswerestrict,buttherewerefewcomplaints.
.
.
.
BeingemployedbyHarrah'swasviewedinthecommunityasbeingsomebodyspecial.
Harrah'semployeesheldtheirheadshigh—theywereamongtheeliteofcasinoworkers.
298EmployeeappearancereinforcedBillHarrah'sbrandmessagethatgamingathispropertieswasclean,honest,andreputable.
AsHarrah'sindustrysupporterswroteintheiramicicuriaebriefintheJespersencase:Fromtimespastthereisaperception—moreproperlyamisconception—thatwithinthegamingindustrythereisanimageoftencastinthemediaasunsavory.
Thegamingindustryhasworkedtirelesslytochangethisimage,inpartthroughdressandgroomingstandardsforitsemployeesthatreflectaprofessionalnorm.
ThecitiesofRenoandLasVegas,andemployersinthegamingandresortindustries,havemadeextensiveeffortstodistancethemselvesfromtheantiquatedandarchaicperceptionofgamingestablishments.
.
.
.
.
Harrah'sisarespectednameinthecasinoentertainmentindustry.
Ithascarvedanicheforitselfatthetop.
Althoughtheremaybealesserexpectationofprofessionalismatsomegamingestablishments,therearehigherstandardsofprofessionalism,responsibilityandappearanceforemployeesatanestablished,297.
Id.
298.
Id.
at35.
Harrah'snolongerprohibitsfacialhaironmalebeverageserversorbartenders.
Seesupranote190(quotingHarrah'samended"PersonalBest"policy).
SeegenerallyHarrah'sOperatingCo.
,BrandStandardGroomingandAppearance,Def.
'sEx.
E,at79,Jespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,280F.
Supp.
2d1189(2002)(onfilewithauthors)[hereinafterHarrah'sBrandStandard].
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM62DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007respectedproperty,suchasHarrah's.
Customersexpect,andaremorecomfortablewith,employeeswhoreflectsuchstandards.
299BillHarrah'ssolidreputationandsoundbusinesspracticesenabledthecompanytobeginpublictradingofitssharesintheearly1970s,thefirst"puregamingcompany"todoso.
300Likeothercasinosthatwerethencorporatizingandmergingwithnationalhotelchains,301Harrah'sshiftedfromaprivately-heldproprietorshiptoapublicly-tradedcorporationinordertoraisemoneyforexpansionsandrenovations.
302AlthoughtheownershipofHarrah'sCorporationwasdilutedthroughthepublicsaleofitsstock,BillHarrahcontinuedtobethemajorityshareholder303andexertedhisownpersonalmanagementstyleandauthorityontherunningofthecompanyandtheoperationsofhiscasinos.
304WhenBillHarrahdiedin1978,heleftalegacyofsorts.
Inhiscasinos,Harrahhadbothdemandedandrewardedtheloyaltyofhisemployees.
WhenDarleneJespersenbeganworkingforHarrah'sRenoCasinoin1979,manyofthemanagersandsupervisorsthatBillHarrahhadhiredandtrainedwhenhewastheon-siteownerwerestillemployedthere.
Thecultofpersonalloyaltyandtheemploymentpracticesheencouragedwouldhavebeenverymuchevidentinthebehaviorandattitudesofthemanagerialandsupervisoryemployeesthroughoutthecasinohierarchy.
305Thiscultofloyaltywascementedthroughthecompany'sadoptionoffavorableemployeebenefits,306routinized,rationalizedmanagementpractices,oralpromisesof"lifetime"jobsecuritytomanagers,307writtenemployeehandbooksestablishingfairproceduresfor299.
BriefofCouncilforEmploymentLawEquityetal.
,supranote278,at18.
300.
Harrah'sfirstsoldsharestothepublicin1971.
SHOOK,supranote277,at61–62.
ThiswasmadepossiblebyNevada'senactmentoftheCorporateGamingActsof1967and1968,whichloosenedrestrictionsrequiringallstockholdersingamingestablishmentstohavegaminglicenses.
SeeSCHWARTZ,supranote288,at160;seealsoSHOOK,supranote277,at41.
In1973,Harrah'swasthefirstcasinotobelistedontheNewYorkStockExchange.
Id.
at62,315.
301.
Atthesametime,otherNevadacasinoswerebeingacquiredbymajorhotelchains.
Forexample,in1971,HiltonHotels,"thefirstmajorhotelchaintomoveintothegamingindustry,"acquiredtheLasVegascasinopropertiesbelongingtoKirkKerkorian,includingtheFlamingoandtheInternational.
SCHWARTZ,supranote288,at162.
SeealsoSHOOK,supranote277,at72.
302.
SCHWARTZ,supranote288,at114.
303.
Atthetimeofhisdeath,BillHarrahownedeighty-sixpercentofthecompany'sstock.
SHOOK,supranote277,at73.
304.
SCHWARTZ,supranote288,at162("WilliamHarrahinReno.
.
.
retain[ed]controloverthisoperationswhileofferingsharestothegeneralpublic.
Publicownershipdidnotnecessarilymeananymajorchangesinthemanagementorpersonnelofcasinos.
")(alterationadded).
305.
Thecult-likedevotionofHarrah'semployeestotheircompanyhasbeencomparedtothatofDisneyWorld'sandNordstrom'semployees.
SeeSHOOK,supranote277,at170–71.
306.
In2000,Harrah'sseniorvicepresidentofhumanresourcessaid:"Wepaypeoplewell,givethemexcellentbenefits,andtreatthemfairly.
Wealsorecognizegoodperformanceandrewardthemforit.
"InterviewbyRobertL.
ShookwithMarilynWinn,SeniorVicePresidentofHumanResources,Harrah'sEntertainment(May13,2000),inid.
at274,313.
307.
See,e.
g.
,Yeagerv.
Harrah'sClub,Inc.
,897P.
2d1093,1095(Nev.
1995)(holdingthatplaintiff's"uncorroboratedassertions"oforalpromisesbyBillHarrahandotherHarrah'sexecutives"thathisemploymentwouldcontinueuntilretirementunlesshewasterminatedforcause"arenotsufficientforpurposesofasummaryjudgmentmotionto"overcomethepresumptionofat-willemployment"inNevada).
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED63discipline,308aswellasitspracticeofhiringfromwithinthecompany,withwell-publicizedexamplesofmanagerswhohadworkedtheirwayupthroughtheenterprise.
309AssociologistCharlesHeckscherhasobserved,thesepaternalisticcorporatestructuresandpractices—"personaldependence"onan"autocratic[,].
.
.
successfulfounder,""near-guaranteesofemploymentsecurity,"bureau-cracy,andinternallabormarkets310—bothcreateloyaltyfrommiddlemanagersincorporationsand,paradoxically,canleadtoinstabilityintheorganization.
311Bytheyear2000,whenJespersenwasfired,many,butnotall,aspectsofthepaternalisticnormsofloyaltytoBillHarrah'simageandphilosophyhadgivenwaytonewstylesofmanagementandnewassumptionsabouttherelationshipbetweenserviceworkers,thecustomers,andthecompany.
3.
BillHarrah'sFeminizationofCasinos:"ASafePlacetoVisit"Jespersen'srapidadvancefromalowlydishwashertoapositionasabartenderwasnotunusualforawoman,neitherwithinthecultureofHarrah'scompanynorwithinthecommunityofReno,butitwouldhavebeensomewhatunusualinoneofthemajorcasinosinLasVegasatthetime.
312JespersenworkedasadishwasheratHarrah'sforaboutsixmonthsandthenasabarbackforaboutsixmonthsbeforeherpromotiontobartender.
Duringthistime,sheattendedbarschool313andbeganheracculturationintothejobofabartenderandtheorganizationofthecasino.
Theoperationalhierarchyofmostcasinosatthattimewasgenerallygenderedfromtoptobottom.
Thecasinomanagers,shiftmanagers,dealers,pitbosses,floormen,bartenders,andsecurityguardswereinvariablymen;andwomenwereeitherentertainers(showgirls),cocktailwaitresses,or"changegirls,"whomadechangefortheslotmachines.
314Inthe1970s,thecasinosontheStripinLasVegasfinallyliftedtheirbanonwomendealers.
315Nevertheless,historianDavidG.
Schwartznotesthat"[o]pportunitiesforwomen,asforminorities,begantoexpandinthe1970s,butitwouldtakeyearsforthesechangestobecomereadilyapparent.
"316ThesituationforwomeninRenowasquitedifferent.
Schwartzwritesthat,inReno,308.
Id.
at1097(discussingplaintiff'sclaimsthathisrelianceon"writtenpromisesintheemployeehandbookconvertedhisemploymentstatusintoterminationonlyforcause").
309.
SeeSHOOK,supranote277,at181–86(discussingthecompany'slongpracticeof"hiringfromwithin").
310.
HECKSCHER,supranote280,at19,20,24.
Forahelpfulsummaryoftheliteratureoninternallabormarkets,seeKATHERINEV.
W.
STONE,FROMWIDGETSTODIGITS:EMPLOYMENTREGULATIONFORTHECHANGINGWORKPLACE51–63(2004).
311.
HECKSCHER,supranote280,at11.
312.
Foradiscussionofthefeminizationoftheoccupationofbartendinggenerally,seeinfraPartVI.
313.
SeeDepositionofDarleneBettyJespersen,at12,Jespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,280F.
Supp.
2d1189(D.
Nev.
May22,2002)(No.
CV-N-01-0401-ECR-VPC),availableathttp://www.
lambdalegal.
org/binary-data/LAMBDA_PDF/pdf/365.
pdf.
314.
SCHWARTZ,supranote288,at57.
315.
Id.
at171.
SeealsoAnnC.
McGinley,HarassmentofSex(y)Workers:ApplyingTitleVIItoSexualizedIndustries,18YALEJ.
L.
&FEMINISM65,67n.
10&accompanyingtext(2006)(discussingthebanonfemaleblackjackdealersinLasVegas).
316.
SCHWARTZ,supranote288,at171.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM64DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007womenmadeupthebulkofthedealingcorpsandhandledmostdailypatron-casinointeractions.
MostcontemporaryaccountsdepictedRenowomenasmundaneandunglamorous.
In[LasVegas's]Stripresorts,bycontrast,womenemployeesmadetheirstrongestimpressionsonstage,andtheywereusuallydepictedasexotic,desirable,andquitepossiblyattainable.
317BillHarrahwasinstrumentalinbreakingdownthegenderbarrierinRenocasinos.
InhisbookaboutHarrah'sbusinesssuccesses,RobertL.
ShookwritesthatHarrahbeganhiringwomendealersduringthe1950safterhenoticedthatfemaledealerswereworkinginacompetitor'sgamblingclub.
318ShookreportsthatHarrahrespondedtotheprotestsofhis"old-timeemployees,"who"claim[ed]thatwomencouldn'tdealorkeepcontrolofthegame,"withabusinessrationale:[T]hebigthingwithwomenandthereasonIdidit,wasbecausetouristswouldlookin,buttheywouldn'tcomein.
Ioverheardpeoplesaythattherewerenowomeninthere.
Wedidhavecocktailwaitresses,butthey'dlookinandseeallthesemenstandingatthetablesanditwaskindofscary.
ButwhentheylookedinHarold'sClubtheycouldseeladiesthere,sointhey'dgo.
Theyfiguredthatifwomenwereworkinginthecasino,itwasasafeplacetovisit.
AsfarasIwasconcerned,that'swhatconvincedme.
319So,femaleemployeesweregoodforbusiness,aswerefresh-faced,youngemployees,hiredandretainedfortheirpersonalqualitiesofhonesty,trustworthiness,andabilitytorelatetocustomers.
320DarleneJespersen,hiredinhertwenties,wouldhavefittheserequirements.
Shewouldhavebeencomfortableworkingasafemalebartenderinacasinowithfemaledealersonthefloor.
Herpersonalqualitieswouldhavebeenhighlyvaluedforabartenderposition.
Beverageindustrymanagersgenerallylookforemployeeswhoare"motivated,open-minded,andenjoyworkingwithpeople,"butaboveall,honest.
321Thefactthatsheisabig,tallwoman322nodoubthelpedherwinherentréeintothebartenderposition,whereherheightandphysicalpresencewouldbeanassetindealingwithintoxicatedcustomers.
Herpleasant,clean-scrubbed,openfacewouldhavebeenreassuringandinvitingtobarpatronsofbothsexes.
323Astudyofbeveragemanagementpracticesreportedthat"[o]neindustryexecutivelooksfor,'Qualitiesthatcannotalwaysbetaught.
Ipushfor317.
Id.
at57–58.
SeealsoDavidB.
Cruz,MakingUpWomen:Casinos,Cosmetics,andTitleVII,5NEV.
L.
J.
240,240(2004)(quotingSCHWARTZ,supranote288,at57–58).
318.
SHOOK,supranote277,at35.
319.
Id.
(quotingBillHarrah).
320.
Seeid.
at193(discussingHarrah's"longhistoryofselectingfriendlypeoplewithadesiretoservepeople").
Femaledealerswerealsogoodforbusinessbecausetheywouldworkforlowerwagesthanmaledealers.
McGinley,supranote315,at67n.
10.
321.
DAVIDK.
HAYES&JACKD.
NINEMEIER,BARANDBEVERAGEMANAGEMENTANDOPERATIONS63(1987).
322.
DarleneJespersenhasbeendescribedasbeing"bigandtall"with"stronghands"and"project[ing]thecalm,commanding,butfriendly,presenceofanold-fashionedbarkeep.
"JonChristensen,RougeRogue,MOTHERJONES,Mar.
–Apr.
2001,at22,availableathttp://web.
ebscohost.
com/ehost/detailvid=3&hid=120&sid=79e9fc34-ba19-4fb2-ad09-99ebe4296c00%40sessionmgr105.
Jespersenreportsthatsheis"5feet91/2inches"tall.
Id.
323.
Jespersenhasbeendescribedashavinga"naturallyruddy,clearcomplexion.
"Id.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED65speed,efficiency,andcourtesy.
.
.
.
Ialsojudgethembytheirappearance.
Ifthey'reunkempt,they'renotforus.
'"324AtHarrah'sRenocasino,Jespersenwasnotexceptionalinbeingawomandoinga"man'sjob,"andshehadthequalitiesnecessarytodeliveronthequalityofcustomerservicepromisedbytheHarrah'sname.
Nevertheless,evenwithBillHarrah'sfeminizationofmanyofthetraditionallymalecasinojobs,theindustryremainedhighlygenderedinRenoandelsewhere.
AstudyofcocktailwaitressjobsinRenocasinosconductedfrom1988to1995concludedthatthesexualizedenvironmentofcasinos,includingdresscodes,contributedto"genderhegemony.
"325Significantly,thestudyfoundthat,although"[b]artendinghashistoricallybeenamalejobintheUnitedStates"326—andbythe1980sfeminizationofbartendingthroughoutthecountrywaswellunderway,327"Renocasinobartenders[were]predominantlymale.
"328Thus,withinthelocalRenojobmarket,Jespersenwouldhavebeenviewedasholdinga"man'sjob,"distinguishingherworkandstatusasabartenderfromthepredominantlyfemale"beverageservers"—thecasinococktailwaitresses.
4.
TheRiseoftheBureaucraticEthicandCorporateLoyalty:"ACookie-CutterEmploymentPolicy"WhywouldHarrah'sallowJespersentoignoreitsmakeuprulesforfemalebeverageserversforsomanyyearsandthen,suddenly,demandcompliancein2000,evenifitmeantlosingavaluedemployee329AsociologicalperspectivetakesintoaccountthechangesinHarrah'ssize,structure,management,marketing,andoperationsbetween1980and2000.
CharlesHeckscher's1995studyofmanagementloyalty,White-CollarBlues,330offersaframeworkforunderstandingthishistory.
Hewrites,"Thehistoricalpatternsofmotivation,atleastthoseidentifiableinbusinessorganizations,arethree:personaldependence,thebureaucraticethic,andcorporateloyalty.
Thefirsttwohavelargelybeenrelegatedbytheirlimitationstothewasteheapofhistory;butthethirdremainsdominantinmostlargecorporations.
"331324.
HAYES&NINEMEIER,supranote321,at63.
325.
LorraineBayarddeVolo,ServiceandSurveillance:InfrapoliticsatWorkAmongCasinoCocktailWaitresses,10SOC.
POL.
346,359–61(Fall2003).
326.
Id.
at361.
327.
SeeinfraPartVI(discussingthefeminizationofbartending).
328.
BayarddeVolo,supranote325,at361.
329.
CatherineFiskhassuggestedthattheanswermaylieinanattemptbyHarrah'smanagementtoexertmorecontroloveritsemployees.
SeeFisk,supranote92,at1116–17.
MituGulatiobservedthatthiseffortwasspecificallytargetedatitsunionizedfacilitiesinLasVegas,whereworkerswerelessmalleableandmoredifficulttodiscipline.
ConversationwithMituGulati,ProfessorofLaw,DukeUniversitySchoolofLaw,inChapelHill,NC(June2006).
Ifthisaccountistrue,itisonlyapartialexplanation,whichdescribesaparticularresponsetoalocalsituation.
ItisalsonotverysatisfactoryinexplainingwhyJespersen,whoworkedinReno,inacasinothatwasnotunionized,wasfired.
ThereisnosuggestionthatJespersenwaspartofanincipientunionorganizingcampaign.
Infact,firingawell-liked,loyalemployeelikeJespersenmightinviteanorganizingcampaign,whichmayexplainwhyHarrah'sofferedtorehireherandwaiveitsmakeuprequirementinhercase.
330.
SeegenerallyHECKSCHER,supranote280.
331.
Id.
at18–19.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM66DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007In1980,notlongafterJespersenwashired,Harrah'swasacquiredbyHolidayInns,then"thelargestlodgingcompanyintheworld,"332whichwasbuildingacasinoinAtlanticCity,NewJersey.
333Holiday'sacquisitionofHarrah'scompanywasalogicalmarriageofitswell-establishednationalhotelbusinesswiththeburgeoninggamingbusiness.
Forthenextdecade,however,theHarrah'sheadquartersstayedinReno.
Duringthisperiod,thecultureofHarrah'sRenocasinowouldcontinuetomaintainadegreeoflocalautonomywithintheHolidayInncorporatestructure,balancingtheinevitablepassingofthepersonalstyleofon-siteownershipandmanagementcharacterizedbyBillHarrahandhisloyal,job-trainedteamofmanagersagainsttheimpersonaldictatesofadistantparentcorporateboarddealingwithmultiplepropertiesthroughouttheUnitedStateswithprofessionalmanagersdrawnfromboththecasinoandhotelindustries.
334InevitablytherewereclashesbetweenthecorporateculturesofHarrah'sandthemuchlargerHolidayInns—HolidayInnswas"morestructured.
.
.
,andbecauseofitssheersize,thecompanyhadbecomebureaucratized.
"335Itwasduringtheearly1980sthatDarleneJespersen,thenstillayoungwomaninhertwenties,firstencounteredHarrah'sgroomingcode.
Onecommentatorhaswrittenthatthecompany"alwayshadacookie-cutteremploymentpolicy"andthatBillHarrahhimself"promulgatedappearancerules.
"336WhetherBillHarrahrequiredorencouragedfemalebeverageserviceemployeestowearmakeupisnotclear.
337Whatiscertainisthatin1980,bythetimeJespersenbeganworkingattheRenocasino,BillHarrahwasnolongeralivetoenforcehisappearancerulesforfrontlineserviceworkersandthemergerwithHolidayInnsmayhaveaffectedthewaymid-levelmanagersandfrontlinesupervisorsenforcedbureaucraticrules.
ThismighthavemadeadifferencewhenJespersenwasrequiredtogetamakeoverforworktodemonstratehowmakeupwouldimproveherlooks,andthen,justafewweekslaterwaspermittedtocometoworkwithoutmakeup.
InherNevadastatecourtlawsuit,Jespersenallegedthat"shehadwornmakeupforabriefperiodearly-oninheremployment,"butthepolicywasnotenforcedeventhoughthe"the332.
SHOOK,supranote277,at87.
333.
Id.
at67–68,73–74,315.
OnFebruary29,1980,HolidayInnsacquiredHarrah's,buyingoutthesixmillionsharesthenheldinBillHarrah'sestatefor$213million.
Id.
at73.
Atthetime,HolidayInnsowned1,600hotelsandwasexpandingintothegamingbusinessinAtlanticCityandLasVegas.
Id.
at67,73–74,315.
334.
Forexample,Schwartzdescribes"themanagerialandoperationalsplicingbetweenhotelcorporationsand'casinopeople'thatwentoninthe1970s"whenHiltonacquiredtheFlamingoandotherLasVegasproperties.
SCHWARTZ,supranote288,at162.
335.
SHOOK,supranote277,at88.
Seegenerallyid.
at87–91(describingdifferencesbetweenthecorporatecultureofHarrah'sandHolidayInnsin1980).
336.
Barbano,supranote193.
337.
ShookreportsthatHarrah'semployeesweregivena"notebook[that]outlineddetailsabouthairstyleandtheuseofcosmetics.
"SHOOK,supranote277,at35.
TheJespersenenbancdecisionstatesthatHarrah's"maintainedapolicyencouragingfemalebeverageserverstowearmakeup.
.
.
.
[H]owever,.
.
.
thepolicywasnotenforceduntil2000.
"Jespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,444F.
3d1104,1107(9thCir.
2006)(alterationadded).
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED67makeuppolicyhadbeeninplaceforovertenyears.
"338Indeed,oneofthetheoriesofherstatelawsuitwasthat"byallowinghertoforgowearingmakeupforovertwentyyearsdespitetheallegedexistenceofahandbookpolicyrequiringitsuse,Harrah'simpliedlypromisednottofireherfornon-compliancewithamakeuprequirement,andshereliedonthispromisebycontinuingtoworkforHarrah's.
"339Ratherthananenforceablepromise,however,sociologistCharlesHeckscherwoulddescribeHarrah'scomplicityinJespersen'srulebreakingasanexampleoftheworkingsofthebureaucraticethicwhichwouldpermitthelocalcasinomanagersandsupervisorstointerpretbureaucraticrulesflexiblyinlightoftheparticularsituationstheyencountered.
340ThecreationandevolutionofHarrah'sgaming"brand"werecriticallydependentontheformsofloyaltyHeckscherdescribes.
Today,Harrah'smanagementethoscouldbedescribedasbeinginanuncomfortabletransition—abandoningtotalrelianceoncorporateloyalty,aswellasotherformsofpaternalisticcontrol,and,inpart,embracingscientificnormsthatHeckscherreferstoascharacterizinga"professional"community,onethatis"movingfromaninwardfocusonbuildingcapacitytoanoutwardfocusonmeetingtheneedsofmarketsandcustomers.
"341TheNevadaSupremeCourt,withnopromptingfromsociologists,ofcoursefoundthat"evenifthenon-enforcementofthepolicydidcreateanexpectationthatJespersenwouldbecontinuallyallowedtoforgowearingmakeup,thisexpectationisinsufficienttoconvertanat-willemploymentintooneallowingterminationonlyforcause.
"342Underemployment-at-will,employeesshouldunderstandthatmanagerialconsenttodeviationsfrombureaucraticrulesarenotpromisesuponwhichemployeescanrely,butareratherevidenceofthesmoothfunctioningofthebureaucracyandtheefficacyofthebureaucraticethic.
Moreover,whileJespersenmayhaveviewedherrefusaltowearmakeupasaformofindividualresistancetoemployercontrol,froma338.
Jespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,131P.
3d614(Nev.
2004)(unpublishedtabledecision),No.
40587,slip.
op.
at1(Nev.
June7,2004)(onfilewithauthors).
339.
Id.
at5.
340.
SeegenerallyHECKSCHER,supranote280,at20–23.
Heckscherwrites,Thegreatadvantageofthebureaucraticformofloyaltyisthatitdirectsmembers'attachmentnottowardanindividual,buttowardanimpersonaltask.
Itthereforeallowsagreatexpansionofthescopeofcoordination.
Itrequiresneitheremotionalreinforcementfromtheleader—thesatisfactioncomesfromajobwelldoneratherthanfrompersonalrewards—nordetaileddictates.
Theloyalbureaucratfiguresouthowtocarryoutthedirectionsreceived.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Thebureaucraticethic,inshort,leadstheemployeetodoanythingaskedbytheleaderthatisproper(bytherules),butnotanythingthatisimproper.
Id.
at21.
341.
HECKSCHER,supranote280,at145,173.
Heckscherwrites,Theidealimageinthedynamiccompanies[whichhestudied].
.
.
isavoluntarycomingtogetherofindividualswithcommitmentsandanorganizationwithamission.
ThisistherelationshipthatIhavereferredtoasa"professional"one,formingacommunityofpurpose.
Itisnotafullrealityanywhere,butitisinsomeplacesanidealshapingdefinitionsofwhooweswhattowhom.
Id.
at145(alterationadded).
342.
Jespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,131P.
3d614(Nev.
2004)(unpublishedtabledecision),No.
40587,slip.
op.
at1(Nev.
June7,2004)(onfilewithauthors).
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM68DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007managementperspective,herresistancewasco-optedinthe1980sandtransformedintoanopportunityforthecorporationtodisplaytheflexibilityandautonomyofthelocalmanagersandtocementherloyaltytothecompany.
From1980to1990,HolidayInns,nowrenamedHolidayCorporation,expandeditshotelbusinessintotheall-suiteandextended-stayhotelmarket,343whileHarrah'slookedfornewmarketsinordertoremaincompetitiveinthenow-corporatizedcasinoindustry.
344In1990,furthercorporatereorganizationresultedinHarrah'scomingundertheumbrellaofPromusCompanies.
345Shortlythereafter,Harrah'srelocateditsheadquartersfromRenotoMemphis,the"birthplaceandhometownofHolidayInns.
"346UndertheleadershipofthenewpresidentandCEOofPromus,PhilipG.
Satre—anattorneywhojoinedHarrah'sshortlyafterBillHarrahdied,Harrah'sreasserteditscompetitivepostureintheLasVegasgamingmarketbyrenovatingtheHolidayCasinoin1992andrenamingitHarrah'sLasVegas.
347Withthelooseningofanti-gaminglawsinotherstates,Harrah'sthenbeganaperiodofunprecedentedexpansion,buildingnewcasinosthroughouttheSouthandtheAmericanheartland,whereverstategamingregulationsandlocalpoliticspermitted.
348EventheNativeAmericangamingmarket,whichothercasinooperatorsviewedasunwelcomecompetition,drewHarrah'sinterest:Between1994and1998,Harrah'sopenedcasinosinpartnershipwithNativeAmericantribesontheirlandsinArizona,NorthCarolina,andKansas.
349Inthemidstofthisrapidexpansion,in1995,PromusspunoffitshotelassetsintoanewcorporationandrenamedtheremainingHarrah'sassetsHarrah'sEntertainment.
350Inadditiontobuildingnewcasinos,Harrah'sEntertainmentcontinueditsgrowththroughacquisitionsofothercasinos.
351Throughthe1990sHarrah'swentfromowning343.
SeeSHOOK,supranote277,at316.
344.
In1988,Harrah'sopenedanewcasinoinLaughlin,Nevada,defyingthetrendofbuildingupandoutinLasVegasandalongtheStrip,andoflocatingcasinosindestinationlocales.
Id.
at103,139–40.
345.
HolidayCorporationsolditsHolidayInnshotelbusinesstoBassPLC,andplaceditsremainingproperties—includingHarrah's,EmbassySuites,HamptonInn,andHomewoodSuites—underanewentity,PromusCompanies.
SHOOK,supranote277,at140,316.
ForahistoryofthePromusCompanies,seegenerallyTAKIAMAHMOOD&STEPHENP.
BRADLEY,HARV.
BUS.
SCH.
,CASESTUDYNO.
9-795-039:THEPROMUSCOMPANIES(1995).
346.
Harrah'sheadquartersremainedinMemphisuntil1999.
SHOOK,supranote277,at161.
347.
Id.
at70,316.
348.
Harrah'sopenedariverboatcasinoinJoliet,Illinois,andcasinosinVicksburgandTunicain1993;casinosinShreveportandNorthKansasCityin1994;asecondcasinoinTunicain1996,asecondriverboatcasinoandhotelinNorthKansasCityin1996;andariverboatcasinoinMissouriin1997.
Seeid.
at317;seealsoMAHMOOD&BRADLEY,supranote345,at3–5.
349.
In1994Harrah'sopenedHarrah'sAk-ChincasinoonIndianlandoutsidePhoenix.
Thiswasfollowedin1997byHarrah'sCherokeeSmokyMountainsonNativeAmericanlandinNorthCarolinaandin1998byPrairieBandoutsideTopeka,Kansas.
SeeSHOOK,supranote277,at317–18;seealsoSCHWARTZ,supranote288,at182–83,186–92;SHOOK,supranote277,at115–16(discussingtheeffectofthe1988IndianGamingRegulatoryActondevelopmentofnewcasinos).
350.
Onceagain,asin1980,theHarrah'snamewaslistedontheNewYorkStockExchange.
SHOOK,supranote277,at97.
351.
Harrah'sEntertainmentacquiredShowboatin1998,whichthenownedcasinosinAtlanticCity,NewJersey;EastChicago,Indiana;LasVegas;andSydney,Australia.
SHOOK,supranote277,at147,318.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED69fivetofifteencasinos,andfrommanaging5,000to30,000employees,352puttingfurtherstrainontheenterprise.
In1999,Harrah'sEntertainmentagainmoveditsheadquarters,thistimefromMemphisbacktoNevada,totheheartlandofthegamingindustry,LasVegas.
353Throughtheseperiodsofgrowth,transition,andgeographicaldislocation,theHarrah'sbrand—linkedtothegamingenterprisebuiltbyBillHarrah—riskedbeingdilutedandsubmergedbycompetingdemandsforemployeeloyaltytodifferentcorporateentitieswithdifferentmissionsdesignedtoservedifferentconsumers.
Tosucceed,amid-levelmanagerwouldhavetofollowthecorporation,movingtonewcommunitiesandsubmerginghisorherindividualidentityintothecorporateimage.
354Jobsofserviceemployees,too,couldbecomecasualtiesoftheriseofcorporateloyaltyassupervisorsandmanagerswerefiredandreplaced,bothdiminishingthesignificanceoftiesofpersonalloyaltyupanddownthehierarchyanddevaluingtheimportanceoftheexperienceandlocalknowledgepossessedbylong-timefrontlineserviceworkers.
WhenDarleneJespersenbeganworkingforHarrah'sin1979,thecompanyownedjusttwocasinosinnorthernNevadaandwasrunverymuchinthewayithadbeenduringBillHarrah'slifetime.
Thecompany'sheadquarterswasinReno.
Notlongaftershebecameabartender,thesignificantchangesincorporateownershiphadbegun—thebuyoutbyHolidayInns,themoveofitsheadquarterstoMemphis,thePromusmerger,followedbytherapidnationwideexpansionofnewHarrah'scasinosduringthe1990s.
Bythetimeshewasfired,in2000,thecompanyownedtwenty-sixcasinopropertiesinthirteenstatesandoneforeigncountry.
Heremployer,nowHarrah'sOperatingCompany,awholly-ownedsubsidiaryofHarrah'sEntertainment,hadbeenbought,submergedwithinalargercorporation,repackaged,anddisbursedthroughoutthenation.
ThoughHarrah'sEntertainmentwasnotyetthelargestgamingcorporationintheworld,itwasthenwellonitswaytothatoutcome,whichoccurredin2005,whenHarrah'sboughtCaesar'sEntertainment.
355Harrah'swentfromlocalandpersonalownershipwithon-sitemanagementandcontroltodisbursed,impersonalownershipwith352.
VICTORIACHANG&JEFFREYPFEFFER,STAN.
GRAD.
SCH.
BUS.
,CASESTUDYNO.
OB-45:GARYLOVEMANANDHARRAH'SENTERTAINMENT3(2003).
353.
Atthetime,Harrah'sEntertainmentacquiredtheRioAll-SuitesCasinoinLasVegas"withtheintentionofowningoneofthepremierresortcasinosinLasVegas.
"SHOOK,supranote265,at253.
354.
Heckscher,drawingontheworkofothersociologists,suchasWilliamWhyteinTheOrganizationMan,describesthe"mechanisms"thatcorporationsusetoenforcecorporateloyalty,whichincludethefollowing:"policiesoffrequentgeographictransfers,whichhadtheeffectofweakeningcompetingtiestoothercommunitiesandfriends;codesofpresentationthatdefinedthe'right'kindofbehavior;ritualsofpassagethatreinforcedthecompanyimage;anideologyofbeingagood'memberoftheteam.
'"HECKSCHER,supranote280,at24.
355.
AccordingtoWikipedia,"[t]hemerger[withCaesar's]madeHarrah'sthelargestgamblingcompanywithover4millionsquarefeet(370,000m2)ofcasinos,almost100,000employeesandover40casinos.
"http://www.
en.
wikipedia.
org/wiki/Harrah%27s_Entertainment(alterationadded)(lastvisitedAug.
11,2006).
Atthetimeofthemerger,theprioryear'scombinedrevenueofthetwocorporationswas$8.
75billion.
DanielMcGinn,FromHarvardtoLasVegas,NEWSWEEK,Apr.
18,2005,at32.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM70DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007geographicallydistant,professionalizedmanagementandcontrol.
Thesechangeswouldhavenecessarilyreducedtheautonomyandpowerofthemanagersofindividualcasinos.
Asthecorporationgrewandaddednewproperties,theconsolidationandcentralizationofhumanresourcesandmarketingdecisionswouldinevitablyreducethedistinctivenessofeachcasinointheseareas.
Inparticular,theidiosyncraticworkplacecultureofHarrah'sRenoCasinowhereJespersenworked—whichoncereflectedthepersonalityofitsfounder,BillHarrah,thecharacterandhistoryofthecityofRenoanditscasinos(inoppositiontoLasVegasandtheStrip),andtheattitudesofadevoted(andnonunion)workforce—wouldbesubjecttopressurestoconformtothenewrealityofamassive,national(evenglobal)corporationsellingabranded,homogenizedproductthatlookedthesamefromTopekatoTunica,orfromLakeTahoetoAtlanticCity.
DuringHarrah'srapidexpansion,thecompanytriedtoimprovetheHarrah'sbrandandattractnewcustomers.
A1995HarvardBusinessSchoolcasestudyofPromusCompaniesobserved,"EachHarrah'spropertywasquitedifferent.
.
.
.
In1994,Harrah'sdevelopedbrandstandardsforthesignage,entryways,safetyfeatures,andtheoverallfeelofitsproperties.
.
.
.
"356Then,in2000,Harrah'sadoptedandbegantoenforcenew,stricterbrandstandardsfortheappearanceofitsfrontlineserviceworkers,ashiftinmarketingstrategythatflowedfromfurtherchangesinthecorporateleadership,structure,andmission,aswellasusesoftechnology.
QualitycustomerservicehasalwaysbeenasignificantcomponentoftheHarrah'sgamingexperience,butemployeeappearance,likesignage,alsodeliversthecorporatebrandtocustomers.
Brandingmeansholdingsupervisorsandmanagersaccountableforthehiringandretentionofemployeesbasedontheir"branddeliverycompetence"—notonlytheirabilitytoperformtheirjobs,butalsowhethertheyare"thetypeofpersonwhowillbestdeliverthebrand'spromise.
"357DarleneJespersenwasfiredbecauseHarrah'sassumedthat,withoutmakeup,shecouldnotdelivertheuniform,professionalbrandofgamingexperiencepromisedbytheHarrah'sname.
5.
TechnologyandMarketing:GaryLovemanFocusesonHarrah'sBrandingTechnologyandinnovativemarketingstrategiesimplementedinthelate1990sspeededupthechangeinhowHarrah'sranitscasinos,aswellashowitthoughtaboutandtreateditscustomersandemployees.
In1997,Harrah'sbeganits"TotalGold"program,358acomputerizeddatabasethatpermittedthecasinostotrackcustomergamblingactivityandofferrewardstopatronsatvariouslevelsofplayatallHarrah'sgaminglocations—similartoreceiving"free"miles356.
MAHMOOD&BRADLEY,supranote345,at11.
357.
BARLOW&STEWART,supranote13,at158.
BarlowandStewartdescribethepracticeofAbercrombie&Fitchofhiring"good-lookingandyoung"collegestudents"wholooklikeitscatalogmodels"asan"extreme"exampleofhiringfor"branddeliverycompetence.
"Id.
Seesupranotes44–46andaccompanyingtext.
358.
SHOOK,supranote277,at318;seegenerallyid.
at216–43(discussingHarrah'suseoftechnologyforcustomertracking).
In1998,Harrah'sreceivedapatentonitsTotalGoldtrackingprogram,whichitcalledits"NationalCustomerRecognitionSystemandMethod.
"Id.
at318.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED71fromanairline"frequentflyer"programorpointstowardawardsforusingaparticularcreditcard.
359ThistrackingandrewardsystemwastakentoanewlevelofsophisticationafterGaryLovemanjoinedHarrah'sEntertainment,Inc.
,in1998asitschiefoperatingofficer.
360UnliketheHarrah'smanagerswhocameupthroughthegamingindustry,Loveman,anM.
I.
T.
-trainedeconomist,leftapositionasanuntenuredassociateprofessoratHarvardBusinessSchool,wherehehadtaughtServiceManagement,consultedforlargebusinesseslikeDisneyandMcDonald's,361andwroteabouthowcorporationscouldimproveprofitsinserviceindustries.
362Harrah'sbecameagiantlaboratoryforLovemantotestouthismarketingandmanagementtheories:Hewouldbemanaging"15casinoswithmorethan10,000hotelrooms,andover35,000employees.
"363In2000,Lovemanrecalledhisdecisiontomovefromacademetoindustry:[A]fternineyearsoftellingpeoplehowtheyoughttodosomethingthatI'veneverdonemyself,IhadthedesiretoseeifIcouldactuallydoitandmakeitwork.
[Harrah's]offerwastherightchallenge,becausethecompanywasn'tdoingwhatIthoughtitshoulddo,sonowIhadtheopportunitytodothejobright.
364Doingit"right"meant,inpart,implementingideasinanarticleheco-authoredattheHarvardBusinessSchool:"PuttingtheService-ProfitChaintoWork.
"365Thethesisofthearticlewasthatsuccessfulservicemanagersofthe1990s"understandthatintheneweconomicsofservice,frontlineworkersandcustomersneedtobethecenterofmanagementconcern.
"366DrawingonexamplesfromsuccessfulservicecompanieslikeSouthwestAirlinesandTacoBell,thearticledemonstrateshow"innovativemeasurementtechniques"canquantifytherelationshipbetween"employeesatisfaction,loyalty,andproductivity"and"thevalueofproductsandservicesdelivered.
"367InordertoimproveHarrah's"service-profitchain,"Loveman"overhauledHarrah'smarketing,replacingtheindustryveteranswithcustomer-relationship-359.
Seeid.
at144–45.
360.
Seeid.
at318.
361.
Id.
at175.
362.
LovemanreceivedaB.
A.
ineconomicsfromWesleyanUniversityandwasanAlfredSloanDoctoralDissertationFellowatM.
I.
T.
whereheearnedaPh.
D.
SeeCorporateGovernance—Biography—GaryLoveman,Chairman,ChiefExecutiveOfficer,andPresident,http://investor.
harrahs.
com/phoenix.
zhtmlc=84772&p=irol-govBio&ID=143793(lastvisitedAug.
8,2006);CHANG&PFEFFER,supranote352,at2;seealsoJulieSchlosser,Teacher'sBet,FORTUNEMAG.
,Mar.
8,2004,at19(cataloguingLoveman'seducationalhistory).
363.
CHANG&PFEFFER,supranote352,at1.
364.
InterviewbyRobertL.
ShookwithGaryLoveman,CEO,Harrah'sEntertainment,Inc.
,(July18,2000),quotedinSHOOK,supranote277,at178,307.
365.
JamesL.
Heskettetal.
,PuttingtheService-ProfitChaintoWork,HARV.
BUS.
REV.
,Mar.
–Apr.
1994,at164.
366.
Id.
at164.
367.
Id.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM72DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007management'rocketscientists.
'"368HealsotransformedtheTotalGoldprogram,whichhedescribedas"acustomer-recognitionrewardsprogram,"intotheTotalRewardsprogram,whichhedescribedas"aloyaltyprogram"thatcreated"loyaltyincentives"forcustomerstodomoreoftheirgamingatHarrah'sproperties.
369OneaspectofthetransformationoftheTotalGoldprogramin2000intotheTotalRewardsprogramwastotakeawayfromindividualpropertymanagersandcertainothercasinoemployeesthediscretionto"comp"guests.
In1999,Lovemanbelievedthewayofdealingwiththe"ficklenessofgamblers"who,"[w]hentheyareonalosingstreak[tendtoheadfortheexitstotrytheirluckelsewhere,"was"tostemtheexodusbygivingevenlow-levelemployeestheauthoritytodoleoutcouponsforfreedrinks,chipsandthelike.
"370ButLovemanunderstoodtherisksofplacingthediscretionandjudgmentabouttheamountofcompingwithintheauthorityofHarrah'semployees,particularlylow-levelemployees.
Ina2000interview,Lovemansaid:There'sanemotionalattachmentbetweenapurchaserandaproviderthatexistswithgreatbrandsintheautomotive,cosmetics,garment,andpharmaceuticalindustries.
Wewantthesamesortofthingtoexistwithallofourbrandsinourbusiness.
Eachyear,wegivebackinexcessof$300milliontoourcustomersinwhatisreferredtoasreinvestment,or,inthisindustry,compsorgivebacks.
Thisprocessisrifewithlackofsophistication.
It'sdoneinacarelessandcostlyfashion.
Ourobjectiveistoimproveit,andbydoingso,wecanmakeconsiderablymoremoney.
371WiththegrowthinboththenumberofcasinosunderHarrah'sownershipandmanagement,andtheincreaseinthenumberofcustomersserved,Lovemanbelievedthattocompeteeffectivelyinthegamingindustry,Harrah'sneededtorationalizecomping.
Ineffect,theTotalRewardsprogramtookinformationabouteachcustomer'sage,sex,homeaddress,gaminghabitsandhistory,andtheirconsumptionpreferences—forrestaurants,hotelaccommodations,spatreatments,golf,whatever—awayfromemployeesandplaceditundercontrolofthecorporation.
Harrah'scustomerdatabasegrewfrom5.
3millioncustomersin1995,to23millioncustomersin2000,and26.
6millioncustomersin2002.
372BusinesswriterRobertShookdescribedthesignificanceofthisshift:Undertheoldbusinessmodelthatwasusedinthecasinoindustryforyears,customerrelationshipswerelimitedtoindividualemployeeswhoworkedwithasmallnumberofkeycustomers.
However,withthegrowthandincreaseinnumberofHarrah'sproperties,thatbusinessmodelnolongerworked.
Theoldmethodhadstillanotherflaw—customerloyaltywastoanindividualemployee368.
InterviewbyDavidO.
BeckerwithGaryLoveman,CEO,Harrah'sEntertainment,Inc.
,quotedinDavidO.
Becker,GamblingonCustomers,MCKINSEYQ.
,Feb.
1,2003,availableathttp://www.
marketingpower.
com/content17906.
php(lastvisitedDec.
22,2006).
369.
Id.
370.
RoyFurchgott,PrivateSector;PracticingWhatHePreaches,N.
Y.
TIMES,Feb.
21,1999,§3,at2.
371.
InterviewbyRobertL.
ShookwithGaryLoveman,CEO,Harrah'sEntertainment,Inc.
(Sept.
28,2000),quotedinSHOOK,supranote277,at292,313.
372.
Becker,supranote368,atEx.
3.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED73asopposedtothecompany.
Today,thecustomerreceivesvaluefromthecompanythatisdeliveredbyemployees.
373ThisapproachtocompingenablesHarrah'stospreadincentivesandrewardstocustomersatalllevelsofplay—fromthehighrollerplayingbaccaratinLasVegastothegrandmotherplayingthedollarslotmachinesinEastChicago,Indiana374—andatallHarrah'sproperties.
ThetechnologyalsopermittedanotherHarrah'sinnovation:"cross-marketing"ofHarrah'sbrand.
Inaninterviewin2000,PhilSatrerecountedwhatheandHarrah'sheadofstrategicmarketinghadlearnedfromtheirplayertrackingdatacollectedinthelate1980s:First,wehadcustomerswhogambleatmultiplelocations.
OurAtlanticCitycustomerscometoLasVegas.
OurRenocustomersgotoLakeTahoe,andsoon.
Second,.
.
.
weestimated25percentofourregularAtlanticCitycustomersmakeanannualpilgrimagetoLasVegas.
Thisplantedaseedthattherewasanopportunitytocreatealoyaltymarketingprogramtoestablishrelationshipswithcustomerswhobridgemultiplegamingenvironments.
375Whenhebecamechiefoperatingofficerin1998,GaryLovemanworkedonbuildingtheHarrah'sbrandby"orientingthecompanytowardinfluencingconsumerchoice.
"376Lovemandescribedgamingbranding:I'vealwaysbeenfascinatedbythepowerofbrandstoinfluenceconsumerdecisions.
Thegamingbusinessisaservicethatprovidesdeepenjoyment.
Peopleareverycaughtupingaming.
I]t'severybitaspersonallyrewardingasfragrances,fashion,automobiles,resortdestinations.
.
.
.
Wecouldstepupbycreatinganationalgamingbrand,andnooneelsecould.
Weoperate26casinosin13states,andwithabrandwecouldinfluenceplayerstovisitacasinoclosetothemortocomevisitusanywhere,coasttocoast.
377Withcross-marketingandbranding,Harrah'swasattemptingtocreateadistinctive,predictable,uniformexperienceateveryHarrah'scasinothroughthedeliveryofacertaintypeandstyleofcustomerservicethatwouldbeinstantlyrecognizableateveryHarrah'sproperty,despitethedifferencesinthenichemarketsthattheyhadhistoricallytendedtoserve.
Inthepast,thegeneralmanagerofaparticularcasinowouldhaveattemptedtobuildonthedistinctivenessofhisowncasinoanditsgeographiclocation,treatinghiscasinoasaprofitcenterforhimself(aswellasthecompany)bynurturingcustomerloyaltytohim,hisstaff,andhiscasino.
378Lovemanwantedtobreakthese373.
SHOOK,supranote277,at226.
374.
Harrah'sresearchonitscustomersidentifieditstargetmarketasan"avidexperienceplayer"or"AEP,"who"typicallyhasanannualbudgetof$1,000to$5,000topayrollhisrecreationalgamingactivities.
"Id.
at138.
375.
InterviewbyRobertL.
ShookwithPhilSatre,CEO,Harrah'sEntertainment,Inc.
(July18,2000),quotedinid.
at142.
376.
BeckerinterviewwithLoveman,quotedinBecker,supranote368.
377.
Id.
378.
Theuseofmalepronounshereisintentional.
Harrah'sdidnothireafemalegeneralmanageruntil1994,whenJanetBeroniobecamemanageroftheHarrah'sAk-Chincasino,oneoftheNativeAmericancasinosthatitpartneredwith.
SHOOK,supranote277,at182.
BythetimeLovemanwasonboard,themanagerswerenolongerallmale,butafemalegeneralmanagerwasararityand02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM74DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007personaltiestoparticularpersonsandlocations,andreplacethemwithtiestotheHarrah'sbrand—thegamingexperienceatanyHarrah'slocationinthenation.
ThetransformationrequiredthatLovemanbringhisgeneralmanagersintolinewiththenewwayoflookingatcustomerloyalty,sohereplacedafewgeneralmanagers,includingthemanagerofHarrah'sRenocasinowhereJespersenworked.
379Reflectingonhismanychangesinmanagementpersonnel,Lovemanlatercommented:"Wealsoprovedtothepropertygeneralmanagersthatourapproachwouldwork,startingwiththeearlyexperimentsweraninDecember1998.
Asoperators,propertymanagersaregreedybuggers.
Ifsomethingworksandtheycanmakemoremoney,they'llgetonitatsomepoint.
"380Theroleandauthorityofthecasinogeneralmanagerchangedinotherwaysaswell.
Previously,thegeneralmanagerofaparticularcasinoessentially"ranhisownshow,"inpartbecause"theconsensuswasnobodyknewhiscustomersbetterthanthebosswhoworkedeverydayinthetrenches.
"381EvenunderPhilSatre'sleadershipofHarrah'sfrom1993toJanuary2003,themanagementofeachcasinowasstillsomewhatdecentralized.
Althougheverything[in2002]iscentralized,thecasinogeneralmanagerisstillbossofhisownshow.
Hemayreceivehisordersfromthehomeoffice,buthe'sclearlyinchargeofhisproperty.
Inthisrespect,corporatemanagementplaysanadvisoryrole,providingsupportinareassuchashumanresources,law,marketing,publicrelations,andtechnologyservices.
382LovemanandhisTotalRewardsprogramchallengedtheseassumptions.
Inaninterviewin2003,Loveman,bythentheCEOandpresidentofHarrah'sEntertainment,said,We.
.
.
collectatremendousamountofinformationonwhatplayersdowithus.
Weknowwhenyouarriveatacasino,whatyoudothere,andwhenyouleave.
Wehaveinformationon26millioncustomers.
Andwemeasureeverything.
.
.
.
Whenouremployeesusethewords"Ithink,"thehairstandsuponthebackofmyneck.
Wehavethecapacitytoknowratherthanguessatsomethingbecausewecollectsomuchinformationaboutourcustomers.
383UnderLoveman,compensationforgeneralmanagersbecamelinkedtotheresultsofsurveysofcustomersatisfactionattheircasinos.
384Moreimportantly,finalauthorityandautonomyinhiringandfiringdecisionswasshiftedfromthegeneralmanagertocorporateheadquartersinLasVegas.
Lovemansaid,nowomanwasheadingupanyofthemajorcorporate-ownedcasinos.
Id.
AsofOctober2006,however,threeofthetenseniorvicepresidentsofHarrah'sEntertainmentwerefemale:JanJones,SeniorVicePresident,CommunicationsandGovernmentRelations;GinnyShanks,SeniorVicePresident,BrandManagement;andMaryThomas,SeniorVicePresidentofHumanResources.
SeeHarrah'sEntertainment,Corporate:InvestorRelations—ManagementTeam,http://investor.
harrahs.
com/phoenix.
zhtmlc=84772&p=irol-aboutusManage(lastvisitedDec.
20,2006).
379.
CHANG&PFEFFER,supranote352,at9.
380.
BeckerinterviewwithLoveman,quotedinBecker,supranote368.
381.
SHOOK,supranote277,at161.
382.
Id.
at161–62.
383.
BeckerinterviewwithLoveman,quotedinBecker,supranote368.
384.
Becker,supranote368.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED75Iwantedtoinstillthenotionthatjobsdidn'tbelongtopeople;jobsbelongtoacompany.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
IhadalotofbloodybattleswhereI'dhavetotellageneralmanagertofirethispersontomorroworIwoulddoitmyself.
Itwasugly.
Imean,foralongtimetherewasalotofantipathyamongalotofpeople,anditcontinuestosomedegreetothisday.
ItwasabigchangeinthehistoryofHarrah's.
Peoplesaythisusedtobeasafe,familycompany,andnowthatdamnedprofessorhasturnedthisintoaplacewherenobodycanfeelsafe.
Andthere'sanelementoftruthtothat,becauseitisresultsthatmakeanyofussafe.
385Thediminutionintheauthorityofthegeneralmanagerateachcasinohadconsequencesthroughoutthesupervisoryhierarchy.
WhenDarleneJespersenwasfired,hersupervisorwasjustcarryingoutorders.
Jespersensaid,Thesupervisorsaidthiswasacorporatedecision.
Isaidthishasnothingtodowithmyjob,andI'mnotdoingit.
It'sdegrading.
Isaid,I'm44yearsoldandI'mtiredofbeingtoldhowtolookanddress.
I'mtiredandI'mnotdoingit,notafteryouletmedothisfor20years.
Icouldtellthesupervisorwasconcernedaboutmyjob.
386Jespersen'ssupervisormayhavebeen"concerned"aboutherjobandmayhavebeenreluctanttoenforcetheHarrah'snew"PersonalBest"policy,buttheHarrah'smanagementstructureunderLovemanwouldnothavepermittedasupervisortomakeexceptionstocorporatepolicies.
Ironically,thepersonalloyaltythathaddevelopedbetweenJespersenandhercustomers,asdemonstratedbythefactthatsomeofthemreferredtothesportsbarinHarrah'sRenoCasinowheresheworkedas"Darlene'sBar,"387waspreciselythetypeofpersonalloyaltythatLovemanwastryingtobreakdownandreplacewithloyaltytotheHarrah'sbrand.
EmployeeshadbecomecommodifiedaspartoftheproductthatHarrah'ssold—aparticulartypeofgamingexperience—aswellaspartofthedeliverysystemforthatproduct.
AsLovemansaid:"[W]efocusonjustonething:agreatgamingexperience.
Wearenotprimarilyforfamiliesorfordestinationgetaways.
We'reagamblingjoint.
We'rethereforpeoplewhowanttogamble,andthat'swherewewantedtocenterthebrand.
"388Becauseoftheimportanceofcross-marketingbetweenHarrah'sproperties,itwasthereforeimportantthatemployeesincertainpositions—deliveringthebrandedexperiencethroughcertainservices—haveauniformlookatalllocationsinadditiontouniformtraining.
389385.
BeckerinterviewwithLoveman,quotedinBecker,supranote368.
386.
GenderPublicAdvocacyCoalitioninterviewwithDarleneJespersen(Jan.
17,2001),quotedinSerafinaRaskin,Sex-BasedDiscriminationintheAmericanWorkforce:TitleVIIandtheProhibitionAgainstGenderStereotyping,17HASTINGSWOMEN'SL.
J.
247,258(2006).
387.
CorrectedOpeningBriefofPlaintiff-Appellant,supranote178,at5.
388.
BeckerinterviewwithLoveman,quotedinBecker,supranote368.
389.
Regardingtrainingofserviceemployees,Lovemannotedthat,underhisleadership,heinstitutedacompany-widetrainingprogram"forthefirsttimeinthecompany'shistory,"which"everysingleemployeeattended,"includingtippedemployeeswhowerepaidtheir"tippedwages"inordertocreateincentivestoattend.
Thetrainingprogramswererun"24hoursaday"toaccommodateemployeesonallshifts.
Lovemansaid:"AttheRio,inLasVegas,forexample,weran02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM76DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:1320076.
RefiningtheBrandThroughExpertise:TheImageConsultant—"Harrahizing"EmployeesToachievetheappropriatelookforitsemployees,Harrah'sturnedtoanoutsideexpert,muchasithadturnedtooutsideexpertstotransformitsapproachtomarketingandoperations.
390Harrah'scontractedwithTheWinningEdge,aLasVegascompany,whichadvertisesonitsWebsitethatitis"oneoftheleadingimageconsultingandcorporatetrainingfirmsinthegamingandhospitalityindustry.
"391Thecompany,foundedbyitsownerReimiMardenin1991,392isoneofhundredsofcompaniesthroughouttheworldthatnowofferimageconsultingtoindividualsandbusiness,forfeesthatin2006couldrangeupto$350anhourforanindividualconsultationandupto$10,000forafull-dayseminar.
393TheHarrah's"PersonalBest"makeoversforitsbeverageserversandbartenderswere"supposedlyworth$3,000each.
"394WhateveramountHarrah'spaidonitscontractwithTheWinningEdgein2000peremployeeorpercasinofordevelopingitsappearancepolicyandtrainingemployees,itwasclearlysubstantial,andthecorporationnodoubtviewedtheexpenseasaworthwhileinvestmentinimprovingitsbrandaspartofHarrah'sstrategytogainacompetitiveadvantageinthegamingindustry.
Moreover,Harrah'scorporateheadquarterswouldlikelyhaveviewedanysingleemployee'srefusaltoconformtothenewgroomingrulesasevidenceofdisloyaltyandevenasgroundsfordisciplineordischarge.
Harrah's,tobesure,hasbeenenormouslysuccessfulinitsmarketingandoperatingstrategies.
Itsinvestmentinintellectualproperty—e.
g.
,itspatentedTotalRewardsprogram—ratherthaninthemedcasinoslikeCircusCircushasgivenitasignificantcompetitiveadvantageinthegamingindustry.
Evenits"Harrahized"employees—deskilled,uniformed,constantlymonitoredandmeasured—haveseemedrathercontentwiththeirgoodpay,goodbenefits,and200sessionswith20peopleineachtogetthrough4,000employeesinjustfivemonths.
Attheendoftheprogram,youhadtopassatest—otherwiseyoucouldnotkeepyourjob.
Youcanimaginetheanxietythatpercolatedthroughthesystem.
"BeckerinterviewwithLoveman,quotedinBecker,supranote368.
390.
Seeid.
("Wegetfieldandcorporatepeopletogetherwithoutsideexperts,buildthestuff,andthanmakeitmandatorythroughoutthecompany.
").
Seealsosupratextaccompanyingnote368.
391.
SeeTheWinningEdge,AboutTheWinningEdge,http://www.
the-winning-edge.
com/about.
php(lastvisitedDec.
20,2006)[hereinafterAboutTheWinningEdge].
Harrah's"GroomingandAppearance"policiesincludethefollowing:"BrandOperationshascontractedwithTheWinningEdge,anationalImageConsultingfirmlocatedinLasVegas,tosetupandmonitorPersonalBestimagetrainingforeachpropertyincludinga'TraintheTrainer'elementtodeveloppropertyPersonalBestImagefacilitators.
"SeeHarrah'sBrandStandard,supranote298.
ForTheWinningEdgeclients,seeTheWinningEdge,ClientList,http://www.
the-winning-edge.
com/clients.
php.
ThelistincludespropertiesownedbyHarrah'smajorgamingcompetitors,MGMGrandHotel&Casino,BellagioResort&Casino,andtheMirageHotel&Casino,aswellastheU.
S.
Army,NevadaPowerCompany,NevadaWelfareDivision,andvariousotherfirms,includingaWashington,D.
C.
,lawfirm,severalmajorbanks,autodealers,manufacturers,andahighschoolfaculty.
392.
SeeAboutTheWinningEdge,supranote391.
393.
SeeAssociationofImageConsultantsInternational(AICI),FindingImageConsultants,http://aici.
org/find/finding.
htm(lastvisitedNov.
19,2006).
394.
Barbano,supranote193.
Accordingtoanewsreport,in2000femaleemployeesatHarrah'sSt.
Louiscasino"weregiven$50ingiftcertificatesformakeupandsalonservices.
"Mayerowitz,supranote157.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED77opportunitiesforinternaladvancement.
395Employeeturnover,whichisgenerallyhighincasinosandinthefoodandbeverageindustry,396droppedunderGaryLoveman.
397Tolow-skilledworkerswithnoorlimitedpost-highschooleducation,398Harrah'sfrontlineservicepositionsmaylooklikeverygoodentry-leveljobs.
ThestoryofthechangesinHarrah'smarketingandoperationsbetween1980and2000,andtheireffectsontheHarrah'sserviceemployees,isnotnew.
Itrecallstheconsequencesofthedeskillingofworkinthesteelindustryintheearlytwentiethcenturyandtheintroductionofscientificmanagement,newtechnologies,andnewworkplacerulesthroughoutmanufacturingandretailbusinesses,allofwhichreducedworkerautonomyandcontrol.
GaryLoveman'smockhorrorattheideathathisemployeesmighthavethediscretionto"think"isreminiscentofhowFrederickTaylormighthavereactedacenturyagotoBigBillHaywood'strenchantobservationthat"themanager'sbrainsareundertheworkman'scap.
"399Harrah'sgoalofreplacingcustomerloyaltytoindividualHarrah'semployeeswithloyaltytoitsbrandisbeingaccomplishedbycreatingauniformandgendered"Harrah's"lookforfrontlineserviceworkers,byremovingdiscretiontoawardevensmallcompsfromitslow-levelemployeesandreplacingitwiththetechnologicallysophisticatedTotalRewardsprogram,bydiscouragingitsemployeesfrom"thinking"ratherthan"knowing,"byreducingtheautonomyofgeneralmanagerstoruntheirowncasinos,andbylimitingsupervisors'discretioninhiringandfiring.
400Data,technology,395.
A1996studybyArthurAndersenfoundthatin1995casinoemployeesearnedonaverage$26,000ayear,whichwashigherthantheaveragewagesearnedbyemployeesperformingsimilartypesofworkinrelatedfields.
CoryAronovitz,TheRegulationofCommercialGaming,5CHAP.
L.
REV.
181,184&n.
16(2002)(citingNationalGamblingImpactStudyComm'n,FinalReport(1999)).
Casinosingeneraloffertheiremployees"tremendousopportunitiestoadvancewithinthecompany"and"tendtopromotefromwithin,throughin-housetrainingprograms.
"Id.
at184.
Aronovitznotesthatin2002Harrah'sadvertisedonitswebsitethatitprovides"one-to-onementoring,ongoingskillstraining,andoutstandingopportunitiesforadvancement.
"Id.
at184n.
20.
396.
SHOOK,supranote277,at174.
Seeinfranote496andaccompanyingtext(reportingdataonjobtenureforfoodandbeverageworkers).
397.
Harrah'sannualizedemployeeturnoverdroppedfromforty-fivepercentin1998totwenty-fourpercentin2001.
Becker,supranote368.
398.
In1980,whenHarrah'smergedwithHolidayInns,manycasinoemployeesintheindustry,evenatmanagementlevels"grewupinthebusiness.
.
.
[and]didn'thaveastrongeducationalbackground.
"SHOOK,supranote277,at90.
Whilelackofformaleducationisstillnotabarriertoentry-leveljobsatHarrah's,Lovemanmadeitclearthatheislookingforhighlyeducated,sophisticatedmanagers:"HeshookupHarrah'sculturewithanewhuman-resourcesapproachthatvaluedbrainpowerandleadershipoverindustryexperience.
"Becker,supranote368.
OneofthefirstthingshedidasCOOwastoreplace"practicallytheentirecorporatemarketingdepartment"with"thekindofpeoplewehavenow,whohavethehorsepowertodothiskindof[mathematical]work.
"Id.
Theresultisawideningofthegapbetweenmanagers(whoaregenerallyhighlyeducated)andfrontlineserviceworkers(whomayhavelimitedpost-secondaryeducation).
399.
MONTGOMERY,supranote34,at9(citingFRANKBOHN&WILLIAMD.
HAYWOOD,INDUSTRIALSOCIALISM25(1911)).
Seesupranote34andaccompanyingtext(discussingTaylorismasroutinization).
400.
Leidnerdescribeshowserviceworkersareexpectedtopersonalizeroutinessothatcustomersdonotresentthem.
LEIDNER,FASTFOOD,FASTTALK,supranote23,at35–36.
Harrah'scollectsextensiveinformationaboutcustomers'preferencesinfood,wine,lodging,andentertainmentandrequiresitsserviceworkerstoutilizethisinformationinservingitscustomers.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM78DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007surveillance,andruleshavereplacedhumanrelationshipsbuiltoncommunication,memory,experience,andtrust.
401Theknowledgeaboutthecustomersthatserviceworkersareexpectedtoutilizetosatisfythecustomers'needsisknowledgethatresidesinacomputermemory—inbitsandbytes.
402Theresultisadehumanizedworkforceinwhichtheindividualfrontlineserviceworkeristreatedasaproductordeliverysystem—robotized,homogenized,andfungible.
B.
Commodification:SexualizingFemaleBartenders1.
WearingMakeup:BrandingDarleneJespersen—"Iwasasexualobject.
"DarleneJespersen'sbriefexperiencewearingmakeupinthe1980swasmemorableforher.
Duringadepositionin2002pursuanttoherdiscriminationsuit,inresponsetoquestionsbyHarrah'scounsel,Jespersenrecountedthecircumstanceswhenshefirstlearnedhowshefeltaboutwearingmakeup:Q:Andafterheappliedmakeuponhalfyourfaceandlefttheotherhalfnormal,didtherecomeatimewhenyoulookedinthemirrorA:Yes.
Q:Andtellmeyourreaction.
A:Ifeltverydegradedandverydemeaning[sic].
IactuallyfeltsickthatIhadtocoverupmyfaceandbecomeprettyorfeminineinasexstereotypingroletokeepmyjobortodomyjob.
IactuallyfeltillandIfeltviolated.
Q:Didyouattemptthereaftertoactuallywearmakeupandcomplywithyouremployer'sdesirethatyouhaveamakeuplookversusyournormalfaceA:Yes.
Q:HowlongdidyoutrytowearmakeupA:Justacoupleofweeks.
Q:AndwhatwasthatexperiencelikeSeeHarrah'sBrandStandard,supranote298,at83(requiring,aspartoftheirjobdescription,thatHarrah'sbartenders"providepersonalizedserviceanduse[]guestnames").
Indefendingthispracticeagainstclaimsthatit"isintrusiveandsmacksof'BigBrother,'"JanJones,aHarrah'sseniorvicepresident,said"'Ilookatitasbeingsmartmarketers.
'"SHOOK,supranote277,at292(quotinginterviewbyRobertL.
ShookwithJanJones,SeniorVicePresident,Harrah'sEntertainment,Inc.
(May16,2000)).
401.
Shookreportsthat"[Bill]Harrahis.
.
.
creditedastheoriginatorofthefirst'eyeinthesky.
'"SHOOK,supranote277,at113.
Hiddencamerasandsecurityguardsareubiquitousincasinostoguardagainsttheftandcheating,andhavebeenmandatedbygamingcommissions.
Id.
at113–14.
Thehiddencamerascanalsobeusedtoobserveandrecordhowemployeesappear.
Onescholar,drawingontheworkofFoucault,writes,"Casinos'sophisticatedsurveillancemechanismsensurethatsubjectsareneversurewhentheyarebeingobserved(orbelievetheyarealwaysbeingobserved)andthusdisciplinethemselves.
"BayarddeVolo,supranote325,at349.
402.
CameronLynneMacdonaldandCarmenSirianniwoulddescribethisas"routinizationandscripting,"a"managementapproach[that]advocatesthe'substitutionoftechnologyformotivation,'replacingspontaneousinteractionwithpredeterminedscriptsandsupplantingworkerdecision-makingwithmanagementdesign.
Proponentsofthismodelarguethatitprovidesbothmanagersandcustomerswithamodicumofconsistencyandfewsurprises.
"Macdonald&Sirianni,TheServiceSociety,supranote22,at6.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED79A:Itwas—Ifeltthatit—itprohibitedmefromdoingmyjob.
Ifeltexposed.
IactuallyfeltlikeIwasnaked.
Imean,I—IfeltthatI—wasbeingpushedintohavingtoberevealedorforcedtobefemininetodothatjob,tostayemployed,whenithadnothingtodowiththemakingofadrink.
IfeltthatIhadbecomedolledupandthatIwasasexualobject.
Q:Andhowlongdidyouthen,eventhoughfeelingthatway,attempttocomplyHowlongdidyoumakeitA:Icouldonlydoitforacoupleofweeks.
Q:AndthenwhathappenedA:It—itwastooharmful.
Itaffectedmyself-dignity.
ItportrayedmeinarolethatIwasn'tcomfortable,thatIwasn'ttakenseriouslyasmyself.
Ialsofeelthatittookawaymycredibilityasanindividualandasaperson.
Iwas—itdemandedthat—thatmyjobperformancewasbasedonhowIlookandnotonhowIdidmywork.
Q:SowhatdidyoudoHowdidyoustopA:Iwent—Ijuststopped.
AndIwenthomeandthrewthemakeupinthegarbage.
Q:Andwhenyoushowedbackupforworkafteratwo-weekperiodofwearingmakeupandthencameinnotwearingmakeupagain,what,ifanything,occurred—A:Nothing.
Q:—betweenyouandyouremployerA:Nothingwaseversaidforseveralyears.
403Thisincident,occurringmanyyearsbeforeHarrah'sadoptedandbegantoenforceits"PersonalBest"groomingpolicyin2000,determinedbothJespersen'sresponsetothenewpolicyandherexpectationsofhowshewouldbetreated.
Buthernarrativeoftheincidentraisesseveralquestions.
Whywouldayoung,clean-scrubbed,fresh-faced,twenty-somethingwoman,workingasabartenderatacasinoinReno,Nevada,inthe1980s,havehad—andcontinuetohave—suchastrongreactiontowearingmakeup,evenifitmightcostherherjobItistemptingtoassumeJespersenabhorredwearingmakeupbecauseitsubvertedhersexualidentityasalesbianandthatherlawsuitwasabouttherightsoflesbianstoexpresstheirsexualidentityintheworkplace.
404ThefocusonJespersen'ssexualidentityasanexplanationforheraversiontomakeup,however,drawsattentionawayfromtheroleofsocialclass,sex,andsexualityinthecasinoindustrygenerally(andparticularlyatHarrah's),inbrandingemployeesalongexplicitlysexualizedandheterosexuallinesthatenforcesubordinationoffemaleserviceworkers.
403.
DepositionofDarleneBettyJespersen,supranote313.
404.
SeegenerallyKirstenDellinger&ChristineL.
Williams,MakeupatWork:NegotiatingAppearanceRulesintheWorkplace,11GENDER&SOC'Y151,160–61,164(Apr.
1997).
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM80DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:1320072.
SellingSexuality:TheBusinessofCasinoGaminga.
ShowgirlsCasinosinNevadaandelsewheresold,andcontinuetosell,thesexualdisplayofwomen'sbodiesinelaboratestagedshowsandtheallureofservicebybeautifulandskimpilycladcocktailwaitressesonthecasinofloor.
405Patronsarrivedatcasinoresortswiththeexpectationthatpartoftheexperiencemightincludesexualrelationswithacompanion,acolleague,orastrangerwhomightbeawaitress,ashowgirl,orevenaprostitute.
AshistorianDavidSchwartzreported:[B]ythelate1940s,casinoresortswereinexorablyidentifiedinthepublicmindasalandscapeofsexualpossibility—nocoincidence,sincecasinopublicistsrelentlesslypepperedthepopularpress,visitors,andanyonewhogotnearwithvisionsofoff-dutyshowgirlsloungingbythepoolorflutteringaboutthecrapstables.
406Beginninginthelate1950s,showsontheLasVegasStripfeaturedtoplessfemaledancersinelaboratelystagedproductions.
407Thesestylizedshowsbecame"astapleoftheStrip"408thatisonlynowindecline.
409TheyarebeingreplacedincasinosontheLasVegasStripandelsewherewith"Broadwaymusicalsononeendofthespectrumandsexuallyexplicitfemalerevuesontheother.
"410BillHarrah'sRenoandLakeTahoecasinoshows,however,werealwaysslightlymoremodestthanthetoplessshowsoftheLasVegasStrip.
TheheadofentertainmentatHarrah'scasinosinthe1960sand1970sdescribedBillHarrah'sviews:WehadapolicythatnoactcouldappearatHarrah'sthatcouldn'tbeviewedontelevision.
.
.
.
Thismeantnonudityorobscenelanguage.
Billdidn'twant405.
SeeBayarddeVolo,supranote325,at347.
406.
SCHWARTZ,supranote288,at58–59.
407.
Id.
at94.
Schwartzwrites,"[s]howslikethisdefinedcasinoresortentertainmentforageneration:galatoplessFrench-themedextravaganzasbecameasinequanonofaStripvacation.
"Id.
at95.
Schwartznotesthatinstallationofacasinoshowcouldcost"over$5millionbytheearly1960s.
"Id.
Despitetheirhighinitialproductioncost,semi-nudefemalerevuesprovedtoberelativelylessexpensivethancontractingwithstarperformers.
Id.
408.
Id.
at94.
409.
Oneofthelastsurvivingmajorshows,"Jubilee,"justcompleteditstwenty-fifth-yearanniversaryatBally'sLasVegascasinoresort,apropertynowbelongingtoHarrah'sEntertainment.
TheNewYorkTimesreviewoftheshowofferedthisdescription:Justasintheolddays,theshowfeatures3,000gallonsofwaterspillingfromasinkingTitanic;ahypersexedSamsonandDelihahdoingaballeticduetinG-strings;girlsinbaroquebutbriefcostumesfloatingdownfromtheceilingonplatformsabovetheaudience'shead.
Theshowculminateswitha"PresentationofOurGrandandGloriousBeauties,"whoplumewithostrich-orpheasant-featherheaddresses,someonscaffoldsaswideastheirarmspans.
ErikaKinetz,TheTwilightoftheOstrich-Plumed,Rhinestone-BrassieredLasVegasShowgirl,N.
Y.
TIMES,Aug.
13,2006,§2(Arts&Leisure),at1.
410.
Id.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED81anyofhiscustomerstoevercomeinandbeembarrassedbyashow.
Hedidn'tthinkyoushouldtakeyourwifeoutandhaveherbeoffended.
411HistorianDavidSchwartznotesthat,ascasinosbecamecorporatizedduringthe1970s,"casinooperatorscontinuedtousesextosellthecasinoresortexperience.
"412LasVegas,asalways,ledtheway:"SeminuderevuescontinuedtobetheextravagantcenterpiecesofStripshowrooms,theLasVegasNewsBureaupersistedinchurningout'cheesecake'photosofsmilingnubileyoungwomeninLasVegas,andpromotionaladvertisementsandbrochures,ifanything,becameracierinthecorporateyears.
"413By1980,Harrah's,nowownedbyHolidayInnsandmovingintotheAtlanticCitymarket,wouldhavefeltpressuretocompetewiththeentertainmentfoundinLasVegasshowrooms.
Theseshows,withtheirglamorousbutuntouchableshowgirls,wereubiquitousintheNevadacasinoindustrythatJespersenenteredinthe1980s.
ErikaKinetzwritesthat"what'schangedsince[theearly1980s]areattitudestowardwomen'sbodies,nakedbodiesinparticular.
Onceuponatimethechancetogazeattheseinaccessiblebeautieswasrareenoughtobetitillating,whilestillrespectableenoughtobringthemissusto.
"414On-stage,theshowgirlswere(andare)beautiful,butitisanartificialandexaggeratedbeautyachievedwithheavyuseofcosmetics—liquideyeliner,falseeyelashes,blush.
415By2000,whenHarrah'schangeditsgroomingcodeforfemalebartenders,thenudityandsexualityin"adult"casinorevueswasbecomingmoreandmoreexplicit,withnopretenseofbeing"respectable.
"416Kinetznotes,"Today.
.
.
thesightoftoplesswomenisnolongersoshocking:theyareacommonenoughsightinmoviesandoncabletelevision.
"417411.
InterviewbyRobertL.
ShookwithHolmesHendricksen,VicePresident,Harrah'sEntertainment,Inc.
(Sept.
21,2000),quotedinSHOOK,supranote277,at51,299;seealsoid.
at36(identifyinginterviewee).
412.
SCHWARTZ,supranote288,at166.
413.
Id.
at166.
Schwartzoffersthefollowingexampleofthenatureoftheadvertising:"A1977Aladdinpromotionalbrochure,forexample,featuredanattractive,bikini-cladwomanemergingfromaswimmingpoolandloungingonabed.
"Id.
414.
Kinetz,supranote409,at20.
415.
Id.
at1(describingthetransformationofaself-described"plain"dancerinthe"Jubilee!
"troupeintoa"showgirl"throughtheuseofcosmetics).
416.
Forexample,Harrah'sofficialWebsite,www.
Harrah's.
com,advertisedsexuallyexplicit"adult"revuesshowingattwoofHarrah'scasinosduringOctober,2006.
AtHarrah'sRenoCasino,theshowRockMyRidewasdescribedas"thesolutionforguestslookingforsomethingsteamy.
.
.
.
Withsexychoreographyandhigh-energymusic,.
.
.
thislate-nightadultrevuemaybe'everyworkingman'sfantasy.
'"Seehttp://www.
harrahs.
com/EventsDetail.
dolocationCode=REN&detailName=rock-my-ride-detail&eventTitle=Rock%20My%20Ride(lastvisitedOct.
11,2006).
Harrah'sLasVegasCasinowasfeaturingtherevue,Bareback,describedas"arowdy,wildandsultryshow[which]issuretohavebothmenandwomendancingintheirseats.
Beautiful,scantilycladcowgirlsandhandsomestrappingcowboyselectrifytheaudiencewithracyrenditionsofnewcountrymusic'smostpopularhits.
.
.
.
Ladieswilllove'TheWildBunch,'agroupof4hunkyCowboyswhogetupcloseandpersonal.
"Seehttp://www.
harrahs.
com/EventsDetail.
dolocationCode=LA&detailName=bareback-detail&eventTitle=Bareback(lastvisitedOct.
11,2006).
417.
Kinetz,supranote409,at20.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM82DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007b.
ProstitutesLegalizedprostitutioninNevada'slicensedbrothelsisasexuallyprovocativebackdroptotheexplicitsexualdisplayofwomen'sbodiesincasinorevues.
418Totheaudienceatacasinoshow,adancer—theoriginalshowgirl—couldbeanobjectofdesire,remoteandunattainable.
419TothepasserbyinthestreetsoutsidethecasinosinNevada,readingaflyerorbusinesscard,a"showgirl"mightmeanaprostitute.
420True"showgirls"wereandare"entertainersandnotprostitutes,"421buteventhereputable,corporate-ownedcasinoshavebenefitedfromthetantalizingambiguityofwhethershowgirlsaresexuallyaccessibleoroff-limits.
ThefactthatprostitutionisnotlegalineitherClarkCountyorWashoeCounty,Nevada422—wherethemajorLasVegasandRenocasinosarelocated—hasnothamperedbutratherhelpedcasinooperatorsinthosecities.
Incomplyingwiththelawbystrictlybanningknownprostitutesfromtheirpremises,thecasinoresortscanpromotetheirentertainmentvenuesasidealsitesforbothconventionsandfamilyvacations.
AndnocasinoinLasVegasorRenocangainacompetitiveadvantagebyofferingsexforsalenexttothecrapstablesandslotmachines.
Yet,sexualservicescanreadilybepurchasedfromlicensed,inspectedprostitutesinadjacentcounties—alimousinerideaway423—418.
SeegenerallyMcGinley,supranote315,at83–84(describingtheworkofprostitutesinNevadabrothels).
419.
"Evenwhenthey'redowntoG-stringsandpasties,whichisthefarthestthemostdaringofthemgo,theseskilleddancersareotherworldly,untouchable,toobeautiful,tooquickandtoomuchinthelightforthemeremortalswatchingthem.
"Kinetz,supranote409,at20.
420.
See,e.
g.
,id.
at20(describingthemenontheLasVegasStripwho"purporttobetraffickinginshowgirls"andthewomenwhoselltheirsexualservicesin"thefreefull-colorpublicationcalledAdultInformer:DéjàVuShowgirlNews").
NewsstandsalongtheStripdisplayprintadvertisementsforescortservicesandentertainers.
See2005photoofnewsstandsonLasVegasBlvd.
,LasVegas,http://en.
wikipedia.
org/wiki/Prostitution_in_Nevada(lastvisitedDec.
20,2006).
Shookwrites:Onanygivendayornight,asinglemanwalkingdowntheStripwillbeapproachedbysolicitorswhopassoutX-ratedleafletsadvertisingtheservicesofwomenwhowillmakeroomcalls.
Theseexplicitbrochurestouteverythingfromfull-bodymassagetototallynudedancingintheprivacyofacustomer'sroom.
Theyleavelittletotheimagination.
SHOOK,supranote277,at46.
421.
SCHWARTZ,supranote288,at58.
Schwartzwritesthat"afterthefinalshow,[thedancers]mingledwithcasinopatrons.
Contrarytolegend,theshowgirlswerenotrequirednorevenrequestedtosleepwithhighrollers[butwereintendedto'decoratethecasino.
'"Id.
Mostshowgirlsthen,asnow,"wereworkinginfieldstypicaltounmarriedmiddle-classwomen,usuallyassecretariesorreceptionists,althoughsomeweremodelsId.
See,e.
g.
,Kinetz,supranote409,at20(describingaLasVegasshowdancerwhoworksasecondjobasamortgagebrokerduringtheday).
422.
Nevadapermitslicensingofbrothelsincountieswithpopulationlessthan400,000.
NEV.
REV.
STAT.
ANN.
§244.
345(8)(West2005).
Countiessmallerthan400,000,canchoosetoprohibitbrothels.
SeeKubanv.
McGimsey,605P.
2d623,626(Nev.
1980)(findingthat"[Nevada's]legislaturedidnotintendtodeprivecountiesofthepowertobanbrothelscompletely").
ClarkCountyin2005wastheonlyNevadacountywithpopulationgreaterthan400,000,butbrothelsarealsoillegalinthreeothercounties,includingWashoeCounty.
SeeWikipedia,ProstitutioninNevada,http://en.
wikipedia.
org/wiki/Prostitution_in_Nevada(lastvisitedDec.
20,2006);seealsoMcGinley,supranote315,at83.
423.
AccordingtoShook,"[m]anyout-of-countybordellosprovideround-triplimousineservices.
"SHOOK,supranote277,at46.
SeealsoMcGinley,supranote315,at84,n.
139.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED83andprostitutesmayevenbeavailableortoleratedincasinos(asinhotelsnearlyeverywhere)whentheyareclandestineandunobtrusive,andparticularlywhentheyareinthecompanyofguests.
424Theubiquityofadvertisingbysexy"entertainers,"nevertheless,conveysanunmistakablemessage:SexinNevadacultureisacommodity,likegambling,afancymeal,aluxurioushotelroom,oratickettoseeanexcitingshow.
c.
CocktailWaitressesHarrah'samended"PersonalBest"groomingrulesexplicitlytreatedfemalebartendersthesameasotherfemalebeverageservers—specifically,cocktailwaitresses.
Withinthehierarchyofthecasinoorhotelbar,thestatusdistinctionbetweenabartenderandacocktailwaitressissignificant.
425Jespersenhadachievedherauthorityasabartenderwithhercustomersandco-workersbydintofherpersonalityandhardworkandwithouttheaidofacosmeticmaskdefiningherasa"pretty"(andpossiblysexyorsexuallyavailable)woman.
Afemalebartender,likeJespersen,whohadneverwornmakeupcouldhavereasonablyunderstoodthemakeuprequirement—imposingonherthesamegroomingrequirementsasthecocktailwaitresses—asloweringherstatusfrombartendertobarmaid.
AlthoughHarrah'smanagementmaynothaveself-consciouslysetouttomakeitsfemalebartendersinto"barmaids"in2000,itwascertainlyconsciousofthesexyimageofthecocktailwaitressinAmericanculture,ingeneral,andinthecasinoindustry,inparticular.
426Thelinkbetweenshowgirls,cocktailwaitresses,andprostitutionhasawell-knownhistoryinLasVegascasinos:Vegashadareputationforprovidingfreesexforitsbestcustomers.
DuringthedaysoftheMob,ahighrollerhadonlytosuggestthathewantedfemalecompany,andapitbossorcasinohostwouldhaveabevyofgirlslinedupto424.
Shookwrites:Intoday'sLasVegas,sexforsaleisavailablebutit'snotliketheolddays.
Themajorcasinosdon'tallowprostitutestosolicitintheirpropertiesbecauseit'sagainstthelaw.
Forthesamereason,casinoemployeesdon'tprovidesextohighrollers.
Theysimplywon'tdoanythingtojeopardizetheirgaminglicenses.
Theyhavetoomuchtolose.
SecurityguardsandplainclothesofficersatHarrah'sandothermajorcasinoswhospotafemalesolicitingonthecasinofloororinaloungewillpromptlyescortheroutthedoorwithinstructionsnottocomeback.
Aphotographistakensoshewillbeeasilyrecognizedifshereturns.
Ifacustomer,however,iswithaprostitute,aslongasshe'shisguest,that'sanothermatter.
"Whatwedon'twantispeopleonvacationbeingsolicited,"saidaHarrah'ssecurityguard.
"Butaguywithabroad—that'shisbusiness.
Besides,whoknows,shemaybehiswifeorgirlfriend.
"SHOOK,supranote277,at45–46.
SeeNEV.
REV.
STAT.
ANN.
§207.
030(1)(b)(West2005)(prohibiting"aid[ing]andabet[ting]anyactofprostitution").
425.
SeeBayarddeVolo,supranote325,at349(notingthat"[b]artendersareatthetopofacasinobarhierarchysupportedbyacomplicatedgenderhegemony")(alterationadded);id.
at361–62(discussingwageandpowerdistinctionsbetweencasinobartendersandcocktailwaitresses).
SeealsoAnnC.
McGinley,BabesandBeefcake:ExclusiveHiringArrangementsandSexyDressCodes,14DUKEJ.
GENDERL.
&POL'Y257,262,274(2007)(discussingthegenderhierarchybetweenfemalecocktailserversandmalecasinohostsinNevadacasinos).
426.
McGinley,supranote425,at262("Nevadacasinosopenlyandself-consciouslysellsexualappealbylimitingcocktailservingjobstowomendressedinalluringoutfits.
").
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM84DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007accommodatehim.
Chorusgirlsandcocktailwaitressescommonlyvolunteeredtheirservicesasaspecialfavortoacasinomanager.
427DuringherparticipantobservationofRenococktailwaitressesinthelate1980sandearly1990s,LorraineBayarddeVolofound"noevidence,notevenrumors,thatanywaitresswasinvolvedinprostitution.
Still,thisisanaptdescriptionofthepopularimageofcasinococktailwaitressesoutsideofNevada—ashowyyetunobtrusiveappendagetothegamblingatmospherewhoissexuallyavailableforaprice.
"428AlthoughBillHarrahdistancedhimselfandhiscasinosfrommanyofthemoretawdryandillicitaspectsofmob-runcasinos,thesexualallureofthecocktailwaitress,whodispensesfreedrinkswithasmile,429hasalwaysbeenastock-in-tradeofthegamblingfloor.
InenteringnewgamingmarketsoutsidetheorbofLasVegasandtheStrip,Harrah's,likeothercasinooperators,hasstruggledtonegotiatedelicatelytheboundarybetweencommerciallyviablesexinessandunpalatable(ifnotclearlyillegal)sexualexploitationoffemaleserviceworkers.
OnenewsaccountaboutaproposedcasinoinRhodeIslandreportedthat"[w]henHarrah'sNewOrleanscasinoopenedin1999,womenwhowantedtobecocktailwaitressesneededto'audition'wearingaone-pieceFrench-cutswimsuit,sheerstocking[sic]andpumpswithmediumheels.
"430Harrah'sseniorvicepresidentforcommunicationsandgovernmentrelations,JanJones,defensivelyandratherdisingenuouslyattemptedtodistanceHarrah'sfromthisstory,observingthatHarrah'swasonlyaminorityownerofthisparticularcasinoin1999:"'Thelocalpartnerswererunningallthehiring,'Jonessaid.
'NoneoftheemployeesactuallyworkedforHarrah's.
'"431Nonetheless,thecocktailwaitresseshiredthroughthisprocessallworkedundertheHarrah'snameandwerecreatingandsellingtheHarrah'sbrandinNewOrleans.
WhenDarleneJespersenwasaskedtoputonmakeupforherjobinHarrah'scasinointhe1980sandagainin2000,makeupforafemaleserviceworkerinthathypersexualizedenvironmentwouldhaveconnoted,atleastinpart,sexualityandsexualallure.
BayarddeVoloobservedthat"[a]waitresscouldhabituallyservedrinkswithoutasmileorpleasantconversationwithoutattractingmuchmanagementconcern,yetshehadtowearmakeup.
"432ForawomanlikeJespersenwhohadneverwornmakeup,Harrah'smakeuprequirementcouldhavebeenreasonablyunderstoodasanattempttomakeherappearmorelikethe"other"womenperformingservicesforcustomersatthecasino—thesemi-nudeshowgirlsandattractivecocktailwaitresses—aswellas427.
Shook,supranote277,at45.
SeealsoBayarddeVolo,supranote325,at355("Casinowaitresseshavealsobeenportrayedasafter-hoursprostitutes,keepingthehighrollershappyforthecasinoandmakingextramoneyforthemselves.
").
428.
BayarddeVolo,supranote325,at355–56.
429.
Id.
at364(observingthat"many[cocktailwaitresses]donnedunfamiliarsmilesandexpressionsthatdisappearedoncetheyreturnedtothesemiprivacyofthewaitressstation").
430.
Mayerowitz,supranote157.
431.
Id.
AsofDecember2006,JanJonesstillheldthesamepositioninHarrah'scorporatehierarchy.
SeeManagementTeam:Biography,JanJones,SeniorVicePresident,Communications&GovernmentRelations,http://investor.
harrahs.
com/phoenix.
zhtmlc=84772&p=irol-aboutusManageBio&ID=144675(lastvisitedDec.
20,2006).
432.
BayarddeVolo,supranote325,at365.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED85thewomenwhoadvertisedtheirsexualservicesoutsidethedoorsofthecasino—theprostitutesinthenextcounty.
ThecommunityactivistswhopubliclyprotestedHarrah'sgroomingrules"compare[d]themtothoseoftheMoonliteBunnyRanch,abrothelwhoseownercallshimselfthe'pimpmastergeneralofAmerica.
'"4333.
SexualizedBranding:The"Harrah'sLook"Therestaurantandhotelindustryhaslongunderstoodthesignificanceofgender-specificappearancecodesforcreatingaparticularimageforitsestablishments.
Harrah's"PersonalBest"groomingrulesasappliedtoDarleneJespersencanbecharacterizedasanattempttoassurethatitsfemalebartendersareasprettyastheycanbewithinanenvironmentthatplacesapremiumonsexy,beautiful,paintedwomenwhohaveaspartoftheirjobdescriptionstobedecorativeandsexuallyalluringtomen.
Enforcingtheruleimposeshardshipsonanywomanwhochoosesnottowearmakeup,whetherbecauseofsexualidentity,politics,religion,allergies,orjustpersonalexpression.
AsJudgeKozinskinotedinhisdissentinJespersen,"alarge(andperhapsgrowing)numberofwomenchoosetopresentthemselvestotheworldwithoutmakeup.
"434ButHarrah'srulesalsolimitthemakeupchoicesofthemajorityofwomenwhoprefertowearmakeupinboththeirprivateandtheirworklives.
Harrah'sgroomingrulesrequireaparticularlook,withparticulartypesofmakeup—alldictatedbyimageconsultantswhotrainthefemaleemployeeshowtobe"properlymade-up,"afterwhichtheir"PersonalBest"imageis"captur[ed]intwophotographsthatareplacedintheirfileandusedonadailybasis"astheappearancestandardtowhich[the]employeewillbeheld.
"435Employeesareevenexpectedtousecopiesofthese"PersonalBest"photosasa"visualaidwhiledressingforthefloor.
"436Harrah'shireditsimageconsultant,ReimiMarden,todefineandimplementthe"Harrah'slook.
"InlightofthefactthatMardenhadabackgroundincosmeticsales437andwasbeingpaidtoimproveandstandardizetheappearanceofHarrah'sfrontlineserviceemployees,shecouldhardlyhavebeenexpectedtoconcludethatHarrah'semployees—maleorfemale—lookedjustfinethewaytheywere.
Thewomen,inparticular,wouldneedspecificguidanceinuseofmakeuptoachievetheproperlook—prettyandfeminine(beautified),butdefinitelynotcheap.
AlthoughtheNinthCircuitenbancmajoritydidnotbelievethatJespersenwas"acasewherethedressorappearancerequirementisintendedtobesexuallyprovocative,andtendingtostereotype433.
Harrah'sDressRulesDrawProtest,LASVEGASREV.
-J.
,Feb.
17,2001,availableathttp://www.
reviewjournal.
com/lvrj_home/2001/Feb-17-Sat-2001/business/15468450.
html.
TheowneroftheBunnyRanchinsistedthatathisbrothelwomenhavemorechoicesaboutmakeup:"[M]akeupisoptional,hairmustbeclean.
Jeansarenotallowed,norarebarefeetorhouseslippers.
Everythingelsegoes.
"Id.
(alterationadded).
434.
Jespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,444F.
3d1104,1118(9thCir.
2006)(enbanc)(Kozinski,J.
,dissenting).
435.
SeeHarrah'sBrandStandard,supranote298,at80.
436.
Id.
437.
Mardenwas"SalesDirectorandNationalTrainerforBeautiControlCosmetics,aninternationalimagecompany.
"AboutTheWinningEdge,supranote391.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM86DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007womenassexobjects,"438thecourtignoredthecontextofJespersen'sworkenvironmentandthefactthat,asfarbackasthe1940sand1950s,"beautyads[have]explicitlyconnectedmakeupandsexappeal.
"439Harrah'sadoptionofitsmakeuprequirementforitsfemaleserviceworkersis,ofcourse,allaboutgender,socialclass,andworkstatus.
440Dressandgroomingruleshavetraditionallybeenusedtorestrainfemaleserviceworkersfromlookingtoomuchlikethenegativestereotypesassociatedwiththeirclassandtypeofjob.
Forexample,culturalanthropologistGretaFoffPaulesworkedataNewJerseyrestaurant—apparentlyinthelate1980s—thathadadresscodeforitswaitressesspecifyingthelengthofuniformskirts("'noshorterthan1and1/2inchesabovethekneecap'"),andprohibited"'elaboratemakeup,'"aswellas"darkhose,runs,dark-redorbrownnailpolish,visiblehairroots,and'visibletattoos.
'"441Pauleswrites:Theseinjunctionsseemintendedtoensurethatwaitresseswillnotappearcheap,animportantconsiderationinalineofworkthathastraditionallybeenidentifiedwithpromiscuityandevenprostitution.
Fiftyyearsago[inthemid-1940s]agirlwholeftherhometowntobecomeawaitressintheregionalmetropoliswas"generallyassumedtohavebecomeaprostitutealso,"andthereisevidencethatforsomecategoriesofwaitressesthestigmapersists.
442In2004,JanJones,aHarrah'svicepresident,defendedHarrah'sdressandgroomingrulesas"nothingmorethanhumanresourceappearanceguidelinessimilartowhatyou'dfindatanymajorcompanyinAmerica.
"443Moreover,Harrah'sknewfromitscustomersurveysthat"[o]urcustomershavesaidthatwhentheygotoacasino,they'relookingforanightoutandtheywantpeopletobewell-groomedandhavestandardizedappearances.
"444TheHarrah'smakeupdesignwouldnecessarilyhavetoachievealookthatwasclassyandattractive—just"sexyenough"tofitintotheexciting,titillatingcasino438.
Jespersen,444F.
3dat1112.
439.
KATHYPEISS,HOPEINAJAR:THEMAKINGOFAMERICA'SBEAUTYCULTURE249(1998).
Peisswritesthat,beginninginthelate1940sand1950s,theadvertisingofbeautyproductssentthismessage:"Awomanacteduponherdesireforamanbymakingherselfbeautiful,inordertocatchhisattentionandawakenhisdesire.
"Id.
440.
JudgeThomasrecognizedtheroleofsocialclassinhisdissenttothepaneldecisioninJespersen.
Jespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,392F.
3d1076,1083(9thCir.
2004).
Seesupratextaccompanyingnote247.
441.
GRETAFOFFPAULES,DISHINGITOUT:POWERANDRESISTANCEAMONGWAITRESSESINANEWJERSEYRESTAURANT103(1991).
442.
Id.
at103–04(citationsomitted).
Paulesoffersthisexample:"AcocktailwaitressinterviewedbySpradleyandMann[inthe1970s].
.
.
wasinitiallyhesitantaboutservingcocktailsbecauseshehadalwaysassociatedbarswith'looseliving,'andthoughtof'hardcore'barmaidsas'hustlers.
'"Id.
at104(quotingJAMESP.
SPRADLEY&BRENDAJ.
MANN,THECOCKTAILWAITRESS:WOMAN'SWORKINAMAN'SWORLD20(1975)(alterationadded)).
SeealsoDOROTHYSUECOBBLE,DISHINGITOUT:WAITRESSESANDTHEIRUNIONSINTHETWENTIETHCENTURY24–26(1991)(describingassumptionsinthe1920sthatwaitresseswere"loosewomen"orprostitutesandthepersistenceoftheseassumptions,"[d]ecadeslater,[when]waitressesstillcomplainedofmalecustomerswhoautomaticallyassumedwaitressesweresexuallyavailable")(alterationadded).
443.
Mayerowitz,supranote157.
444.
Id.
TheresultsofHarrah's"gamblerfocusgroups"alsoledHarrah'sin2001torequireitscocktailwaitressesto"weartheirhairdown"andtowearshoeswithhighheels.
Id.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED87environment—butthatwasnottackyorgarish—not"toosexy"sothatthewearerlookslikeacheaphooker.
Harrah'simageconsultantmighthaveanticipatedthat,inimplementingthe"PersonalBest"policies,Harrah'swouldhavemoredifficultygettinglow-wage,femaleworkerstouselessordifferentmakeupthantheynormallyused,445andingettingthemtoapplyitinthestandardizedwayrequired,446thaningettingwomen—likeDarleneJespersen—toevenapplymakeupatall.
Whatevertheexpectationswere,thepsychologicaleffectsoftheHarrah'sgroomingrequirementsfellonallfemaleemployeesmuchmoreharshlythanonanymaleemployee.
KirstenDellingerandChristineWilliamsarguethat,although"womenwhowearmakeupareseekingempowermentandpleasure,""wearingmakeupdoescontributetothereproductionofinequalityatwork,"andthat"institutionalizednormsaboutappearanceeffectivelylimitthepossibilitiesforresistance.
"447Theburdenofamakeuprequirementforwomenhaslesstodowiththetimeandcostofapplyingmakeup(asopposedtonotapplyinganymakeupatall),thanwiththeclassassumptionthatJudgeThomasrecognizedinhisdissentinthepaneldecisioninJespersen—thatallwomensubjecttotherulewereassumedtobe"incapableofexercisingprofessionaljudgment"abouthow(orwhether)toapplymakeupatwork.
448AsJudgePregersenacknowledgedinhisdissentintheenbancJespersendecision,449analyzingtherelative"burdens"ofHarrah'sgroomingrequirementsinthiswayplacesthecasesquarelywithinthesexstereotypeandclass-basedanalysisofCarrollv.
TalmanFederalSavings&LoanAss'nofChicago.
450JudgePregersenwrote:"JustasthebankinCarrolldeemedfemaleemployeesincapableofachievingaprofessionalappearancewithoutassigneduniforms,Harrah'sregardedwomenasunabletoachieveaneat,attractive,andprofessionalappearancewithoutthefacialuniformdesignedbyaconsultantandrequiredbyHarrah's.
"451ButJudgePregersendidnottakehisanalysisfarenough.
Whileitisundeniablytruethat,ashewrote,"[t]heinescapablemessageisthatwomen'sundoctoredfacescompareunfavorablytomen's.
.
.
becauseofaculturalassumption—andgender-basedstereotype—thatwomen'sfacesareincomplete,unattractive,orunprofessionalwithoutfullmakeup,"452itisalsotruethatthere445.
Forexample,whenMcDonald'sbeganhiringwomeninthelate1960s,managementpolicydictatedthat"[h]airstyleshadtobeshortandsimpleandmakeupkepttoaminimum.
Falselashes,eyeshadow,coloredfingernailpolish,iridescentlipstick,rouge,and'excessiveuseofstrongperfumes'whereprohibited.
"JOHNF.
LOVE,MCDONALD'S:BEHINDTHEARCHES294(1986)(alterationadded).
446.
Thestudyofwomen'sattitudesaboutwearingmakeupintheworkplaceconductedbyDellingerandWilliamsfoundthat"[n]oneofthewomeninterviewedrecalledaspecificwrittenrequirementformakeupuseevenwhentheirworkplacewasregulatedbyaformaldresscodepolicy.
Womensaidthattheythemselves—asopposedtoformalregulations—determinewhatconstitutesanappropriatelyattractiveappearanceandwhethertheyattempttomeetthosestandards.
"Dellinger&Williams,supranote404,at154,156(alterationadded).
447.
Id.
at153.
448.
Jespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,392F.
3d1076,1086(9thCir.
2004).
449.
Jespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,444F.
3d1104,1113(9thCir.
2006)(enbanc).
450.
604F.
2d1028(7thCir.
1979).
451.
Jespersen,444F.
3dat1116(Pregersen,J.
,dissenting).
452.
Id.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM88DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007isaculturalassumption—andgender-basedstereotype—thatlower-classworkingwomen,lefttotheirowndevices,arelikelytolook"unattractive"or"unprofessional"becausetheyweartoomuchmakeuporthewrongkindofmakeup.
Thus,aspecificmakeuprequirement,liketheoneadoptedbyHarrah's,reliesonbothclassandgenderstereotypes.
KathyPeissofferedanhistoricalperspectiveonthebeautyindustryfromthevantagepointoftheendofthetwentiethcentury:Theconnectionsbetweenappearance,identity,andconsumption,forgedinitiallybywomenbeautyculturistsatthebeginningofthecentury,haveinexorablytightenedatitsend.
Moreover,thecosmeticsindustryhashastenedtoabsorbandprofitfromthechallengesmountedagainstit,evenasitproducesthenormativeidealsofbeautyforwhichitiscriticized.
Ifimageandstylehavelongofferedwomenawaytoexpressculturalidentities,nowtheseidentitiesofferbusinessanewsetofimagestosell.
453Peiss'sreferenceto"business[es]"selling"images"refers,ofcourse,tothecosmeticsindustry.
Yettheconnectionsshedescribesgomuchdeeperandbroaderinsociety,assherecognizes,454fortheloneserviceworkerishelplesstoresistwhatever"images"ofwomenthelargecorporateemployerwantstousetosellservicestocustomersinitsmarketsthroughoutthenationoreventheworld.
Theprofessionalimageconsultant,forafee,mediatestherelationshipbetweenthebeautyindustry,thecorporateemployer,andtheemployeewhoisbothaconsumerandisconsumedasacommodity(beingtheproductserveduptotheemployer'scustomers).
Whethercollectiveactionwouldalterthisdynamicisfarfromcertain,aswillbediscussedbelow.
WhiletheNinthCircuitCourtofAppealsintheJespersencase"do[es]notpreclude,asamatteroflaw,aclaimofsex-stereotypingonthebasisofdressandappearancecodes,"455itsetsthebarforassertingsuchaclaimveryhigh.
IfDarleneJespersen'scasewasnotthe"right"caseforsuchaclaimtogettotrialontherecordpresentedbecause"itislimitedtothesubjectivereactionofasingleemployee,andthereisnoevidenceofastereotypicalmotivationonthepartoftheemployer,"456howwouldonegoaboutfindingthetestcasethataddressesthesesupposeddefectsRecastingherclaimasobjectivelyreasonableinlightofthecontextofthecasinoindustryandthehistoryofheremploymentrelationshipwithHarrah's,andframingherharmasaninjurytowomenofhersocialclass,mighthelp.
Aswouldquestioningwherethegroomingrulecomesfrom:Harrah'sgroomingrulesaboutmakeupwereprescribedbyanimageconsultant,whosejobwastosatisfycustomerpreferencesaboutemployeeappearanceasdeterminedbyherassumptionsaboutappearance,gender,class,andcosmetics,aswellasbyinformationfromHarrah'ssurveysandfocusgroups.
Ifthesegroomingrules—deliberatelyandcarefullydesignedtodeliver453.
PEISS,supranote439,at269.
454.
Intheverynextparagraphtotheonequotedabove,supratextaccompanyingnote453,Peissdiscussestheroleofemployer-mandatedappearancerequirementsasbutoneofthe"manyforces"—rangingfromsocializationbyfamilies,peers,andotherstoindividualexpressionsofstatusandidentity—"shap[ing]theculturalpracticeofbeautifying.
"Id.
at269.
455.
Jespersen,444F.
3dat1113(majorityopinion).
456.
Id.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED89theHarrah'sbrand—werenotintentionallybasedonstereotypesaboutwomen,itisdifficulttoimaginewhatwouldbe.
Shouldawomanbedeniedtheopportunitytoworkbecauseherfacedoesnotsatisfyaculturallydefined,historicallycontingent,class-biased,andgender-stereotypedimageofthe"appropriate,"beautified,feminineface,whenhavingsuchamade-upfaceisnotnecessarytoperformthejobPriceWaterhouseseemedtoanswerthisinthenegative;theJespersenenbancmajoritysays,intheory,"maybeyes,maybeno,"but,infact,wecannotevenpermitacourttoexaminethefactsoftheissueonthebasisofthismeagerrecord.
Implicitly,thecourtsaidthatacompanyshouldnotbedeniedtheprerogativetofireanemployeebecauseherfacedoesnotsatisfythecompany'schosenbrandimageforitsfemaleemployees—whichisaculturallydefined,historicallycontingent,class-biased,andgender-stereotypedimageofthe"appropriate,"beautified,feminineface—regardlessofwhetherhavingsuchamade-upfaceisnecessarytoperformthejob.
DarleneJespersen'sstrongreactiontobeingtoldtoapplycertainmakeuptoherfaceinordertokeepherjobasabartendermustbeplacedwithinthecontextofthegenderedhierarchyofthecasinoindustryingeneralandHarrah'scommodificationanddeskillingofitsworkersinparticular,ofthesexualizedenvironmentofcasinoshowsandgamingfloors,oftheopenandlegalizedsextradeinNevada,ofthepersistentmythofthecocktailwaitressasa"loosewoman"orprostitute,oftheubiquityofimageconsultantsandtheircozyrelationshipwiththecosmeticsindustry,oftheclass-baseddistrustofwomen'sjudgmentaboutusingcosmetics,andofthestoryofthefeminizationofbartendingandtherolethatmale-dominatedunionsandgender-basedassumptionsplayedinkeepingwomenfromworking"behindthebar"forsolong.
Seenfromthisperspective,Jespersen'saversiontohavingapaintedface—andtheextremepsychologicaldiscomfortitcausedherforthetwoweeksthatsheworemakeuponthejob—doesnotseempersonaloridiosyncratic,oranattempttoassertintheworkplacehersexualidentityasalesbian,eitherasanindividualorasarepresentativeofagroup.
Ratheritseemsanobjectivelyreasonableresponseinlightofallofthecircumstances—anattempttopreserveheridentityasabartenderandherdignityasaworker.
4.
PropertyRightsinWorkLaw,ReduxHarrah'scouldnothavelookedtotradedresslawtopreventacompetingcasinofromadoptingadressandgroomingcodeforbartendersidenticaltothebartenders'requirementsinHarrah's"PersonalBest"policy.
Thereisnothingparticularlydistinctiveornonfunctionalaboutthebartenders'uniformorcolor,andthemakeuprequirement,whichisarguablynonfunctional,ishardlydistinctive.
ButHarrah'scouldanddiduseitsabilitytofireatwilltoenforceitsdressandgroomingrulesinnonunionizedcasinos,andbecauseoffederalcourtinterpretationsofTitleVIIlawinthisarea—whichlegitimatetheemployer'ssex-basedbrandingefforts—thestatuteoperatestofacilitateexactingregulationofemployeeappearance.
Neitherunionsnor(most)employeesseemtocomprehendtheproperty-likeaspectsofthisintersectionbetweenbrandingandthelaw.
Employeesundervaluewhattheyareaskedtogiveupintermsofautonomy—iftheyplace02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM90DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007avalueonitatall—andemployers,aftertheirinitialinvestmentindevelopingthebrandingconceptandtherulestoenforceit,areableatlowcostornocost(because,inthecaseofmakeuprules,theemployeepaysforthemakeupandappliesitonherowntime)tousethebrandstandardstoextractsignificantadditionalvaluefromemployeeswithoutpayingthemforthisvalue.
Eveniftheemployerpaysitsfemaleemployeesforthecostintimeandmoneytopurchaseandapplymakeupunderamandatorymakeupruleforwomenonly—thusequalizingthecostandtimeburdensoneachsex—theemployeeswouldnotreceivecompensationfortheextravaluethatthemade-upfaceaddstothebrand.
Byrigorouslyenforcingitsemployee-appearancebrandtheemployerreceivesandkeepsthe"free"addedvalueofthebrand.
Thelawsgoverningtheemploymentrelation,notthelawsofunfairtrade,protecttheemployeragainstemployeeattemptstoresisttheimpositionandeffectsofbranding.
Theprimarysourceofprotectionisemploymentatwill,butthevariouslegalregimesostensiblydesignedtocreateorenforceemployeerights,includingTitleVII,aregenerallyinterpretedtoprotecttheemployer'sbrandinginterestswhenevertheyconflictwithemployeeinterests.
Perhapsthisshouldnotsurpriseus.
Thelaw'sreverenceforpropertyrightsiswell-established,especiallyinthecontextofworklaw.
457AsJamesAtlesonhaspersuasivelyargued,asetofunarticulatedassumptionsstructuresAmericanlaborlaw,includingthenotionthatcontinuityofproductionmustbemaintained,thatworkerswillactirresponsiblyunlesscontrolled,thatworkersarethejuniorpartnersinthemanagement-laborpartnershipandareobligatedtorespectanddefertoemployers,thattheworkplaceisthepropertyoftheemployer,andthatmanagerialrightsareinherentandexclusive.
458Theseassumptions,Atlesonexplains,tracebacktotheprimacyofpropertyrightsinAmericanlaw.
459TheyundergirdandstructurenotonlytheinterpretationofNLRAlaw,butalsothecommonlawdoctrineofmaster-servantrelationsthatcontinuestoguideemploymentlawandemploymentdiscriminationlaw.
Atlesonexplains:Duringtheactofhiring,theemployertechnicallyconcludesacontract,but,essentially,ithiresanassetthatisexpectedtobringareturn.
Overthecourseoftheworkrelationship,theemployerhasthepowertoseektoenlargethereturn.
Thegoal,ofcourse,istocreatethelargestpossiblegapbetweentheyieldofthisassetandthetermsofitshire.
460ButsupposethelawrequiredemployerstopayworkersforthisaddedvalueKarlKlareproposedthatthedefaultruleintheappearancecodecasesbeshiftedsothatemployerswouldberequiredtobargainforwaiversto457.
SeeCynthiaL.
Estlund,Labor,Property,andSovereigntyAfterLechmere,46STAN.
L.
REV.
305(1994).
Almostaswell-establishedisthelaw'shostilitytowardgroupactionandlaborunionism.
SeeJamesJ.
Brudneyetal.
,JudicialHostilityTowardLaborUnionsApplyingtheSocialBackgroundModeltoaCelebratedConcern,60OHIOST.
L.
J.
1675,1738–41(1999)(findingbipartisandropinjudicialsupportforthelegalpositionstakenbyorganizedlabor,andascribingittodecliningpopularityofunionsandlossofpoliticalsalienceofunionissuesintheeyesofthegeneralpublic).
458.
JAMESB.
ATLESON,VALUESANDASSUMPTIONSINAMERICANLABORLAW7–9(1983).
459.
Id.
at9.
460.
Id.
at14.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED91discriminateagainst,disciplineordischargeworkersfortheirfailuretocomplywithpersonalappearancerules.
461Theemployercouldthuspurchasetherighttocontrolworkerappearance,butshouldberequiredtopayapremiuminordertoobtainsuchcontrol.
However,changingthedefaultruleonworkplaceappearancecodeswouldbeunavailingaslongasat-willemploymentcontinuestostructuretheworkrelationandworkersarebargainingindividuallywiththeemployer,becauseindividualworkerslacktheleveragetoresisttheemployer'spowertocontractoutofthedefault.
Shiftingthedefaultrulewouldbemeaningfulonlyinaunionizedworkplacewhereworkershavejust-causejobsecurityandsufficientbargainingpowertoresistemployerrequestswithoutsacrificingtheirjobs.
However,laborunionsarenopanacea.
First,theoft-discussedweaknessoftheNationalLaborRelationsBoard'sremedialpowersandthedeferencetoemployers'propertyrightstomanageandcontroltheirbusinesses,evidentinbothBoardandcourtdecisionsundertheNLRA,cabinworkers'collectivepower.
462Second,asmajoritarianinstitutions,unionsarelikelytobereluctanttoadvancetheinterestsofnumericalminoritygroupsoroutlieremployeesintheworkplace.
463ClaimslikeJespersen's,ifnotsupportedbyamajorityoftheworkersinthebargainingunit,wouldnotreceiveunionsupportandthuswouldhavelittleinfluenceonunionbargainingpositions.
Accordingly,TitleVIIprotectionisavitalcomplementtochangesinunderlyingcommon-lawdefaultrulesandtoeffortstoshoreupworkers'collectivepoweratlawundertheNLRA.
SomeaspectsofappearanceautonomyshouldbemadenonwaivablebecauseoftheirrelationshiptoTitleVII'snondiscriminationmandate,includingemployerregulationsbasedongenderstereotypesordiscriminatorycustomerpreferences,orthatexposeworkerstosexualharassmentorabuse.
464Stereotypes,here,playacrucialrole.
Becausebrandimagesforsex-basedappearancecodesareproducedthroughmarketsurveysofconsumertastesandpreferences,theresultsofthesesurveysarenecessarilyaggregatesofconsumertastesanddemands—reflectingcontemporarystereotypedassumptionsaboutgender,sexuality,socialclass,andpower.
Wherecorporatebrandingattemptstocapitalizeonthesestereotypes,theemployerrealizesaprofitbyperpetuatingthestereotypes.
Similarly,theunion'sroleinanorganizedworkforceistoassessthecompetinginterestsofworkersandtoallocateitsresourcestowardadvancingthedesiresandviewsofthemajority.
Themajoritypositionwilllikelyreflectprevailingcommunitynorms,whichmayinturnencodestereotypedassumptionsaboutgenderandsexuality.
Thus,unionscannotnecessarilybetrustedtoresiststereotypedbrandingthattrackscommunitynorms.
461.
Klare,supranote92,at1448.
462.
SeegenerallyATLESON,supranote458;PaulWeiler,PromisestoKeep:SecuringWorkers'RightstoSelf-OrganizationUndertheNLRA,96HARV.
L.
REV.
1769(1983);KarlE.
Klare,JudicialDeradicalizationoftheWagnerActandtheOriginsofModernLegalConsciousness,1937–1941,62MINN.
L.
REV.
265(1978).
463.
SeeMarionCrain&KenMatheny,"Labor'sDividedRanks:"PrivilegeandtheUnitedFrontIdeology,84CORNELLL.
REV.
1542(1999).
464.
Klare,supranote92,at1449.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM92DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007AstheJespersencasedemonstrates,workerswholackboththeprotectionsofTitleVIIlawandthepowerofacollectivevoicethroughunionrepresentationaredoublydisadvantaged.
Ultimately,womenlikeJespersenareputtoaHobson'schoice:Selltheirfacestoservethebrandorresistandplacetheirjobsinjeopardy.
VI.
THEFEMINIZATIONOFBARTENDERS:FROMBARMAIDSTOBARTENDERSTOBARBABESHowdoesDarleneJespersen'schallengetoHarrah'suseofmakeuptobranditsfemalebartendersas"feminine,"fitintoalargerhistorical,cultural,andsociologicalnarrativeofwomeninbartendingintheUnitedStatesandtherolethatgenderstereotypes,sex-typedbranding,law,andunionshaveplayedinthataccountBartendingintheUnitedStateswasanalmostexclusivelymalecallinguntilthe1970s,dueinlargeparttothesuccessofunioneffortstomaintainamalemonopolyontheoccupation.
465Then,withinlessthantwodecades,bartendingwasfeminizedmorerapidlyandextensivelythananyotherpredominantlymaleprofession,primarilybecauseofchangingattitudesthatchallengedoldstereotypesthathadservedtosupporttheexclusionofwomen.
466Federalantidiscriminationlawledtheway,butchangesincommunitynormsaboutwomen—theirworklives,theirappropriatesexroles,andtheirrelationshiptoalcoholconsumptionandpublicmorality—shapedboththelegaldiscourseandthebehaviorofmaleandfemaleculinaryworkers.
467In1890,accordingtoU.
S.
CensusData,lessthanonepercentofbartenderjobsinAmericawereheldbywomen.
468LaborshortagesduringWorldWarIbrieflycreatedopportunitiesforwomentoworkinbartendingandservingliquor,butby1917,"twenty-sixstatesandthreeterritoriesweredry,"469andin1920theEighteenthAmendmentdecimatedwhatwasleftofthelegalbartendingjobs.
470FollowingtheendofProhibitionin1933,opportunitiesforwomenbartendersgrewonlyslightly.
Duringthistime,malemembersoftheHotelandRestaurantEmployeesandBartendersInternationalUnion,knownastheBartendersUnion,playedanimportantroleinkeepingwomenoutof465.
SeegenerallyDorothySueCobble,"DrawingtheLine":TheConstructionofaGenderedWorkForceintheFoodServiceIndustry,inWORKENGENDERED:TOWARDANEWHISTORYOFAMERICANLABOR216(AvaBaroned.
,1991).
466.
BARBARAF.
RESKIN&PATRICIAA.
ROOS,JOBQUEUES,GENDERQUEUES:EXPLAININGWOMEN'SINROADSINTOMALEOCCUPATIONS52(BarbaraF.
Reskin&PatriciaA.
Rooseds.
,1990).
467.
Cobblewritesthatwhereandwhenfemalefoodserviceworkersdrewthelinealsoplayedacriticalroleinshapingthegenderedlaborforce.
Theelitepositionofmenwithintheindustrywassustainedinpartbythereluctanceofunionizedwaitressestochallengemen'sclaimtoownboththewaitingworkinthefancier,moreformalall-malehousesandthecovetedworkofmixingandpouringdrinks.
Cobble,supranote465,at240.
468.
LindaA.
Detman,WomenBehindBars:TheFeminizationofBartending,inRESKIN&ROOS,supranote466,at241.
469.
MATTHEWJOSEPHSON,UNIONHOUSE,UNIONBAR:THEHISTORYOFTHEHOTELANDRESTAURANTEMPLOYEESANDBARTENDERSINTERNATIONALUNION,AFL-CIO129(1956).
470.
Detman,supranote468,at242.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED93bartenderjobsinordertopreserveamalemonopoly.
Initially,theBartendersUnionadoptedresolutionsthatimposed"blanketrestrictionsonwomenservingliquorbecauseitwouldmorallycorruptthem.
"471Waitresses,whowantedaccesstothehigherpayingfoodandbeverageservicejobsinunionestablishmentswhereliquorwassold,eventuallyprevailedwiththeunionlocals,butinexchangetheyrelinquishedtheirclaimtobartenderpositions.
472AsDorothySueCobblehasobserved,"formanywaitresses,tobeabartenderwasnotonlyunladylike,butalsounwaitresslike.
"473Thesesharedattitudesaboutsex-appropriatecraftdivisionsinthefoodserviceindustryhelpedperpetuatethetraditionalsex-segregationofunionsofwaiters,waitresses,andbartenders.
By1940,womenheldamere2.
5percentofbartenderpositions,474andmostofthesejobswereinnonunionestablishments.
WiththeonsetofWorldWarII,theHotelandRestaurantEmployeesandBartendersInternational,bythentheseventhlargestunionintheUnitedStates,475againfacedlaborshortagesintheindustry:25,000menandwomenfromtheunionjoinedthearmedforcesandaboutanother25,000wenttoworkinwarindustries.
476Thewartimedemandforbartendersloosenedunionrestrictionsonwomenworkingbehindthebar.
AsanhistorianoftheBartendersUnionwrote,"Thesturdybartendersmarchedofftowar,andbarmaidsoftenreplacedthem.
"477Followingthewar,manyreturningunionveteransreclaimedtheirbartenderjobs,displacingthefemalebartenderswhohadbeenwelcomedintotheunionandintobarsduringthewar.
Inmanyjurisdictions,localsoftheBartendersInternationalUnionlobbiedforandobtainedstatelegislationthatbannedfemalesfromthejobof"barmaid,"unlessthewomanwasthewifeordaughterofthemaleownerofalicensedliquorestablishment.
Sexstereotypeswereusedas"powerfuljustifications"inpassingandupholdingtheselaws.
478In1948,inGoesaertv.
Cleary,479theUnitedStatesSupremeCourtupheldMichigan'sstatuteagainstanEqualProtectionchallengetoitsclassificationdistinguishing"betweenwivesanddaughtersofownersofliquorplacesandwivesanddaughtersofnon-owners.
"480JusticeFrankfurterwroteforthemajority:Michigancould,beyondquestion,forbidallwomenfromworkingbehindabar.
Thisissodespitethevastchangesinthesocialandlegalpositionofwomen.
Thefactthatwomenmaynowhaveachievedthevirtuesthatmenhavelongclaimedastheirprerogativesandnowindulgeinvicesthatmenhavelongpracticed,doesnotprecludetheStatesfromdrawingasharplinebetweenthesexes,certainly,insuchmattersastheregulationoftheliquortraffic.
TheConstitution471.
Id.
at243.
472.
Id.
473.
COBBLE,supranote442,at168.
474.
Detman,supranote468,at241.
475.
JOSEPHSON,supranote469,at284n.
476.
Id.
at297.
477.
Id.
478.
RESKIN&ROOS,supranote466,at52.
479.
335U.
S.
464(1948).
480.
Id.
at465.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM94DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007doesnotrequirelegislaturestoreflectsociologicalinsight,orshiftingsocialstandards,anymorethanitrequiresthemtokeepabreastofthelatestscientificstandards.
481Asforstereotypesaboutmen'sandwomen'sroles,JusticeFrankfurterhadthistosay:[B]artendingbywomenmay,intheallowablelegislativejudgment,giverisetomoralandsocialproblemsagainstwhichitmaydevisepreventivemeasures.
.
.
.
Michiganevidentlybelievesthattheoversightassuredthroughownershipofabarbyabarmaid'shusbandorfatherminimizeshazardsthatmayconfrontabarmaidwithoutsuchprotectingoversight.
482Asfortheroleofbartenders'unionsinenactingsuchlegislation,Frankfurterconcludedthat"[s]incetheline[Michiganhas]drawnisnotwithoutabasisinreason,wecannotgiveeartothesuggestionthattherealimpulsebehindthislegislationwasanunchivalrousdesireofmalebartenderstotrytomonopolizethecalling.
"483Overthenexttwodecades,Goesaertv.
Clearly—anditssex-stereotypedvisionofbartending—buttressedunioneffortstokeepwomenoutofbartendingthroughstatelawsandcollectivebargainingagreements.
Between1948and1960,thenumberofstatesthatprohibitedwomenfromworkingasbartendersincreasedfromseventeentotwenty-six.
484AsCobblenoted,[b]artenderscontendedthatbarmaidsloweredthestandardsofthecraftbyworkingforless,wereincapableofbeing"proficientmixologists,"andwerenot"emotionallyortemperamentallysuitedforthejob.
"Theymaintainedthatwomencouldnothandleunrulycustomerswithoutmalesupport;thatfemale"moralandphysicalwell-being"wasendangeredbyexposuretoalcohol.
.
.
.
Oneunionofficialwentsofarastoarguethat"abartendermustbeagoodconversationalistorknowwhenorwhennottotalk,andyoushowmethewomanwhoknowsthat.
"485TheenactmentofTitleVIIin1964changedeverything.
Butittooksometime.
Themalemonopolyoverbartendingcontinueduntiltheearly1970s,whenstatestatutes—liketheoneupheldinGoesaertv.
Cleary—werestruckdownunderTitleVIIchallenges,aswellaschallengesundertheEqualProtectionClauseandstateconstitutionalgrounds.
Anexamplewasthe1971CaliforniaSupremeCourtcaseofSail'erInnv.
Kirby,486inwhichtheAttorneyGeneralofCaliforniadefendedthestatestatuteonthebasisofstereotypes—thatfemalebartenderscouldnot"preserveorderandprotectpatrons,"thatwomenneededtobeprotectedfrombeinginjuredbyinebriatedcustomers,andthathiringfemalebartenderswouldleadto"improprietiesandimmoralacts"andbean481.
Id.
at465–66.
482.
Id.
at466.
483.
Id.
at467.
484.
COBBLE,supranote442,at166.
485.
Id.
at166–67.
486.
485P.
2d529(Cal.
1971)(enbanc).
SeealsoDetman,supranote468,at245.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED95"unwholesomeinfluence"onthepublic.
487TheCaliforniaSupremeCourtfoundthelawtobeinvalid,andthestatebansonfemalebartendersbegantolift.
Similarly,duringthe1970s,sex-segregatedlocalsforwaitersandwaitresseswithintheHotelandRestaurantEmployeesandBartendersInternationalUnionwerefoundtobeunlawfulunderTitleVII.
488Aftersexdiscriminationlawsuitsbrokedownthelegalandcontractualbarrierstowomenenteringbartending,"thefemaletidesurgedforward.
"489Intheirstudyofsex-segregationofjobs,BarbaraReskinandPatriciaRoosconcludedthat"[t]hemostdramaticeffectofTitleVIIonwomen'saccesstomalejobsoccurredinbartending.
"490Cobblenotedthat"[b]artendingfeminizedmorerapidlyinthenexttwodecadesthanvirtuallyanyotheroccupation;bytheendofthe1980s,amajorityofbartenderswerewomen.
Afterclosetoacenturyofresistance,theunionopeneditsdoorstowomenmixologists.
"491Today,althoughthevastmajorityofbartendersarepart-timeemployees,asubstantialnumberworkfull-time:In2004,theBureauofLaborStatisticsreportedthat197,000individualsheldjobsasfull-timebartendersintheUnitedStates,outofatotalof474,000jobsinbartending.
492Ofthefull-timebartendersin2004,95,000weremenand102,000werewomen.
493Bartenders'earningsarelow:Nationwide,in2004,full-timemalebartendersearned$482aweek,whilefull-timefemalebartendersearned$392aweek.
494Thoughthewagegapbetweenmenandwomenintheirmedianweeklyearningsissubstantial–womenbartendersearnabout80percentofwhatmenbartendersearn—itcloselyapproximatesthedifferencebetweenthemedianearningsofmenandwomengenerally.
495Turnoverforculinaryworkersishigh:AccordingtotheCurrentPopulationSurvey,in2004themedianyearsoftenureinjobsin"foodservicesanddrinkingplaces"was1.
6years,comparedtoamedianof4.
0years487.
485P.
2dat533,534,541,542.
488.
See,e.
g.
,Evansv.
SheratonParkHotel,503F.
2d177(D.
C.
Cir.
1974).
InEvans,withsex-segregatedunionlocals,thewaiterswereassignedlucrativebarandbanquetservice,whilethewaitresseswereassignedlower-payingjobsinthehotelrestaurant.
Id.
at184–86.
489.
SeeCOBBLE,supranote442,at170.
490.
RESKIN&ROOS,supranote466,at54.
491.
COBBLE,supranote442,at170.
492.
Forfull-timejobs,seedataon"Bartenders"inTable2.
MedianUsualWeeklyEarningsofFull-TimeWageandSalaryWorkersbyDetailedOccupationandSex,2004AnnualAverages,inBUREAUOFLABORSTATISTICS,U.
S.
DEP'TOFLABOR,HIGHLIGHTSOFWOMEN'SEARNINGSIN2004,REP.
NO.
987,at10(2005)[hereinafterHIGHLIGHTSOFWOMEN'SEARNINGSIN2004],availableathttp://www.
bls.
gov/cps/cpswom2004.
pdf.
Forallbartenderjobsin2004,seeFoodandBeverageServingandRelatedWorkers,inBUREAUOFLABORSTATISTICS,U.
S.
DEP'TOFLABOR,OCCUPATIONALOUTLOOKHANDBOOK,BULL.
2600,at5(2006–2007ed.
)[hereinafterOCCUPATIONALOUTLOOKHANDBOOK],availableathttp://www.
bls.
gov/oco/print/ocos162.
htm.
493.
Seeemploymentfiguresfor"Bartenders"inTable2.
MedianUsualWeeklyEarnings,HIGHLIGHTSOFWOMEN'SEARNINGSIN2004,supranote492,at10.
494.
Seeid.
(givingmedianweeklyearningsfiguresfor"Bartenders").
495.
"In2004,medianweeklyearningsforwomenwhowerefull-timewageandsalaryworkerswere$573,or80percentofthe$713medianfortheirmalecounterparts.
.
.
.
In1979,thefirstyearofcomparableearningsdata,womenearned63percentasmuchasmendid.
"HIGHLIGHTSOFWOMEN'SEARNINGSIN2004,supranote492,at1.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM96DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007injobswithallemployers.
496Moreover,unionizationofemployeesworkingintheseestablishmentsislow:In2004,only4.
7percentofallemployeesinoccupationsrelatedtopreparingandservingfoodwererepresentedbyunions.
497Bycontrast,Cobblenotedthat"[b]ytheearly1950s,morethanaquarterofallworkersineatinganddrinkingestablishmentswereorganizedundertheHERE[HotelEmployeesandRestaurantEmployeesUnion]banner,andinlaborstrongholdssuchasSanFrancisco,NewYork,andDetroitunionizationapproached80percent.
"498Thefactthatwomennowoutnumbermeninthejoboffull-timebartenderisnodoubtinlargepartattributabletothechanginglegalregimeofTitleVIIandheightenedscrutinyofsex-basedclassificationsinEqualProtectiondoctrinethatbrokethestate-sanctionedmalemonopolyonbartendingjobs.
Manyaspectsofthejobandindustry,however,contributedtotherapidandextensivefeminizationofbartendingsincethe1970s:thedeclineinrealwages(partlyattributedtoa1966AmendmenttotheFairLaborStandardsActthatallowedbartenderstobepaidlessthantheminimumwageas"tippedworkers"),499therapidgrowthinthenumberofnewjobs(dueinparttotheexpansionofcorporate-ownedrestaurantchainsandfranchises,hotels,andcasinos,andthedeclineinbarsandrestaurantsownedbyindividualproprietorsandpartners),500theincreaseinfemalecustomers,thehighturnoverinjobs,thedeclineinunionmembershipandunionrepresentationintheindustry,thedeclineinmedianweeklyhoursworkedandtheincreaseinpart-timework,501theavailabilityofflexiblehours,502thedeskillingofbartendingtasksthroughstandardizedproceduresandtheintroductionofliquorgunsandothermachines,503theproliferationofbartendingschools504andtheeasyavailabilityofon-the-jobtrainingforbarbacksandcocktailwaitresses,andthedifferentialinwages505andstatus506betweenwaitressesandbartenders.
LindaDetmanwouldaddtothislist496.
Table5.
MedianYearsofTenurewithCurrentEmployerforEmployedWageandSalaryWorkersbyIndustry,SelectedYears,2000–04,inBUREAUOFLABORSTATISTICS,U.
S.
DEP'TOFLABOR,CURRENTPOPULATIONSURVEY(2006)[hereinafterCURRENTPOPULATIONSURVEY],availableathttp://www.
bls.
gov/news.
release/tenure.
t05.
htm.
The2004EmployeeTenureSummaryreports,"Nearly31percentofworkersage25andoverhad10ormoreyearsoftenurewiththeircurrentemployerinJanuary2004.
"EmployeeTenureSurvey,inBUREAUOFLABORSTATISTICS,U.
S.
DEP'TOFLABOR,CURRENTPOPULATIONSURVEY,availableathttp://www.
bls.
gov/news.
release/tenure.
nr0.
htm.
497.
Seedataon"Serviceoccupations:Foodpreparationandservingrelatedoccupations"inTable3.
UnionAffiliationofEmployedWageandSalaryWorkersbyOccupationandIndustry,inCURRENTPOPULATIONSURVEY,availableathttp://www.
bls.
gov/news.
release/union2.
t03.
htm(lastvisitedJune16,2006).
498.
Cobble,supranote465,at218.
499.
Detman,supranote468,at251.
500.
Id.
at249.
501.
Id.
502.
RESKIN&ROOS,supranote466,at63.
503.
Detman,supranote468,at248.
504.
RESKIN&ROOS,supranote466,at60–61;Detman,supranote468,at250.
505.
RESKIN&ROOS,supranote466,at63.
506.
Detman,supranote468,at251.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED97"changingsocialattitudesabouttheacceptabilityofbartendingforwomen,andthegrowthofasex-specificdemandforfemalebartenders.
"507Muchofthe"sex-specificdemand"for"barmaids"and"barbabes"ratherthan"bartenders"isclearlydrivenbygenderstereotypes.
Oneunionofficial"attributedwomen'sinfluxintobartendingtotheirappealtobarowners,whobelievethatwomenenhancetheirtrade,donotsteal,arebetterequippedthanmentorespondtoanincreasedfemaleclientele,andwillworkforlessmoney.
"508Therapidandextensivefeminizationofbartendingisalsoattributabletothesexualizationofthejoboffemalebartenders.
Someemployershavedeliberatelyrecastthenatureandrequirementsofthejobofbartendingtolureattractive(and,perhapsnotcoincidentally,lower-paid)womentojobsbehindthebarwheretheirpleasing,feminine—andevensexy—appearanceisasimportantastheirabilitytomixadrink.
509Forexample,aJuly2005jobpostingontheInternetsoughta"sexybartenderforametalbar.
"510Thebarwaslookingfor"girlstobartender,youhavetobe21+,openmind,energetic,sexyandlikemetalmusic.
.
.
.
Youhavetodresssexyandblack,wearmakeup.
"511SuchadsforfemalebartendersareubiquitousinpostingsonInternetjobsites.
PopularfilmssuchasCoyoteUgly512portrayfemalebartendersasscantily-clad,sexualizedperformers,dancingprovocativelyonthebarwhilepreparingdrinksforcheering,inebriatedmale(andfemale)patrons.
Injustifyingits1971Sail'erInndecisiontoabolishthestatebanonfemalebartenders,theSupremeCourtofCaliforniawrote,"Todaymostbars,unlikethesaloonsoftheOldWest,arerelativelyquiet,orderlyandrespectableplacespatronizedbybothmenandwomen.
"513Theironyis,perhaps,thatthe"improprietiesandimmoralacts"thattheCaliforniaAttorneyGeneralfearedwouldresultfromhiringfemale507.
Id.
at252.
508.
Id.
at253.
509.
ThefollowingnewsaccountdescribessomefemalebartendersinNewYorkCity:Shotglassesandbottlesofliquoraren'tallyoujugglewhenyou'reawomanbehindabarinNewYork.
Onanynight,countlessmentellafemalebartenderhowgoodshelooks,whytheylikeherandexactlywhattheywouldliketodowithherbeforethey'veevenorderedadrink.
.
.
.
.
"Weliketoprovideeyecandy,"saysCharlesMilite,co-ownerofUnionSquare'sCoffeeShop.
Heestimatesthat75%ofhisbartendingstaffisfemale.
.
.
.
.
Butmanywomenworkatplaceswheretheirjobistojustservedrinksandmakechatter&-[sic]andnomore.
They'reconcernedthattheR-ratedanticsatsomeofthewilderplacesleadmentoexpectsalacioustheatricsfromanywomanmixingcocktails.
RebeccaLouie,BarBabes,N.
Y.
DAILYNEWS,July23,2003,availableathttp://www.
nydailynews.
com/front/v-pfriendly/story/103205p-93398c.
html.
510.
Advertisementfor"SEXYBARTENDERFORAMETALBAR,"http://newyork.
craigslist.
org/(postedJune9,2005,12:49EDT)(onfilewithauthors).
Theadalsospecifiesthat"themostimportantpartisthatyouarebiorwillingtoputonashow(lesbianshow)wehavetoadmitthatthatshitsells.
"Id.
511.
Id.
512.
(BuenaVistaPictures2000).
513.
Sail'erInnv.
Kirby,485P.
2d529,533–34(Cal.
1971)(enbanc).
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM98DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007bartendersintheearly1970shavebecomethereasonthatmanybarstodaywanttohirethem—themore"improper"and"immoral"thebetter.
514Harrah'sRenocasino,however,didnothireDarleneJespersentobeashowgirl,a"coyote,"a"barbabe,"orevenacocktailwaitresswhowasexpectedtoweararevealinguniform.
515Shewashiredtobeabartender,ajobthat—accordingtodescriptionsofthejobfunctionsfoundeitheronHarrah'swebsite516orintheU.
S.
DepartmentofLabor,OccupationalOutlookHandbook517—doesnotrequirebeingeitherfemaleormale,andcertainlydoesnotrequirebeingafemalewhoisbeautifiedwithmakeup.
Jespersenwillinglyworeauniformconsistingofwhiteshirt,blackvest,blackbowtie,blackpants,andblack,nonskidshoes,whichtheJespersenenbancmajoritydescribedas"forthemostpartunisex,"518thoughitwasthetraditionaluniformofthestereotypicalmalebartenderharkingbacktothedayswhenmalebartendershadamonopolyonthecraft.
Theuniformwasfunctional,comfortable,andsafe,enablingtheHarrah'sbartenderstoperformtheirworkefficiently.
WhenHarrah'saddedstandardizedmakeupasanewuniformrequirementforfemalebartenders,itattemptedtogetfromthesewomenserviceworkersadditionalentertainmentvalue—toemphasizetheirfeminineappearanceasbarmaids.
Inthissense,thefemalebartenders'faceswerecommodifiedandsoldtothecustomersaspartoftheHarrah'sbrandedserviceexchange.
Notonlydidthefemalebartendershave514.
Seesupratextaccompanyingnote487.
515.
BayarddeVolocommentedthat,attheRenocasinossheobservedbetween1988and1995,Renococktailwaitressuniformsvaryyettendtoinvolveeitheralow-cutdresswithashortskirtoralow-cutglittervestandleotardtoppedwithatuxedojacketwithtailsreachingmid-thighinback.
Itistemptingtofocusonhowtheseuniformsobjectifyandthusoppresswomen.
Theyaredesignedwithheterosexualmaledesiresinmindandimposedonfemaleworkers.
Thus,theyinvitethemalegaze,celebratemaleleers,andpositionwomenasobjects,potentialprizestobewonbythelucky(male)winners.
.
.
.
[T]hewaitressesinmystudydidnotexperiencetheiruniformsasoppressive.
Sometimes,theyexpressedsomesortofsatisfactionandprideintheiruniform.
BayarddeVolo,supranote325,at356(alterationadded).
516.
A2006Harrah'sInternetjobpostingforbartenderpositioninReno,Nevada,describesthejobfunctionsasfollows:Provideswine,liquorandrelatedbarservicetoguestsatassignedstation,includingslotchangeforbarsequippedwithpokerslotmachines.
Providesfast,efficientserviceandcourteousguestservice.
Mixesdrinksaccordingtoprescribedrecipes.
Maintainsassignedstationinacleanandsanitarycondition.
Keepsassignedstationstockedwithallliquor,glassesandaccessoriesnecessary.
Accountsforbeginningcashregisterbank,allcash,complimentarydrinkcouponsandchargereceipts.
Servesnominorsorobviouslyintoxicatedpersons.
Mustbeatleast21yearsofage.
SuccessfullycompleteaHarrah'sBartenderschool.
FluentandliterateinEnglish.
Excellentguestserviceinteractionskills.
Harrah'sEmployment,SearchJobs,http://harrahs.
hodesiq.
com/careers/job_detail.
aspJobID=783702(lastvisitedDec.
20,2006).
517.
OCCUPATIONALOUTLOOKHANDBOOK,supranote492,at5.
SeegenerallyBUREAUOFLABORSTATISTICS,U.
S.
DEP'TOFLABOR,THE2006–07CAREERGUIDETOINDUSTRIES,BULL.
2601,FoodServicesandDrinkingPlaces,availableathttp://www.
bls.
gov/oco/cg/cgs023.
htm.
518.
Jespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,444F.
3d1104,1112(9thCir.
2006)(enbanc).
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED99topayforthemakeup—inunreimbursedcostandtime519—theywerenotpaidforthevaluetheirfeminizedlookspresumablyaddedtotheHarrah'sbrand.
Powerfulmalebartenders'unionsonceactivelyandsuccessfullyfought,sometimeswiththecomplicityofunionizedfemalewaitresses,tokeepwomenoutofbartendingintheUnitedStatesandpreserveunionhegemony;yet,today'smuchlesspowerfulunionsoffoodandbeverageworkers—nolongersegregatedbysex—seemdisinterestedinfightingfordress,grooming,andappearancecodesthatwouldensureequalworkingconditionsandopportunitiesforbothmenandwomenworkersintheirindustry.
TitleVIIwasonceapowerfultoolusedtochallengegenderstereotypesunderpinninglawsandcontractsthatkeptwomenoutofbartendingjobs;yet,itistodayaweakandineffectuallawinthehandsofjudgeswhoaffirmcorporaterelianceon"reasonable"genderstereotypesasabarriertojobsopportunitiesforwomen.
Thefactthattherearenowmorewomenthanmeninbartendinghasnotgiventhemmorepowerandstatus,ratherithascontributedtothesexualizinganddevaluingoftheirjobsnationwide.
Thehistoryanddemographicsofthebartendingprofessionsuggestthatbothunionsandantidiscriminationlawcanbeimportantagents,bothpromotingandresistingchange.
Ifunionsandjuristsdefermeeklyandunreflectivelytotheprerogativeofcorporationstoappropriateandsellgenderstereotypesaspartoftheirbrands,thepromiseofworkerdignityandsexualequalitywillremainunfulfilled.
Whenmalebartenderspersuadedstatestobanbartendingjobsforwomen,theyreliedonsex-stereotypedimagesofwhatattributesbartendersmustexhibit.
Theseweremasculinizedimagesofstrong,honest,level-headedindividuals—goodconversationalistswhocouldperformwellasmembersofthemaleclub.
Whetherhewasinahigh-classgentlemen'sclub,amiddle-classneighborhoodtavern,oralow-classrowdybar,thebartenderruledamaledomain.
Theintroductionoffemaleswasalwaysinasubordinatestatus—aswifeordaughterofthebarkeep,asbarmaid,bargirl("B-girl"),orcocktailwaitress.
WhenthisgenderhegemonywasbrokenbyTitleVII,andwomenfirstenteredthesetraditionalmalejobsinlargenumbers,questionswouldinevitablyariseforeachwomanbecomingabartender:WouldshebeexpectedtoperformherjoblikeawomanorlikeamanArethejobfunctionsessentiallymasculineoronlysociallyconstructedtobemasculineDarleneJesperseninitiallyfitHarrah'simageofagoodmalebartenderinallofherpersonalcharacteristics—hermanner,herhonesty,herfriendliness,herphysiognomy,hersizeandstrength;herabilitytomanagethebar,themoney,andmixingdrinks;herabilitytohandleunrulycustomersandbeagoodconversationalist.
Theonly"problem"wasthatshewasawoman.
Critically,eventhoughforyearsHarrah'srecognizedthatshewasverygoodatfulfillingthefunctionsofthejobofatraditional(male)bartender—inwaysthatwomenhistoricallyhadbeenassumedtobeincapableofperforming—thatwasnotenoughin2000whenHarrah'srequiredthatshewearmakeup.
Atthatpoint,shealsohadtodisplayconspicuously,tobothhercustomersandhersupervisors,heridentityasafemalebartender.
Beingabartender,whichforher519.
Seeid.
at1117(Kozinski,J.
,dissenting)(discussingthereasonsthecourtshouldgivejudicialnoticetothefactthat"puttingonmakeupcostsmoneyandtakestime").
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM100DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007twentypreviousyearsatHarrah'swasa"unisex"(ornoparticularsex)job—opentomenandwomenonequalterms—hadbecome"sexedup"and"feminized,"meaningthatthecompanyusedbiologicalsextosegregateitsbartendersintomaleandfemale,andthenimposedonlyonfemalebartendersthesexualstatusmarkerofamandatory,femininemakeuprequirement.
Harrah'senforcementofits"PersonalBest"brandingstandardforfemalebartendersthusturnedhistoryonitshead,banningJespersenfromajobsolelybecauseshewasawomanwhoappearedandactedtoomuchlikeaman,despitethatfactthatshewashiredpreciselybecauseshecoulddowhathadtraditionallybeendefinedasaman'sjob,justlikeaman(indeedmaybeevenbetterbecauseasafemalebartendershewouldattractcostumerswhowouldseeherbaras"asafeplacetovisit").
DarleneJespersen,likeAnnHopkinsinPriceWaterhouse,520wastrulycaughtin"anuntenableCatch-22"521—requiredtodisplaywhatareconsideredstrongmasculinetraitsforherjobandfiredforrefusingtodisplayafeminine,paintedfacethatwouldundermineher(masculine)authorityinperformingherjob.
Harrah's'sex-stereotyped"brandstandard"imageforitsfemalebartenderswasjustaspernicious,andjustassexist,asthesex-stereotypedimagesofbartendersonceusedbymalebartenders'unions,legislators,andcourtstokeepmostwomenoutofbartendingjobsaltogether.
Boththenandnow,sexualstereotypes—whetherusedtorationalizeandlegitimatethesex-basedline-drawingfoundinmid-twentieth-centurystatestatutes,constitutionallawdecisions,andunioncontractsorintoday'scorporatebrandingasreaffirmedbythecourts—havethesameeffect:Theydenywomentheopportunitytoworkasbartendersbecauseoftheirsex.
VII.
(RE)FRAMINGJESPERSEN'SCLAIM:RESISTINGBRANDINGViewedfromapragmaticperspective,theJespersenTitleVIIlawsuitseemsratherpuzzling.
Harrah'sofferedtorehireJespersenasabartenderandallowhertoworkwithoutmakeup,butJespersenturneddowntheofferbecauseHarrah'srefusedtograntherbackpayandalsobecausetheyrefusedtoabandontheirmakeuprequirementforallfemalebeverageservers.
522Whywouldthe520.
PriceWaterhousev.
Hopkins,490U.
S.
228(1989)(pluralityopinion).
521.
Jespersen,444F.
3dat1111(discussingthewayPriceWaterhouseplacedAnnHopkinsina"Catch-22"because"theverytraitsthatshewasaskedtohidewerethesametraitsconsideredpraiseworthyinmen"anddistinguishingthisfromHarrah'streatmentofDarleneJespersen);seealsoCarbadoetal.
,supranote221,at144–48(discussingtheanalysisofthe"doublebind"(or"catch22")theoryinPriceWaterhouseandtheJespersenpaneldecisionandconcludingthat"onecanargue,asJespersenherselfhasalwaysmaintained,thatactingfemininesimplyhasnothingtodowithbeingagreatbartender").
Jespersenshouldhaveprevailedundereitheranarrower"Catch-22"theoryofsexdiscriminationorabroadergendernonconformancetheoryofsexualstereotyping.
SeeCynthiaEstlund,TheStoryofPriceWaterhousev.
Hopkins,inEMPLOYMENTDISCRIMINATIONSTORIES,supranote221,at65,91–103.
522.
SeeRhinaGuidos,FiredBartenderSuesHarrah'sOverMakeupPolicy,RENOGAZETTE-J.
,July7,2001,http://www.
rgj.
com/cgi-bin/printstory.
cgipublish_date=20010707&story=994571740;seealsoCarbadoetal.
,supranote221,at120.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED101plaintiff—asinglewomaninhermid-forties,livinginadouble-widetrailer,523andsurvivingonretailservicejobs524—notacceptthisoffer525WhydidshechoosetoopposeHarrah'sabilitytoimposeitsrulesonotherwomenserviceworkersWhowereheralliesWhenDarleneJespersenfirstchallengedHarrah'ssex-basedgroomingrulesandwasfired,avarietyofcircumstances—somehistorical,someaccidental,someinevitable,andsomeserendipitous—shapedthesubsequentdecisionsabouthowherclaimwasframedinherownmind,inhercommunity,inthemedia,byvariouspublicinterestorganizations,herlawyers,and,ultimately,bythecourts.
Jespersenveryearlyidentifiedherclaimasoneassertingcollectiverightsforworkingwomen.
Asherclaimmovedthroughthelegalsystem,however,thisnotionofcollectiverightswasdifficulttosustain,despitesupportfromvariouslocalandnationalpublicinterestgroupsthatassistedduringtheappealofherTitleVIIlawsuitinthenameofworkers'rights,women'srights,orrightsforgaysandlesbians.
Ultimately,JespersenlostheropportunitytotakeherTitleVIIcasetotrialbecauseHarrah'ssucceededinconvincingthecourtthatshewasanoutlier,supportingherlegalcasewithevidenceonlyofherownsubjective,idiosyncratic,individualclaim,notofharmstowomenasaclass.
AftershelostherjobatHarrah's,Jespersen'soptionswerelimited,andherfinancialcircumstancesweredire.
ThebeverageserversatHarrah'sRenocasinowerenotunionized,soshecouldnotbringagrievancetoaunion.
Shewasanemployeeatwill,soshehadnocontractualguaranteesofcontinuedemployment.
Asafemalechallengingasex-basedgroomingrule,shehadatenuousdiscriminationclaimunderexistingNevadaantidiscriminationlawandTitleVII,andpursuingalawsuitbeyondadministrativeremedieswouldrequiretheassistanceofalawyer.
Moreover,herformeremployerwasoneofthelargestcasinooperatorsinthenation,muchlessinNevada,withenormousresourcestodefendagainstanylegalactionshemightbring.
523.
In2001,MotherJonesmagazinereportedthatJespersenwasthenlivingina"double-widemobilehomesheshareswithamenagerieofstraycatsanddogsontheoutskirtsofReno,Nevada.
"Christensen,supranote322.
524.
AccordingtoKennethMcKenna,oneofJespersen'sattorneys,aftershewasfiredfromHarrah'sandsuedthecompany,shewas"blackballedfromworkinginthegamingindustryandnowholdsajobinaretailstore.
"Vogel,supranote195.
Jespersenreportedthat,aftershewasfiredatHarrah's,shehadtotakejobsthrough"tempservices"fortwo-and-a-halfyearsbeforesheobtained"arealjob.
"Schelden,supranote191;seealsoCarbadoetal,supranote221,at120(reportingthe"significantcosts"JespersenexperiencedasaresultoflosingherjobatHarrah's).
525.
AHarrah'sspokesman,GaryThompson,reportedtothepressatthetimethatJespersenlostherfirstappealtotheNinthCircuit,that"Jespersenwaslaterofferedherjobback,whichshedeclined,andHarrah'shassincemodifieditspolicy—althoughwomenarestillrequiredtowearmakeup.
"Court:It'sOKtoFireWomanWhoWouldn'tWearMakeup,USATODAY,Dec.
28,2004,http://www.
usatoday.
com/money/workplace/2004-12-28-makeup_x.
htm.
ThedissentinJespersennotedthatHarrah'shad"quietlydisposedof[its'PersonalBest']policyafterJespersenfiled[her]suit.
"Jespersen,444F.
3dat1114n.
2(Pregersen,J.
,dissenting)(alterationsadded).
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM102DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007Arationaleconomicchoicewouldhavebeentotakeherjobbackonthetermsoffered.
Jespersenwasearning$30,000ayearwhenHarrah'sfiredher.
526Asalong-timeHarrah'semployee,shehadreceivedexcellentbenefits—includingfiveweeksofvacationayearanda401(k)plan.
527Unabletofindworkimmediatelyaftershewasfired,shefiledforunemploymentinsurancefromtheStateofNevada.
TheNevadaDepartmentofEmployment,TrainingandRehabilitationfirstsentheraletterstating:"'Youhaverefusedtowearmakeupbecauseyoufeelthatitisdegradinganddemoralizing.
Theemployers[sic]requestwasnotunreasonable.
Refusingtofollowcompanypolicyismisconductinconnectionwithwork.
Youareineligibleforbenefits.
'"528Twodayslater(andratherinexplicablysinceshehadnotyettakenanyactionchallengingthedenialofbenefits),JespersenreceivedasecondletterannouncingthattheDepartmenthadreverseditspriordecisionandwasgrantingherunemploymentbenefits.
529Thissecondletterassertedthatshewouldbegrantedunemploymentbecauseshehadnorecordofinsubordinationformorethantwentyyearsofworkingforheremployerandbecause"theemployerchangedtheconditionsofemployment.
"530Notsurprisingly,Jespersendidnotobjecttothisseconddetermination.
ButneitherdidHarrah's:ThecompanyprobablyhopedthatunemploymentcompensationwouldmollifyJespersenuntilshefoundanotherjob,andtheywouldnothavewelcomedthepublicityanunemploymentcompensationhearingmighthaveprovoked.
Nevertheless,unemploymentinsurancecouldnotcomeclosetoreplacingJespersen'sfullwagesandbenefitsatHarrah's.
531AndwagesforotherbartenderpositionsinReno—ifshecouldobtainone—wouldnotbelikelytocomparefavorablytoherearningsandbenefitsatHarrah's.
532Evenwiththefinancialmitigationofthestate-provided,income-securitysafetynet,tofaceunemploymentaftertwentyyearsofrewardingwork526.
RhinaGuidos,RenoBartenderTerminatedBecauseSheWouldn'tWearMakeup,RENOGAZETTE-J,Oct.
1,2000,http://www.
rgj.
com/cgi-bin/printstory.
cgipublish_date=20001001&story=970454561.
527.
Id.
528.
Id.
(quotingfromlettertoDarleneJespersenfromStateofNevadaDepartmentofEmployment,Training&Rehabilitation).
529.
Id.
530.
Id.
531.
Forexample,asofDecember2006,themaximumamountanindividualcouldreceiveundertheNevadaunemploymentinsurancesystemwas$362perweek(or$18,824peryear).
SeeNevadaDepartmentofEmployment,Training&Rehabilitation,UnemploymentInsuranceClaimFilingSystem,FrequentlyAskedQuestions,HowMuchIsMyFirstCheck,http://detr.
state.
nv.
us/uiben/faq.
htm(lastvisitedDec.
20,2006).
532.
Forexample,in2005,fiveyearsafterJespersenleftHarrah's,themeanannualwageofbartendersfortheReno-Sparksareawas$15,950.
Eventheninetieth-percentilewageforthisareawas$21,310.
Bycomparison,in2005thenationalmeanannualwagewas$17,640,andtheninetieth-percentilewagewas$26,480;intheLasVegas-Paradiseareathemeanannualwagewas$21,600,andtheninetieth-percentilewagewas$33,820.
TheseestimatesarefoundintheOccupationalEmploymentStatisticsSurvey,U.
S.
DEP'TOFLABOR,BUREAUOFLABORSTATISTICSFORMAY2005FORBARTENDERS(SOCCode353011),availableathttp://data.
bls.
gov/oes/search.
jsp.
ThelargedisparityinmeanannualwagesforbartendersbetweenRenoandLasVegascanbeexplainedtoagreatdegreebythedifferencesintheextentofunionizationoffoodandbeverageworkersinthetwocities,asdiscussedinfraPartVII.
C.
1,notes534–605andaccompanyingtext.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED103forasingleemployerwouldbedifficultforanyone—ahardconsequenceforrefusingtowearmakeup.
Yet,thelocalnewspaperreportedthatJespersen"saidherdignityandself-esteemwereworthmorethanfinancialcomfort.
"533UnemployedandseeminglyaloneinchallengingarulethatnootherfemalebeverageserveratHarrah'sRenoCasinohadpubliclyopposed,534Jespersentoldareporterinthefallof2000,"Thisisaboutourcivilrights.
"535A.
FindingAlliesinCommunityOrganizations:TheAllianceforWorkers'RightsJespersenfoundherfirstallyinalocalgroupofcommunityactivists,theAllianceforWorkers'Rights("theAlliance"),arelativelysmallpublicadvocacyorganizationinNevadathatisbasedinReno.
536Earlyin2000,theAlliancehadformedacoalitionwithtwoothercommunitygroups—theNevadaEmpoweredWomen'sProjectandPlannedParenthood—toputpressureonNevadacasinostoabandonmandatorydresscodesthatrequiredcocktailwaitressestowearhighheelsonthejob.
537Concernsaboutthehealthrisksofhigh-heelshoesforwomenhavelongbeenraisedbymedicalprofessionals,538aswellasbylaborscholars.
539However,theCulinaryWorkersUnion,whichrepresentsmostofthecocktailwaitressesontheLasVegasStrip,hadapparentlyneverraisedtheissueofmandatoryshoestyleforwomenincontractnegotiations,althoughtheunionhaddealtwithindividualcomplaintsaboutthepolicy.
540Theunion'slackofinvolvementinthisissueisunderstandable:AlobbyistfortheNevadaResortAssociationprobablycapturedtheunion'sviewwhencommentingthatthehigh-heelshoeissuewas"muchtodo[sic]aboutnothing,"541andindeedmany533.
Guidos,supranote526.
534.
WhentheHarrah'sRenofemalebeverageserverswereaskedtosignHarrah'samendedPersonalBestpolicy,requiringallfemalebeverageserverstowearprescribedmakeup,Jespersenwastheonlywomaninthegroupwhorefusedtosign.
SeeGPACInterviewwithJespersen,supranote188.
AccordingtoJespersen'sattorneyJenniferPizer,otherfemalebeverageserversatHarrah'sRenoCasinofoundthe"PersonalBest"policyoffensivebutwereafraidtoexpresstheirviewstotheirsupervisors.
ConversationwithJenniferC.
Pizer,SeniorCounsel,LambdaLegalDefenseandEducationFund,inDurham,N.
C.
(Oct.
20,2006).
535.
Guidos,supranote526.
536.
InitsstatementofinterestinitsAmiciBrief,theAllianceclaimedtohaveabout300membersin2003.
BriefoftheNationalEmploymentLawyersAssociationetal.
asAmiciCuriaeSupportingPlaintiff-Appellantat1,Jespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,392F.
3d1076(9thCir.
2004)(No.
03-15045),availableathttp://www.
lambdalegal.
org/binary-data/Lambda_PDF/pdf/361.
pdf.
Thesignificanceofcommunity-basedorganizationsforworkers'rightshasbeenexploredbyAlanHydeandJimPope.
See,e.
g.
,AlanHyde,WhoSpeaksfortheWorkingPoorAPreliminaryLookattheEmergingTetralogyofLow-WageServiceWorkers,13CORNELLJ.
L.
&PUB.
POL'Y599(2004);JamesGrayPope,Labor-CommunityCoalitionsandBoycotts:TheOldLaborLaw,theNewUnionism,andtheLivingConstitution,69TEX.
L.
REV.
889(1991).
537.
DavidStrow,CasinoHighHeelPoliciesTargeted,LASVEGASSUN,Feb.
11,2000,availableathttp://www.
lasvegassun.
com/sunbin/stories/text/2000/feb/11/509835722.
html.
538.
Seeid.
539.
See,e.
g.
,MarcLinder,SmartWomen,StupidShoes,andCynicalEmployers:TheUnlawfulnessandAdverseHealthConsequencesofSexuallyDiscriminatoryWorkplaceFootwearRequirementsforFemaleEmployees,22J.
CORP.
L.
295(1997).
540.
SeeStrow,supranote537.
541.
Id.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM104DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007cocktailwaitressesdonotobjecttowearinghighheelsonthejob.
542Forexample,onewaitressassertedthathigh-heelshoes"areapartoftheidentityofwaitressesacrossLasVegas,"thatthey"justmaketheuniformlookbetter,"andinLasVegas"peoplewanttoseecocktailwaitressesthatlooknice.
"543TheAllianceforWorkers'RightsperceivedDarleneJespersen'sdisputewithHarrah'soveritsmakeuprulesasacorollarytotheAlliance'sstatewide"KissMyFoot"campaignprotestingmandatoryhigh-heelpoliciesincasinos.
544OnFebruary16,2001,theAlliancesponsoredademonstrationinfrontofthemainentrancetoHarrah'sRenoCasinopublicizingJespersen'sstoryandprotestingmandatoryhigh-heelshoerequirements.
545JespersenjoinedaboutfiftyAlliancemembersandothercommunityactivistsandcocktailservers;someofthesignstheycarriedread:"Harrah'sMakesaLousyPimp"and"Harrah's:StopPimpingUpProfits.
"546Bythistime,Jespersen'sstoryhadcometotheattentionofnationalmedia,startingheronherwaytobecomingaminorlocalcelebrity547andeventuallyprovokingotherprotestsinfrontofothercasinosinRenoandLasVegas.
548Herstorywastoldinnewspapers,ontelevision,andontheWebsitesofanumberoforganizationsdevotedtorightsforworkers,forwomen,forgaysandlesbians.
549InJune2001,whenaboutfiftyAlliancemembersandcasinococktailserversdemonstratedinfrontoftheVenetianinLasVegas,theirsignsread"KissMyFoot"and"DangerousNotSexy.
"RepresentativesfromtheCulinaryWorkersUnionwerenotpresent,550but542.
AfemaleHERErepresentativefromLasVegas,explainingtheunion'soppositiontothecommunitycoalitionspearheadedbytheAllianceforWorkers'Rights,toldonereporterthat"'Aniceheelslenderizestheleg.
.
.
.
Mostwaitressesarenotopposedtowearingaheel.
Ipersonallypreferwearingaheel.
'"JohnKass,"Consultant"CashfromUnionLeavesLevarWell-Heeled,CHI.
TRIB.
,Feb.
17,2000,at3N.
543.
Strow,supranote537.
544.
SeeBayarddeVolo,supranote325,at370–71.
545.
SeeGenderPublicAdvocacyCoalition,DarleneJespersenProtestinReno,Nevada,GPACNEWS,Mar.
30,2001,http://www.
gpac.
org/archive/news/notitle.
htmlcmd=view&archive=news&msgnum=0293(reportingonRenoprotestsponsoredbyNevadaAllianceforWorkers'RightsonFebruary16,2001).
546.
Harrah'sDressRulesDrawProtest,supranote433.
SeealsothephotographofDarleneJespersenwithprotestingcocktailserversholdingsigns,inAndrewBarbano,HumptyDumptyJustice,BARBWIRE,Apr.
14,2006,http://www.
nevadalabor.
com/barbwire/barb06/barb4-16-06.
html(lastvisitedDec.
31,2006).
547.
SeeBarbwirebyBarbano,Bulletin,Mar.
28,2001,http://www.
nevadalabor.
com/bulletins.
html#foxoff(discussingstoriesabouttheJespersenlawsuitpublishedinvariousnationalmedia,includingMotherJonesmagazine(Mar.
–Apr.
2001),Peoplemagazine(Dec.
11,2000),andthewebsiteofOprahWinfrey'sOxygencabletelevisionchannel),http://www.
oxygen.
com/oprah.
548.
Guidos,supranote522.
549.
See,e.
g.
,GenderPublicAdvocacyCoalition,http://www.
gpac.
org/;LambdaLegalDefenseandEducationFund,http://www.
lambdalegal.
org/cgi-bin/iowa/index.
html;Barbwire,http://www.
nevadalabor.
com/barbwire/barbcontents.
html.
550.
Becauseofthenatureofthesignsusedinsomeoftheseprotests,theofficialsandmembersoftheCulinaryWorkersUnionwouldhavenodoubtfeltconstrainedbythelimitationsonproductdisparagementimposedbytheSupremeCourtinNLRBv.
IBEWLocal1229(JeffersonStandardBroadcastingCo.
),346U.
S.
464(1953),alegalconstraintnotfacedbythecommunityactivists,aswellasquestionsaboutthepurposeofthepicketing,i.
e.
,whetheritwasinformational,organizational,asecondaryboycott,etc.
See,e.
g.
,NLRA§§8(b)(7),8(b)(4),codifiedat29U.
S.
C.
§§158(b)(7),158(b)(4)(2000).
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED105DarleneJespersenwas.
AlthoughHarrah'sassertedthatshewastheonlypersonoutofits4,200employeeswhohadcomplainedaboutits"PersonalBest"dressandgroomingpolicy,551bythetimeshefiledherlawsuit,Jespersen'schallengetoHarrah'ssexualizationofitsfemalebeverageserverswaspartofalargerdisputebroughtbycommunityactivistsandfemalecasinoemployeesagainsthowthecasinosgenerallyusedsexualizeddress,appearance,andgroomingcodestoexploit,harm,anddemeanfemalebeverageservers.
Whethertheywererequiredtowearhigh-heelshoes,ormakeup,orsmall-size,tightuniforms,manywomenworkersfeltthecasinoswere"pimping"them.
B.
ModesofResistanceatLaw:IndividualLawsuits1.
TheAdministrativeProcessInaninterviewwithGenderPACNationalNewsinJanuary,2001,JespersendescribedhowshecametofileasexdiscriminationlawsuitagainstHarrah'sOperatingCompany:IfeltitwaswrongwhatHarrah'swasdoing.
Ifelttherehadtobesomelegalrecourse.
IspoketotheNevadaEqualRightsCommission.
.
.
evenbeforeIgotterminated.
.
.
.
TheEqualRightsCommissionsaidit[Harrah'smakeuprequirement]wasareasonablerequest.
Iaskedwhetheritwasdiscrimination.
Theysaidithadbeentriedincourtandthatitwasdecidedthatemployerscouldaskwomentowearmake-upbecausewomenweresupposedtowearmakeup.
552Giventhedifficultyofprevailinginlegalchallengestosex-baseddressandgroomingpolicies,itisnotsurprisingthattheNevadaEqualRightsCommissionsawHarrah'smakeuppolicyasnondiscriminatoryandessentiallytriedtodiscourageJespersenfrompursuingaclaimagainstthecompany.
NorisitunusualthattheEEOCdidnotpursueJespersen'ssexdiscriminationclaimagainstHarrah'sonitsowninitiative,orlaterinterveneinherlawsuitwhenitbecameclearthatthecaseraisedimportantinterpretiveanddoctrinalissuesunderTitleVII.
553MichaelSelmihasdescribedmanyofthereasonsthattheEEOCavoidsinitiatingorinterveningincontroversialemploymentItisdifficulttofaulttheunionforitsfailuretointercedegiventheSupremeCourt'sclearmessageintheJeffersonStandardcasethatworkers'senseofself-worthderivedfromthequalityoftheproductorservicethattheyproducehasnoprotectiblevalueatlaw.
See346U.
S.
at476(findingthattheworkers'attackonthequalityofthetelevisionprogrammingoftheiremployerhadnothingtodowiththelabordisputebecauseit"madenoreferencetowages,hoursorworkingconditions.
Thepoliciesattackedwerethoseoffinanceandpublicrelationsforwhichmanagement,nottechnicians,mustberesponsible.
").
551.
PeterSchelden,AppealsCourttoHearHarrah'sGenderDiscriminationCase,SPARKSTRIB.
(Nev.
),Dec.
2,2003,availableathttp://www.
nevadalabor.
com/barbwire/barb03/tribjespg616.
html.
552.
GPACInterviewwithJespersen,supranote188.
JespersenalsosaidinthisinterviewthatshehadcalledtheNevadaLaborBoardandthattheytoldherthatHarrah's"couldfire[her]foranyreasonbecauseit'saright-to-workstate.
"Id.
553.
AftertheoralargumentsbeforetheenbancNinthCircuit,EEOCGeneralCounselEricDriebandcommentedthat"[t]hesexstereotypingissuemayeventuallygoallthewaytotheU.
S.
SupremeCourt.
"23Hum.
ResourcesRep.
(BNA)No.
27,at735(July11,2005).
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM106DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007discriminationcases.
554AshenotesinhisexaminationofEEOCemploymentcasesfrom1994to1996,allofthehigh-profile,class-actioncasestheEEOClitigatedinthatperiodwereoriginallyfiledbyprivateattorneys,andtheonlycasethegovernmentinitiated—theinfamousHootersRestaurantcase—wasdroppedaftertheagencyfacedembarrassingnewsreportsandcongressionalhearings.
555Onecanonlyimaginetheuproar—inthemediaandCongress—thatwouldhavebeenlikelyiftheEEOChadintervenedinwhathascometobeknownasthe"LipstickLawsuit.
"556YetJespersen'schallengetoHarrah'ssex-basedgroomingpolicywaspreciselythesortofdifficultcase—againstahigh-profile,wealthydefendant—thatcouldhavebenefitedfromasophisticatedclass-actionapproachbyateamofcareerattorneysbackedbytheresourcesandexpertiseoftheUnitedStatesgovernment.
557Ofcoursenoone,otherthanthecommunityactivistswhosawtheconnectionsbetweenmakeupandhigh-heelshoes,conceptualizedJespersen'scaseasapotentialclass-actionsexdiscriminationclaim.
Goingforwardonherlegalclaimasanindividual,privateplaintiffmeantthathercasewouldbe"notoriouslydifficulttowin.
"5582.
ThePlaintiffs'Bar:TheSoloAttorneyTakesonHarrah'sWhenJespersenfirstcalledtheAllianceforWorkers'Rights,itreferredhertoalawyerinReno,JeffreyA.
Dickerson,asolopractitionerwhospecializesinemploymentlawandemploymentdiscriminationclaimsforplaintiffs.
559Afterassistingherthroughtheadministrativeprocess,DickersonpreparedherTitleVIIcomplaintandfileditonJuly6,2001,intheUnitedStatesDistrictCourtfortheDistrictofNevada.
560Insettlementnegotiations,Harrah'sagainofferedtorehireJesperseninherbartendingjobwithoutrequiringhertowearmakeup.
561Buttheyalsodidnotofferherbackpayoragreetochangetheirgroomingpolicyforotherworkers.
Sheagainturnedthemdown.
562Reportedly,Jespersenscrambledtofindanattorneywhocouldtakehercasetotrial,andanothersoloattorneyinReno—KennethJ.
McKenna—tookoverthefile.
563Hehandledthe554.
SeegenerallyMichaelSelmi,Publicvs.
PrivateEnforcementofCivilRights:TheCaseofHousingandEmployment,45UCLAL.
Rev.
1401(1998).
555.
Id.
at1429,1439,1444.
556.
SeeBarbano,supranote546.
557.
Selmi,supranote554,at1475.
558.
Id.
at1452.
SeealsoChristineJolls,Public-InterestOrganizationsintheEnforcementofEmploymentLaws,inEMERGINGLABORMARKETINSTITUTIONSFORTHETWENTY-FIRSTCENTURY144–47(RichardB.
Freemanetal.
,eds.
,2005)(discussingthelimitedefficacyofprivatelegalrepresentationintheemploymentlawcontext).
559.
Dickerson'sInternetsiteindicatesthathepracticesintheareasof"EmploymentLaw;SexualHarassment;Discrimination;WrongfulTermination;CivilRights;BusinessLitigation.
"Seehttp://jdickersonlaw.
com/jsp2184799.
jsp(lastvisitedAug.
25,2006).
SeegenerallyCarbadoetal.
,supranote221,at120–21(discussingJespersen'ssearchforlegalcounsel).
560.
SeeJespersenComplaint,supranote207.
561.
Schelden,supranote551.
562.
SeeCarbadoetal.
,supranote221,at120(reportingthat,inadditiontobeingunhappyaboutnotreceivingbackpay,"Jespersenwasworriedabouthowherco-workerswouldreacttoherreceivingaspecialexemption.
And,shewasangry.
").
563.
Seeid.
at121.
McKenna'snameappearsasJespersen'scounselonthe2004NevadaSupremeCourtdecisioninJespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,131P.
3d614(unpublishedtabledecision),02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED107casealone,opposingHarrah'ssummaryjudgmentmotionwithanevidentiaryrecordthatnodoubtseemedstrongatthetime,butlaterprovedtobeinadequateasamatteroflaw.
Moreover,theresourcesofasoloattorneyinRenowerevastlyinferiortowhatHarrah'scouldafford.
FromthebeginningHarrah'swasrepresentedbyLittlerMendelson,alargelawfirmspecializingin"defend[ing]employersincivilrightsandwrongfuldischargelitigation,"thatboaststhat"[b]ytheendofthe1970s,ithad]acquiredareputationforaggressiverepresentationofemployerinterestsinunion-relatedmattersandtheemergingareaofemploymentlaw.
"564Bythe1990s,inadditiontoofficesconvenientforHarrah'sbusinessinLasVegasandReno,LittlerMendelsonhadofficesthroughoutthecountry,withmorethan150attorneys.
565By2006,whentheJespersencaseended,LittlerMendelson,"withmorethan485attorneysand36officesinmajormetropolitanareasnationwide,"couldclaimthatit"isthelargestlawfirminthecountryexclusivelydevotedtorepresentingmanagementinemployment,employeebenefits,andlaborlawmatters.
"566ThefactthatHarrah'swasrepresentedthroughoutthecourseoftheJespersenlitigationbyamajormanagement-sideemploymentlawfirmlikeLittlerMendelsonwasparticularlysignificantatthesummaryjudgmentstageofthelitigation,whenJespersenwasrepresentedbyasolopractitioner.
567ItwasperhapslessimportantonceLambdaLegalDefenseandEducationFundsteppedintohandletheappeals.
568Intheend,however,thecasewas"lost"—intermsofobtainingreliefforJespersen—inthedistrictcourtatthesummaryjudgmentstage,andtheimbalanceinthelegalresourcesavailabletothepartiesearlyinthelitigationmaywellhavebeenafactor.
569No.
40587,slipop.
at7(Nev.
June7,2004)(onfilewithauthors),aswellasco-counselontheappellatebriefspreparedbyLambdaLegalDefenseandEducationFund,andascounselinthepublisheddistrictcourtandenbanccourtofappealsdecisionsinherfederaldiscriminationcase.
See,e.
g.
,CorrectedOpeningBriefofPlaintiff-Appellant,supranote178,at53;Jespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,280F.
Supp.
2d1189,1190(D.
Nev.
2002);Jespersen,444F.
3d1104,1105(9thCir.
2006)(enbanc).
564.
SeeLittlerMendelson—TheNationalEmployment&LaborLawFirm,FirmHistory,http://www.
littler.
com/aboutus/index.
cfmevent=detail&childViewID=157(lastvisitedDec.
20,2006).
565.
Id.
566.
Id.
567.
TwoLittlerMendelsonattorneys,PatrickH.
Hicks,a"foundingshareholderofLittlerMendelson'sLasVegasandReno,Nev.
offices"andVeronicaArechederraHall,"ashareholderinLittlerMendelson'sLasVegasoffice,""representedHarrah'sOperatingCompanythroughoutthelegalproceedingsinthecasebroughtbyDarleneJespersen.
"PatrickH.
Hicksetal.
,ReasonableDressandGroomingRequirementsSurviveCourtScrutiny,10GAMINGL.
REV.
342,342n.
a1(2006).
568.
LambdaLegalDefenseandEducationFunddidnotbeginrepresentingJespersenuntilaftershehadbroughtherstatelawsuitandafterHarrah'shadprevailedonitsmotionforsummaryjudgmentinfederaldistrictcourt.
ConversationwithJenniferPizer,supranote534.
569.
SeeMarcGalanter,Whythe"Haves"ComeOutAhead:SpeculationsontheLimitsofLegalChange,9L.
&SOC'YREV.
95(1974),reprintedinINLITIGATION:DOTHE"HAVES"STILLCOMEOUTAHEAD11(HerbertM.
Kritzer&SusanS.
Silbeyeds.
,2003);seealsoDonaldR.
Songeretal.
,Dothe"Haves"ComeOutAheadOverTimeApplyingGalanter'sFrameworktoDecisionsoftheU.
S.
CourtsofAppeals,1925–1988,inINLITIGATION,supra,at86,99(confirming,inastudyofdecisionsofthefederalcourtsofappeals,Galanter'sthesisthat"repeatplayers"—includingbusinesses—tendtoprevailoverindividuallitigantswhoare"one-shotplayers,"andconcludingthat"partiesthatmaybepresumedtoberepeatplayerswithsuperiorresourcesconsistentlyfaredbetterthantheirweaker02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM108DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:1320073.
LambdaLegalDefenseandEducationFund:TheDiscriminationClaimInherappealtotheUnitedStatesCourtofAppealsfortheNinthCircuit570andsubsequentpetitionforrehearingandrehearingenbanc,571JespersenwasrepresentedbyLambdaLegalDefenseandEducationFund("LambdaLegal"),anationalnot-for-profitorganizationdedicatedtotherightsofgay,lesbian,bisexual,andtransgender(GLBT)individuals.
LambdaLegaliswhatChristineJollsdescribesasa"nationalissueorganization"—apublic-interestlegalorganization"thatfocus[es]onaparticularsetofissuesortopics.
.
.
and[is]fundedlargelyorexclusivelybysourcesotherthanthegovernment.
"572Likeothernationalissueorganizations,suchastheAmericanCivilLibertiesUnion(ACLU)andtheNAACPLegalDefenseandEducationFund,LambdaLegal"tend[s]tofocusonhigh-profile,publiclychargedissuessuchasdiscriminationandtend[s]toworkonafewimportantorinfluentialcasesratherthanalargenumberofmoreday-to-dayclaims.
"573LambdaLegalagreedtotakeJespersen'sappealaftertheACLUturnedherdown.
574Jespersen'scasesuitedLambdaLegal'spurposeswell.
Theonlyproblemwasthat,asisusualwithnonprofitorganizationswhoundertakeimpactlitigation,LambdaLegaldidnottakehercasefromtheoutset;575rather,itenteredthecaseafterHarrah'shadwonitsmotionforsummaryjudgmentinDistrictCourt.
DarleneJespersen'sdecisiontokeepappealingaftereverylossseemedtobepersonalandidiosyncratic.
Itcanbeexplainedinpartbyhercharacterandprinciples,butalsobyLambdaLegal'sdecisiontotakeuphercauseasitsown.
OnceLambdaLegalrecastthecaseasbeingaboutalegalprincipleatthecoreofprotectingtherightsofgays,lesbians,bisexuals,andtransgendersgenerally,andnotjustaboutJespersen'sjob,herpersonalautonomy,orherfinancialwell-being,LambdaLegalhadnochoicebuttocontinueappealingandtocontinuefundingthecostsoftheappeals.
576opponentsandthedisparityinsuccessrateswasgreatestwhenthedisparityinstrengthwasgreatest").
570.
SeeCorrectedOpeningBriefofPlaintiff-Appellant,supranote178;ReplyBriefofAppellantDarleneJespersen,Jespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,392F.
3d1076(9thCir.
2004)(No.
03-15045),availableathttp://www.
lambdalegal.
org/binary-data/Lambda_PDF/pdf/360.
pdf.
571.
SeePetitionforRehearingandRehearingonBanc,Jespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,444F.
3d1104(9thCir.
2006)(enbanc)(No.
03-15045),availableathttp://www.
lambdalegal.
org/binary-data/Lambda_PDF/pdf/362.
pdf.
572.
Jolls,supranote558,at147.
573.
Id.
at158.
574.
SeeCarbadoetal.
,supranote221,at125.
575.
Jollsreportsthat,unlikegovernment-fundedlegalserviceorganizations,privately-fundedpublic-interestorganizationsdonotprovidedirectlegaladvicetoclientsbutfocusoncasesattheappellatelevel.
Jolls,supranote558,at163.
576.
Citingthe1974workofMarcGalanter,CatherineAlbistonobservesthatpublicinterestorganizationsmaybetterrepresentthecollectiveinterestsofone-shotemployeelitigantsthanindividualone-shotplayersandthereforebelesslikelytotraderulegainformonetarycompensation.
Inaddition,publicinterestorganizationssometimesengageinstrategiclitigationtofurthersocialchangeandoccasionallyengageinstrategicsettlementthemselvestoavoiddevelopinganegativelegalprecedent.
CatherineAlbiston,TheRuleofLawandtheLitigationProcess:TheParadoxofLosingbyWinning,33L.
&SOC'YREV.
869(1999),reprintedinINLITIGATION,supranote569,at168,173.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED109LambdaLegaldecidedtorepresentJesperseninherappealsbecausethedoctrinaltreatmentofgenderstereotypesinTitleVIIcasesisanissueofgreatimportancetotheorganizationanditsgoalsofimprovingemploymentopportunitiesforgay,lesbian,bisexual,andtransgenderindividuals.
LambdaLegalcorrectlyunderstoodthesignificanceofJespersen'scasefortheGLBTcommunityandforwomengenerally,andthecase'slegalsignificancedidnothingeonwhetherJespersenwasalesbianwhobelievedthatmakeupconnoteshetereosexuality—andtherebyunderminedherownsexualidentity577—orjustawoman(lesbian,bisexual,orheterosexual)whodidnotlikemakeuporwanttowearit,perhapsbecauseitconnotesgendersubordination.
Jespersenwasnotidentifiedasalesbianinanycourtdocuments;rather,shewasdescribedbyherowncounselaswishingtobe"androgynous"intheworkplace—ineffect,shechosetoidentifyherselfneitherasamannorasawoman.
578Shewas,however,sometimesdescribedasa"lesbian"inmediastoriesabouthercase.
579ToascribethesignificanceofJespersen'saversiontowearingmakeupsolelytohersexualidentity,however,istodismissherchoicesforhowtopresentherappearanceasbeingatbestpurelypersonaloridiosyncraticandatworstdeliberatelynonconformingorevendeviant.
Itisalsotoosimplisticinlightofthecomplexandhighlydiverseattitudesaboutcosmeticsandappearanceamongwomengenerallyand,inparticular,amonglesbians.
5804.
IndividualRightsVersusCollectiveRights:WhatDifferenceDoesFramingMakeAttheoutsetofherlitigation—bothheremploymentlawactioninstatecourtandherdiscriminationlawsuitinfederalcourt—Jespersendidnotidentifyherselfaslesbianorframehercaseasanassertionofgayrights.
Thenatureofthelegalclaimsshapedherunderstandingofherrightsandtheharmsthatshehadsuffered.
Instatecourt—herdirectchallengetoemploymentatwill—herclaimwascastintermsofbrokenpromisesthatHarrah'shadimplicitlymadetoherindividually.
Herunderstandingofthesepromiseswasbasedonher577.
SeeDellinger&Williams,supranote404,at160–61.
578.
DavidKravets,CourtArguesIfEmployersCanDemandWomenWearMakeup,S.
F.
CHRONICLE,June22,2005,availableathttp://www.
sfgate.
com/cgi-bin/article.
cgif=/n/a/2005/06/22/state/n170801D13.
DTL&hw=jespersen&sn=001&sc=1000.
Harrah'sattemptedtousethisasevidencethatJespersenwasmaking"animproperattempttoimposeanandrogynousidentityonherfemalecoworkers.
"SeeAppellant'sReplyBriefinSupportofPetitionforRehearingandRehearingEnBancat2,Jespersen,444F.
3d1104(No.
03-15045)(citingAppellee'sAnswerat3).
579.
See,e.
g.
,AnnRostow,CourtHearsLesbian'sGenderBiasCase,PLANETOUTNETWORK,June23,2005,http://www.
gay.
com/news/article.
html2005/06/23/3(reportingthat"Jespersen'ssexualorientationwasnotatissueinthecase,butthelesbianbartenderdidnotfeelcomfortablewiththenewregulations").
580.
HistorianKathyPeisswrites:Inthe1970s,manylesbianfeministsadoptedthenaturalaesthetic,simultaneouslyrejectingthelookofheterosexualfemininityandthetraditionofbutch-femrole-playing.
Bythemid-1980s,however,anewappreciationforcampanddrag,andaferventdebateoversexuality,causedareassessmentofandrogynouslooks.
Asgaytheoristsintheacademicwritingscondemnednotionsofthenatural,"lipsticklesbians"appearedallmadeuponthestreet.
PEISS,supranote439,at267.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM110DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007assumptionthatreciprocaldutiesofloyaltyandgoodfaithdefinedhertwenty-yearrelationshipwithHarrah's.
ShehadliveduptoherendofthebargainbygivingHarrah'stwentyyearsofexcellentpersonalservice;ithadaduty,shebelieved,torefrainfromrequiringthatshechangeherappearance.
Shewaswrongaboutthelaw,ofcourse,butthestatelawsuit—challengingemploymentatwill—wasaboutherindividualemploymentrelationshipwithHarrah's,andnotatallaboutgayrights,orwomen'srights,orcollectiverightsofanysort.
HerTitleVIIlawsuit,ontheotherhand,waspotentiallyacaseaboutcollectiverights—aboutwomen'srights,workers'rights,andtherightsofgendernonconformists,includingsomemembersofthegayandlesbiancommunity.
Butasothershaveargued,thefactthatLambdaLegalrepresentedJesperseninherappealsandthatthetwoothersignificantnationalwomen'srightsgroups,ACLU'sWomen'sRightsProjectandtheNOWLegalandEducationalDefenseFund,didnotfilebriefsmayhavesuggestedtotheNinthCircuitthatthiswassolelyacaseaboutgayrights.
581Whilelocalcivilrightsandworkers'rightsgroups,includingtheAllianceforWorkers'Rights,filedamicuscuriaebriefs,582nounionfiledanamicusbrief.
Moreover,Jespersenwasasingleplaintiff,notamemberofaclassfilingaclass-actionlawsuit.
AllofthesefactorslikelyeasedthewayfortheNinthCircuittocharacterizeherclaimastheidiosyncratic,subjectivegrumblingofonenonconformingemployee.
583C.
RecastingtheClaimasaCollectiveRightsClaim:TheRoleofUnionsNotwithstandingHarrah'seffortstoframeJespersen'sclaimaspersonalandidiosyncratic,herTitleVIIchallengetoHarrah'sappearancecodewasanactionthatJespersen,atleast,sawasanassertionofgrouprights.
Inunionizedworkplaces,workersmightlooktoauniontomountbroad-basedchallengesagainstworkplacegroomingrules.
Whereweretheunionsinthiscase1.
HEREandNevada'sCulinaryUnionLocalsJespersenhadnouniontoturntobecauseshehappenedtobeemployedataHarrah'spropertylocatedinRenoratherthanatoneofHarrah'sunionizedpropertiesinLasVegas.
584OutsideofReno,anumberofHarrah'sgamingpropertiesthroughouttheUnitedStateshavecollectivebargainingrelationshipswithlocalsofHERE,theHotelEmployeesandRestaurantEmployees581.
SeeCarbadoetal.
,supranote221,at125–27.
582.
Id.
at125–26.
ThefollowingfouramicuscuriaebriefssupportingJespersenwerefiledbyvariouspublicinterestandgovernmentalorganizations:(1)theNationalEmploymentLawyersAssociation,theAllianceforWorkers'Rights,andtheLegalAidSociety—EmploymentLawCenter(June23,2003);(2)AmericanCivilLibertiesUnionofNevada,NorthwestWomen'sLawCenter,CaliforniaWomen'sLawCenter,andtheGenderPublicAdvocacyCoalition(June23,2003);(3)theNationalCenterforLesbianRightsandtheTransgenderLawCenter(June7,2005);and(4)theHawai'iCivilRightsCommission(June9,2005).
583.
SeeJosephD.
Kearney&ThomasW.
Merrill,TheInfluenceofAmicusCuriaeBriefsontheSupremeCourt,148U.
PA.
L.
REV.
743(2000)(findingthatamicusbriefsaffectsuccessratesinavarietyofcontexts).
584.
SeeBarbano,supranote193(describingatelevisedinterviewwithJespersenin2000inwhichshesaid,"LasVegasisunionandinReno,we'renot.
");seealsowww.
unitehere.
org(UNITEHERElistingofunionizedhotels)(lastvisitedOct.
17,2006).
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED111InternationalUnion.
585In2000,theCulinaryWorkersUnion,localsofHERE,representedmorethan50,000foodandbeverageworkersinNevada,withmostemployedinandaroundLasVegas.
586Atthetime,CulinaryWorkersUnionLocal226representedabout1,500employeesatHarrah'sLasVegas.
587WiththeexceptionofReno'sCircusCircus,whichtheCulinaryWorkersUnionorganizedin1981,andseveralothersmallbargainingunitsofotherunionsatotherproperties,thecasinosinRenoin2000weremoreorlessunion-free;butthisenvironmentwasbeginningtochange.
588Fromthemid-1990s,CulinaryWorkersUnionLocal86hadbeenengagedinorganizingattheRenoHiltonandFlamingoHilton-Reno.
589InJune2001,aroundthetimeJespersenwasfilingherdiscriminationlawsuit,theunionsignedacontractwiththetwoRenoHiltonpropertiescovering1,575foodandbeverageworkers.
590BecauseHarrah'sRenocasinowasneitherorganizednorafocusoftheCulinaryWorkersUnion'sorganizingeffortsin2000,Jespersenwasnotlikelytohaveconceivedofherdisputeaboutthemakeupruleasanissuethattheunionmightsupport.
Onceherdisputebecamepublicandwastransformedintoalawsuitwithpotentialsignificanceforfemaleserviceworkersgenerally,however,itislessclearwhythelocalunionorHEREdidnotperceiveherindividualclaimashelpfultotheirorganizingandoutreacheffortslocallyornationwide.
NorisitclearwhynounionchallengedthemakeupruleatanyofHarrah'sunionizedcasinos.
591AtthetimethatHarrah'swasbeginningtorolloutits"BeverageDepartmentImageTransformationInitiative"(BDIT)atitsLasVegascasinosinMay2000,thenewmakeuppolicydidprovokecriticismfromastaffdirectorofLasVegas'sCulinaryWorkersLocal226,whocalledit585.
TheHotelEmployeesandRestaurantEmployeesInternationalUnion(HERE)mergedwithUNITE(UnionofNeedletrades,IndustrialandTextileEmployees)in2004toformUNITE-HERE.
By2006,UNITE-HERErepresentedmorethan90,000workersinthegamingindustryincasinoslocatedinNevada,NewJersey,Michigan,Illinois,Indiana,Missouri,California,andWashington.
Seehttp://www.
unitehere.
org/about/(lastvisitedNov.
7,2006).
586.
BillO'Driscoll,NongamingWorkersGetUnionPactatHiltonHotelsinReno,RENOGAZETTE-J.
,June29,2001,availableathttp://www.
rgj.
com/cgi-bin/printstory.
cgipublish_date=20010629&story=993871598.
In1938,HEREcharteredLocal226oftheCulinaryWorkersUnioninLasVegas,anddespitelengthystrikesagainstseveralcasinos,theunionhasflourishedinLasVegas,claimingtohaveorganizedmorethan22,000newworkerssincetheopeningoftheMirage"mega-resort"in1989andtobethefastestgrowinglocalinAmericain2006.
SeeCulinaryWorkersUnionLocal226,LasVegas,History,http://www.
culinaryunion226.
org/english/pages/history.
html(lastvisitedDec.
20,2006).
587.
PhilLevine,Harrah'sSetsAppearanceStandards,LASVEGASSUN,May11,2000,availableathttp://www.
lasvegassun.
com/sunbin/stories/text/2000/may/11/510243167.
html.
Harrah'sRioSuiteshotel-casinoinLasVegas,however,wasnotunionized.
Id.
588.
O'Driscoll,supranote586.
589.
Id.
590.
Id.
591.
UnionlocalsatotherHarrah'scasinosdid,however,bringgrievancesundertheircollectivebargainingagreementsoverhairlengthandstylingpoliciesimplementedaspartoftheHarrah'sappearancecodein2002.
See,e.
g.
,Wiseleyv.
Harrah'sEntm't,No.
03-1540(JBS),2004WL1739724(D.
N.
J.
Aug.
4,2004)(notingthatunionobtainedreinstatementforonemaleserveratHarrah'sinNewJerseywhowasdischargedforrefusingtocomplywithhairstyleaspectof2002groomingcode).
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM112DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007"intrusiveandaninvasionofindividualchoice"592Theunionofficialsaid,"Theideathatthecompanythinksitcanimposeanimageisoutrageous.
"593Buttheunionfocusedontheimpactofthewaitresses'uniformrequirementsonwomenreturningfrommaternityleave—anissueaffectingacontractualleavepolicy594—andnotonthenewmakeuprequirement.
Unions'failuretochallengeHarrah's"PersonalBest"groomingrulesforfemalebeverageserversatcasinoswheretheyhadcollectivebargainingrelationships,ortosupportJespersen'sappealsasamicuscuriae,maybeexplained,ifnotjustified,inseveralways.
First,ifnootherfemalebeverageserversatanyofHarrah'scasinoscomplainedaboutthemakeuprequirements,asHarrah'scontended,theunionlocalsmayhaveconcludedthatitwasnotaverysignificantissue.
Harrah'sfemalebeverageserversandbartendersmayhavebeenwillingtogoalongwiththenewgroomingpolicybecausetheyworesimilarmakeupanyway,orbecausetheybelievedthemakeupruleconformedtosocietalgendernorms,orbecausetheywerewillingtobebrandedbyHarrah'sifitwaspartofthejob,orbecausetheybelievedtheywouldearnmoretipsiftheyworecosmeticsthatmadethemappearmoreattractive,orbecausetheyweresousedtodressandgroomingrulesthatsexualizedwomenworkersthattheydidnotseethemselvesasbeingcommodified.
595WhenJespersenfiledherlawsuit,onenewsreportobserved,Fromshoestomakeup,casinostraditionallyhavemandateddifferentdresscodesformenandwomen.
Sitataslotmachineorroulettetable,andafemaleserverinauniformthatincludesashortskirt,highheels,andmakeupwillstoptoofferadrink.
Thefewmaleserversmustwearlongpantsandlookclean.
596OneofHarrah'sfemalebartenderswhoreportedthatshewashappytogoalongwiththecasino'snewmakeuppolicysaid,"Thisisnothingnewtous.
"597Jespersenagreedthat"[t]hishasbeengoingonforever.
.
.
.
Youtakeituntilitpushesthatbutton.
Andthat'swhatthisdidwithme.
"598Alternatively,theunionmayhaveviewedthegroomingpolicyasbusinessasusual—fallingwithinmanagerialprerogativetocreatetheproduct,whichinthecaseofafrontlinebeverageserviceworker,istheemployee.
Theunions'1964lossbeforetheNinthCircuitontheunioninsignia/nonadornmentpolicy592.
Levine,supranote587.
593.
Id.
594.
TheBDITrequiredthatfemalebeverageserversbeabletofitintotheirolduniformsfollowingtwelveweeksofmaternityleave.
Thisrequirementconflictedwiththeeighteen-monthmaternityleavepolicyundertheCulinaryWorkersUnioncontractwithHarrah'sinLasVegas.
Id.
595.
Aless-benignexplanationissuggestedinonenewsaccount,whichquotescocktailwaitresscommentsmadeinreactiontonewly-imposedgroomingstandardsatHarrah'sCasinoinMarylandHeights,Missouri.
Whileworkerspraisedthecompany'sBDITprogramduringinterviewsheldincasinooffices,workersinterviewedoffpremisesdescribedthepolicyas"extremelyrestrictive,""rigidandintrusive.
"Theseworkers(unlikethoseinterviewedincasinooffices)refusedtogivetheirnamesforfearofreprisalbyHarrah's.
PolicyatHarrah'sGovernsAppearanceofServers,GAMBLINGMAG.
,June4,2000,http://gamblingmagazine.
com/managearticle.
aspc=400&a=640.
596.
RhinaGuidos,FashionChecklist:NoBlush,NoLipstick.
.
.
NoJob,CHRISTIANSCI.
MONITOR,July18,2001,availableathttp://www.
csmonitor.
com/2001/0718/p1s4.
html.
597.
Id.
(quotingstatementofHarrah'sbartender,ReginaHearrell).
598.
Id.
(quotingstatementofDarleneJespersen).
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED113mightlongagohaveconvincedunionsthatresistancetotheappearancecodewasfutile.
599OrperhapsthemanagementrightsclauseinHarrah'scollectivebargainingagreementhadbeenconstruedbyarbitrators(inunreporteddecisions)asincludingmanagerialrightstoestablishandenforceappearancecodes.
Therecordofsuccessfulunionchallengestodressandgroomingcodesisratherdismal:Unionslosemostsubstantivechallengestoemployerdressandgroomingrulesaslongasmanagementcanjustifythemasbeing"reasonable.
"600Unionsarebehavingrationallybynotdevotingscarceresourcestolosingcases,whichwashowHEREandtheLasVegasCulinaryWorkersUnionLocal226apparentlycharacterizedJespersen'sfightwithHarrah's.
Stillanotherpossibilityisthattheunion'sinterestshavebecomealignedwiththeemployer'sinperpetuatingthesuccessofthecorporatebrand.
TheunionmighthaveviewedJespersen'sclaimsasachallengetoHarrah'scorporatebrandingchoicesandprocesses,arealmofdecision-makingsocentraltothesuccessandcontinuedexpansionoftheenterprisethattheunioneitherhadnorighttointerfere,or,ifithadaright,nointerestininterfering.
ThecollectivebargainingagreementbetweenHarrah'sandHEREincludedacardcheckagreementandneutralitypledgepursuanttowhichHarrah'sagreedtorecognizeandbargainwithHEREbaseduponamajoritycardcountandtoremainneutralduringorganizingcampaignsconductedbyHEREatanynewHarrah'soperation.
601Inexchange,HEREagreedtocooperatewithHarrah'sinitseffortstoexpandintonewmarkets,assistingHarrah'sinitslobbyingeffortswithstatelegislaturesandsendingcasinoemployeestotestifybeforestatelegislativecommitteesinotherstatesaboutHarrah'sbeneficenceasanemployer.
602Thus,theunion'sinterestinexpandingitsmembershipbasethroughcardcheckrecognitionatallnewHarrah'soperationsbecamealignedwithHarrah'sinterestinexpansion.
603Fromtheunion'sperspective,thispartnershipconferredmorebargainingleveragetoseekbetterwagesandbenefits,andHEREcapitalizedonthisleverageincoreeconomicareas:In2001,HERELasVegas599.
Seesupratextaccompanyingnotes98–101(discussingNLRBv.
Harrah'sClub,337F.
2d177(9thCir.
1964)).
600.
SeesupraPartIII.
B.
601.
DavidMoberg,OrganizationMan,NATION,July16,2001,availableathttp://www.
thenation.
com/doc/20010716/moberg.
NeutralitypledgeshavebecomeanextraordinarilyvaluabletoolforunionsseekingtoorganizeworkersoutsidetheNLRB'selectionprocesses.
Unionswithsufficientbargainingleveragetoobtainneutralitypledgesenjoyarelativelysmoothandspeedypathtorecognitionasthemajoritybargainingrepresentativeatallsubsequentlyopenedstores.
Forafulldiscussionoftheoperationandsignificanceofneutralitypledges,seeJamesBrudney,NeutralityAgreementsandCardCheckRecognition:ProspectsforChangingParadigms,90IOWAL.
REV.
819,828(2005)(notingthateightypercentoftheworkerswhobecameunionmembersbetween1998and2003didsooutsidetheNLRBelectionprocess).
602.
SeeMayerowitz,supranote157(reportingthattheProvidence,RhodeIsland,localchapterofHERE"hasbeenoneofHarrah'sbiggestsupporters,flyingincasinoworkerstotestifybeforetheGeneralAssembly[ofRhodeIsland]onhowgreatitistoworkforHarrah's");AndrewConte,SecondDayofGamblingHearingsMoreSedate,PITTSBURGHTRIB.
-REV.
,Apr.
19,2006(referencingneutralitypledge)(alterationadded).
603.
DavidMobergreportsthatninetypercentoftheCulinaryWorkers'growthinLasVegasbetween1989and2001wasattributabletocardcheckagreements.
Moberg,supranote601.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM114DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007hotelroomcleanersearned$22,000peryear—forty-fourpercentmorethansimilarworkersinnonunionReno—plusbenefits.
604Nevertheless,skepticswonderwhetherthepartnershipbetweenHEREandcasinoemployerscomesattheexpenseofenhancedcontractrightsinnoneconomicareas.
ThestaffdirectorfortheLasVegasCulinaryWorkersadmittedtoonereporter"'ifweditched[thecard-checkandneutralityagreementsincontracts]wecouldgetalittlemoremoneyoroneortwomorerights.
'"605Isthetradeoffofeasierorganizingandenhancedbargainingleverageoneconomicissuesworththepotentialsacrificeofnoneconomicrights,particularlythoseinvolvingtheinterestsofworkershistoricallysubjectedtodiscriminationonthejob2.
SuccessfulUnionStrategiesinOtherBrandingCasesOtherunionshavemadedifferentdecisionsaboutresistingbranding,withmoreencouragingresults.
Belowwerecounttwocontrastingstories.
Commontobothsituationsaretwocomplementaryfactors:(1)thepresenceofaunioncommittedtoresistingbrandingthatdemeansworkersand(2)theuseofTitleVIIlitigationasatacticalstrategytoadvancetheunion'sobjectivesinbargaining.
a.
The"SafewaySmile"Intheearly1990s,SafewayGroceryStoresimplementeda"SuperiorService"policy,whichrequiredworkerstobeoutgoing,friendly,andhelpful.
Specifically,workerswereinstructedtomakeeyecontactwithcustomers,smileandgreetthembynameatthecheckoutcounter(nameswerederivedeitherfromcreditcardsorfromstore-issuedcustomercards),offersamples,andaccompanythemtolocateitemsthattheycouldnotfind.
606Customerresponsewasverypositive,butworkersresisted.
Toenforcethepolicy,Safewayinstituteda"MysteryShopper"evaluationsysteminwhichworkersweregradedbysecretshopperswhopretendedtoberegularcustomers.
TheMysteryShoppersusedanineteen-pointratingscorecardtoassessworkers'friendlinessasapartoftheSuperiorServiceprogram;resultsaffectedperformanceevaluationsandeligibilityforbonusesandstockincentives.
607Reportsonworkers'cheerinesswerepostedinstorebreakrooms,andunfriendlycashiersweresentto"smileschool.
"608Onelong-timecashierwasdischargedforfailingtocomplywiththepolicy.
609Otherscomplainedthatthepolicyhadprovokedsexualharassmentorunwantedadvancesfrommalecustomers.
610Someworkers604.
Id.
605.
Id.
606.
SeeKristinDowneyGrimsley,ServicewithaForcedSmile;Safeway'sCourtesyCampaignAlsoElicitsSomeFrowns,WASH.
POST,Oct.
18,1998,atA1.
607.
Id.
608.
KellyBarron,TheSamWaltonofSupermarkets,FORBES,Oct.
19,1998,at64;MichaelHarrison,EEOCChargesFiledAgainstSafeway,SUPERMARKETNEWS,Nov.
23,1998,at6.
609.
SeeLarryParsons,SafewayFires20-YearCaliforniaVeteranforViolatingFriendlinessRules,MONTEREYCOUNTYHERALD,Oct.
10,1998(describingterminationoftwenty-yearveteranemployeeSandiLewtschukforfailuretosmileandfailuretousecustomer'slastnamewhenthankingthecustomer;heruniongrievedtheterminationunderthearbitrationprovisioninitslaborcontract).
610.
Barron,supranote608;Harrison,supranote608.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED115weredisturbedbythepolicybecauseitrequiredthemtoengageinbehaviorthatseemedsociallyinappropriate:Maleclerkscomplainedthatsomefemalecustomersdisplayedbodylanguagethatsuggestedthattheyfeltstalkedorharassed;othersfeltuncomfortablewithoverridingtheirinstinctsandfollowingcorporatepolicywithcustomerswhoindicatedthattheywereharriedandwishedtobeleftalone.
Oneworker,afflictedwithBell'sPalsyandunabletosmile,waswrittenupfornotsmilingdespitehisinabilitytocontrolthemusclesinhisface.
611InNovemberof1998,maleandfemaleworkersfiledchargeswiththeEEOCallegingthattheSuperiorServicepolicyexposedthemtosexualharassmentbycustomers,creatingahostileworkenvironment.
Byforcingthemtosuspendtheirnaturaldefensemechanismsandactagainsttheirsocialinstincts,thepolicymadethemvulnerabletooffensiveactionsbycustomers.
Thecomplaintsallegedinappropriatecustomercomments,notesproposingsexualacts,physicalassaultsinthegrocerystoresandinadjacentparkinglots,andstalking.
612Althoughthecomplaintswerefiledbybothmaleandfemaleworkers,itwasclearthattherewasagenderedcomponenttotherule.
Onefemaleworkerdescribedherconcernsinthisway:"[A]sawoman,IamoffendedthatagroupofmenhavecomeupwithapolicytomakemefrontlikeI'maPlayboybunny.
That'sridiculous.
I'mnotheretosellsex.
"613Anotherworkercommented,"WhenI'maskedtolookupeveryfewsecondsandmakeeyecontactwiththecustomers,IfeelasthoughI'mflirting.
"614Andathirdputitmostbluntly,"It'slikeaformofprostitutiontome.
"615Theplaintiffswereassistedinfilingchargesbytheirunions,UnitedFoodandCommercialWorkers'Locals1179and373.
Theydidnotseekasignificantfinancialsettlement;instead,theyaskedforawrittenstatementfromSafewaypreservingworkerdiscretiontosuspendcompliancewithcompanypolicyandconformtotheirownsocialinstinctswhenconfrontedwithasituationthatmadethemuncomfortable.
616TheunionssimultaneouslyfiledchargeswiththeNationalLaborRelationsBoardallegingthattheemployer'sSuperiorServiceprogramwasadoptedunilaterally,withoutbargainingwiththeunions,thusviolatingtheNLRA.
Bothcomplaintsweredroppedwhenthecasesweresettledinearly2000;SafewayagreedtoworkwiththeunionstodevelopandcommunicateexpectationsunderitsSuperiorServiceprograminwriting.
617611.
Grimsley,supranote606.
612.
SarahL.
Ream,Note,WhenServicewithaSmileInvitesMoreThanSatisfiedCustomers:Third-PartySexualHarassmentandtheImplicationsofChargesAgainstSafeway,11HASTINGSWOMEN'SL.
J.
107,118(2000).
613.
TranscriptofABC's20/20NewsShow,TheSafewaySmile,Oct.
30,1998(statementofAmyKinyon)(onfilewithauthors).
614.
Id.
(statementofJoyceLindberg).
615.
Id.
(statementofFrancesWork).
616.
Specifically,theplaintiffssaidthattheysoughtastatementtotheeffectthat"ifsomebody'scomingontoyou,youdon'thavetosmileatthemorputonahappyfacelikearobot.
"DailyBriefing,SEATTLETIMES,Nov.
1,1998,atA12.
617.
MichaelLiedtke,SmilesMoreDiscerningatSafeway,CONTRACOSTATIMES(KnightRidder/Trib.
NewsServ.
),Jan.
18,2000.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM116DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007b.
TheFlightAttendants'ChallengesInperhapsthebest-knownexampleofexplicitlygenderedbranding,airlinesportrayedflightattendants—knownas"stewardesses"untilthe1970s—as"alluringandnurturinghostesses.
"618Originally,bothcommercialairlinepilotingandtakingcareofpassengers'needsinthecabinweremalejobs.
WiththeadventofWorldWarII,however,menwerepulledfromthelabormarketandintothemilitary,andwomensteppedintothegapasairlinecabinattendants.
619Althoughthejobentailedacombinationofwaitressing(servingfoodanddrinks),nursing(caringforyouthful,elderly,andinfirmpassengers),620andsafetyofficerduties(enforcingsafetyrules,monitoringforemergencysituations),621airlinesselectedforbrandfit,hiringonlywhite,young,single,slender,attractivewomen.
622Airlinemarketingandculturalrepresentationsexploitedstewardesses'femininityanditsassociationwithtitillationandcomfort.
623Theearlystewardesseswerebrandedas"thegirlnextdoor":Theywerewhite,middle-class,youthful,andunmarried.
624Theno-marriagerule—initiatedfirstbyUnitedAirlinesandlateradoptedbyothers—wasdefendedonmultiplebases,includingconcernabouttheconflictbetweenstewardesses'travelschedulesandtheirrolesaswives,andtheairlines'desiretoavoidcallsfromoverprotectivehusbandsseekingtheirwives'whereabouts.
625Atbottomwastheairlines'efforttoportraystewardessesas"vestalvirgins,"ina1950s-eraversionofsexualization.
626Idealjobtenurefromtheairlines'perspectivewasapproximatelyeighteenmonths,bywhichtimethestewardesseswereexpectedtosecuresuitablehusbands.
627Thejobwasashort-terminterludeandgatewaytomarriage,whichmadeitdifficultforthestewardessestobetakenseriouslyasmembersofacraftorprofession.
618.
KathleenBarry,"TooGlamoroustoBeConsideredWorkers":FlightAttendantsandPink-CollarActivisminMid-Twentieth-CenturyAmerica,3LAB.
:STUD.
WORKING-CLASSHIST.
AM.
119,119(Fall2006).
619.
AliceCook,IntroductiontoGEORGIAPANTERNIELSEN,FROMSKYGIRLTOFLIGHTATTENDANT:WOMENANDTHEMAKINGOFAUNIONxiii,xvii(1982).
620.
Indeed,airlinesrequiredthatstewardessespossessnursingdegreesuntilWorldWarII,whennursingshortagesmadethisimpracticable.
Barry,supranote618,at123.
621.
Stewardessesreassurednervouspassengers,madesuretheydidnotmistaketheexitdoorfortherestroom,andansweredquestionsabouttheterrainbelow.
Intheearlydaysofairtravel,particularlyonthesmallerairlines,stewardesseswerealsoresponsibleforagreatdealofmanuallabor,includingjoiningbucketbrigadestofueltheairplanes,helpingpilotspushplanesintohangars,andloadingallbaggageonboard.
NIELSEN,supranote619,at11.
622.
Barry,supranote618,at121.
Thespecificationsforstewardessesinthe1930srequiredapplicantstobelessthantwenty-fiveyearsofage,weigh115poundsorless,andstandnotmorethanfive-feetfour-inchestall.
NIELSEN,supranote619,at10.
623.
Barry,supranote618,at121.
624.
NIELSEN,supranote619,at20.
625.
Id.
at19.
626.
Id.
at20.
627.
Id.
Theairlines'policywasreportedly,"'Usethemtilltheirsmileswearout;thengetanewbunch.
'"Id.
at81.
Thosewhostayedinthejoblongerthanthirty-fivemonthswerelabeled"thewrongkindofgirl,"—i.
e.
,unmarriageable.
Id.
at83.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED117Airlinerulesmandatedcharmandattractivegrooming,andimposedprototypicaldemandsforemotionallabor.
628Airlinesdevelopedtheearliestmetaphorofworkersas"hostesses"andcustomersas"guests,"whichrenderedthestewardesses'emotionallaborinvisibleandsecuredtheircomplicityinthispresentationoftheirefforts.
Theairlines'marketingstrategythusminimizedtheeconomicvalueoftheirlabor:Asa"natural,voluntaryexpressionoffemaledomesticity,"theireffortslackedeconomicvalue.
629Stewardesses'appearancewasgovernedbypoliciesthatwerealmost"paramilitary"instringency;"appearancecounselors"monitoredcompliancewiththecodes,andscaleswereanimportantfeatureintheappearancerooms.
630GeorgiaPanterNielsendescribestheappearancecodeatUnitedAirlines:Girdlesweretobeworn,andperiodicchecksweremadebysomesupervisors.
Nailpolishandlipstickwererequired,andthecolorswereselectedfromanapprovedlist.
Haircouldnotextendovertheuniformblousecollarandcouldnotbeworninanupsweptfashion.
Dyeingofhairorbleachingofhairwasprohibited.
Straighteningofhairforblackwomenwasacceptable,butAfro,cornrow,andbraidedhairstylesweretaboo.
Hatsandglovesweretobewornatalltimes.
Partoftheroutineflightdutiesincludedappearancechecksbytheflightattendantherselftoensurethatherappearancewasnotdisheveled.
Hosierywithrunswasexpectedtobereplacedbyanextrapairofstockingscarriedasimportantequipment.
Duringtheearly1960swhiteuniformblouseswereoftencheckedforperspirationstains.
631Culturalrepresentationsofstewardessesfurtherglamorizedthem:journalists,filmmakers,andnovelistsdepictedstewardessesaseminentlydesirable—thegirlnextdoor,dressedup,enjoyingthefreedomtotravelandtrainingforthe"ultimatefemale'profession'ofhomemaking.
"632Thejobswerehighlysoughtafter:throughoutthemid-twentiethcentury,airlinesaveragedonehundredapplicantsforeverythreetofivestewardesseshired.
633Thepopularityofthejobwasunderstandable.
Stewardessingwasanear-certainpathtothealtarandfeaturedopportunitiestomeethigh-incomemen(encounterswithcelebritiesandVIPswerecommon);italsoofferedtravelandanindependentlifestyle,rareopportunitiesforwomenofthepostwarera.
634These"wagesofglamour"635cameatconsiderablecost,however.
Oncemarried,stewardessesweregrounded.
Byagethirty-two,theywereconsidered628.
Barry,supranote618,at122;seeHOCHSCHILD,supranote27.
629.
Barry,supranote618,at122;seealsoKatharineSilbaugh,TurningLaborintoLove:HouseworkandtheLaw,91NW.
U.
L.
REV.
1(1996)(explainingwhylaborthatisperceivedtobeprimarilyaffective,suchashouseworkandcaretaking,isdefinedasnot-work,andthosewhoperformit—primarilywomen—arenotseenasworkers).
630.
NIELSEN,supranote619,at99.
631.
Id.
at98–99.
632.
Barry,supranote618,at124.
633.
Id.
at124–25.
UnitedAirlinesreportedreceivinganaverageoffiftythousandapplicationsayearforthejob.
NIELSEN,supranote619,at82.
634.
Barry,supranote618,at124.
635.
Id.
at125;seeDAVIDR.
ROEDIGER,THEWAGESOFWHITENESS:RACEANDTHEMAKINGOFTHEAMERICANWORKINGCLASS13(1991)(describingsocialandpsychological"wagesofwhiteness"enjoyedbywhiteworkers:whites'feelingsofracialprivilegerelativetoblacksmutedtheirhostility02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM118DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007pasttheirprimeandforcedtoretire.
Long-termbenefitsandpromotionalopportunitieswerenonexistent.
Glamorizationinmarketinginvitedsexualharassmentintheair.
636Seekingrespectas"realworkers,witheconomicneedsandskillsasrealasmen's,"637stewardessesturnedtounionization.
Inordertogainrespectandtheattendanteconomicbenefits,theyneededtoshedtheir"mystiqueofglamorousfemininity,"which"madethemunrecognizableasworkersofanykind.
"638Overcomingbarriersofatransientworkforcewithhighturnover,littleexperiencewithlaborunions,andaself-consciouslyelitistattitude,thestewardessesorganizedindependentunions.
639Initially,theAFLdeniedtheirindependentunionaffiliatestatus,andtheywereforcedtoaffiliatewiththeAirLinePilots'Association(ALPA),anAFLunion.
ALPAwasdeterminedlywhiteandmaleinitsmembership.
640Thispartnershipprovidedresourcesandclout,buttrappedthestewardessesinasubordinaterelationshipstructuredbyyetanothergenderhierarchy.
BothALPAandtheTransportWorkers'Union(TWU)—aCIOunionwhichultimatelyaffiliatedanationallocalofstewardesses—embracedthestewardessesprimarilytokeepthegroupfrombringinginamorepowerfulrivalunionandtorestrictthemtoanarrowrangeofissuesatthebargainingtable.
641Theairlines'occupationalsegregationbysexofpilots(male)andstewardesses(female),togetherwiththemale-dominatedunions'turf-guardingstrategies,yieldedsex-segregatedunions.
642Thoughtheunionsprotestedtheagelimitsandmarriagebansatthebargainingtableandbyfilinggrievancesundercollectivebargainingagreements,theireffortsweresporadicandproducednowidespreadchange.
First,manystewardessessupportedtheagelimits,weightrestrictions,andmarriagebans.
643Second,airlinesstrenuouslyresistedalterationofthebrandedimageatthebargainingtableandinarbitration,andonlypiecemealprogresswasmade.
644Withoutaclear-cutculturalnormofantidiscriminationstemmingfromafederalstatute,unionshaddifficultypersuadingarbitratorstorejectthewell-acceptedpracticeintheindustry.
645WiththeenactmentofTitleVIIandparallelstatelegislationprohibitingsexdiscrimination,thetideturned.
Withunionsupport,stewardessesinitiatedlegaltowardemployers;employersdeployedracialprivilegeto"makeupforalienatingandexploitativeclassrelationships").
636.
Barry,supranote618,at125.
637.
Id.
at120.
638.
Id.
at121.
639.
Id.
at126;NIELSEN,supranote619,at36.
Itappears,however,thatairlinesdidnotresisttheunionizationofstewardesses,believingiteasiertodealwitharecognizedagentonbehalfofthepredominantlyshort-term,temporaryworkforce.
Id.
at32.
640.
Until1942,theALPAconstitutioncontainedaclauserestrictingmembershipto"whitemalesofgoodmoralcharacter.
"Cook,supranote619,atxv.
641.
Id.
atxx.
642.
Seeid.
;Barry,supranote618,at127.
643.
NIELSEN,supranote619,at84,102.
644.
Barry,supranote618,at132;NIELSEN,supranote619,at87–90.
645.
SeeNIELSEN,supranote619,at84.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED119challengestotheairlineagelimitsandmarriagebans.
646Stewardessesalsoexploitedtheirpublicpersonastotelltheirstorythroughthemedia.
Theyheldpressconferences,testifiedbeforecongressionalcommittees,andinitiatedprotests,sparkingapublicdebate.
Gradually,publicopinionshifted.
Changingsexualmoresandthedemandsofthewomen'smovementforequalitywereinconsistentwiththemarriagebanandtheearly-retirementrule.
647Bytheearly1970s,theagelimitsandmarriagebanshadbeendenouncedbytheEEOC648andthefederalcourts.
649Throughoutthisperiod,however,stewardesseswerecarefulnottochallengetheairlines'brandedmarketing,theappearancepolicies,ortheemploymentrestrictionsthemselvesinthecourtofpublicopinion.
Insteadofaccusingairlinesofexploitingwomenbycreating"flyingbunnyclubs"thatvalorizedyouthandsexualavailability,thestewardessesemphasizedtheunfairnessandillogicofgenericrulesthatappliedtostewardesseswhostillfitthebrandedoccupationalimage—stillyouthful,slim,andattractive—albeitmarriedand/oroverthirty-twoyearsofage.
650Duringthe1970s,theairlinesturnedtomoreexplicitlysexualizedbrandingandmarketingcampaigns.
Stewardesseswentfrom"vestalvirgins"651to"sexyswingers"inmarketingcampaigns:Insteadofportrayingthestewardessasthefresh-facedgirlnextdoorinsearchofasuitablehusband,airlinessoughttocaststewardessesasprovocativeteases,"commercialstandardbearer[s]ofthesexualrevolution.
"652Marketingsloganswereexplicitlysexualized:Nationaladvertised"Hi,I'mCheryl—FlyMe";Continental'ssloganwas"WeReallyMoveOurTailsForYou";andBraniffinstitutedan"AirStrip"inwhichstewardessesshedpartsoftheiruniformsinflight.
653Uniformtrendsshiftedfromtailoredsuitstominiskirtsandhotpants.
Inresponse,stewardesses'demandsforrespectasworkersintensified.
Theyadvancedchallengestothesexualsubordinationthatwasintermingledwithexploitationoftheirlabor,andforthefirsttimesoughttodistancethemselvesfromtheirglamour-girlimage.
Theirmovementfordignitycoalescedwiththefeministmovementofthe1970s,andtheycollaboratedwiththeNationalOrganizationforWomenandformedallianceswithprominentfeministslikeBettyFriedanandGloriaSteinem.
Theyprotestedboththeirculturalrepresentationandtheairlinemarketingstrategies,andsoughtrespectfortheirskilledlabor.
AsonememberofStewardessesforWomen'sRightsexplained,"Idon'tthinkofmyselfasasexsymboloraservant.
Ithinkofmyselfassomebodywhoknowshowtoopenthedoorofa747inthedark,upside646.
Id.
at91.
647.
Barry,supranote618,at129–31.
648.
NIELSEN,supranote619,at86.
649.
SeeSprogisv.
UnitedAirLines,444F.
2d1194(7thCir.
1971)(strikingdownmarriageban);Diazv.
PanAm.
WorldAirways,442F.
2d385(5thCir.
1971)(strikingdownpolicyofhiringonlywomenforcabinservice).
650.
Barry,supranote618,at131.
651.
NIELSEN,supranote619,at20.
652.
Barry,supranote618,at134.
653.
Id.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM120DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007downandinthewater.
"654Theyalsocasttheairlines'sexualizedmarketingstrategyaspotentiallydangerous,implicatingpublicsafetyifpassengersdidnottakestewardessesseriouslyinanemergency.
655Thetransitionfromstewardessesto"flightattendants"withautonomousunionsandlong-termcareerprospectssoonfollowed.
In1973,thestewardessdivisionofALPAsplitawayfromthepilots'unionandinitiateditsownunion,theAssociationofFlightAttendants(AFA),whichsubsequentlyobtainedanAFL-CIOcharterofitsown.
Fromitsearliestdays,theAFAwaschairedandledbywomen,withapredominantlyfemaleexecutiveboardandcollectivebargainingcommittees.
656Inthemid-tolate1970s,otherunionizedflightattendantssplitawayfromtheTransportWorkers'Union,wheretheyhadmaintainedanational"local"ofstewardesses,andformednew,autonomousunions.
657Legalchallengestomaternitybansandweightrestrictions658soonfollowed,directlyconfrontingtheairlines'brandedimageofsexualavailabilityandstandardizedimageofanattractivewoman.
Oneofthemostfamouscasesoftheera,Wilsonv.
SouthwestAirlinesCo.
,659involvedachallengetoSouthwestAirlines'practiceofhiringonlywomenasflightattendantsinordertofurtheritsbrandedserviceasthe"loveairline.
"SouthwestraisedaBFOQdefense,arguingthatitspracticeofhiringwomenwasessentialsincethefemalesexappealofitsflightattendantswasacriticalpartofitsmarketingstrategydesignedtoappealtoits"predominantlymalebusinessmen"customerbase.
660Amongotherthings,Southwesttelevisioncommercialspromised"inflightlove"anddepictedscantilycladfemaleflightattendantsservingmalepassengers"lovebites"(toastedalmonds)and"lovepotions"(cocktails).
661Thecourtrejectedtheairline'sdefense,concludingthatsexwasnotessentialtotheairline'sprimarybusinesspurpose,whichwastransportingpassengerssafelyandquickly.
662Thecourtexplained,"[S]exdoesnotbecomeaBFOQmerelybecauseanemployerchoosestoexploitfemalesexualityasamarketingtool,ortobetterinsureprofitability.
"663Theflightattendants'efforttoresistsexualizedbrandingwasrelativelysuccessful.
Theflightattendantsconceptualizedsex-stereotypedappearance654.
Id.
at135.
655.
Id.
656.
Cook,supranote619,atxix.
657.
Barry,supranote618,at136.
658.
SeeGerdomv.
Cont'lAirlines,692F.
2d602(9thCir.
1982)(enbanc)(denouncingstrictweightlimitsonfemaleflightattendantswherenosuchrestrictionappliedtomaleflightattendants);Frankv.
UnitedAirlines,216F.
3d845(9thCir.
2000)(strikingdownweightpolicythatapplieddifferentweightstandardstofemaleandmaleflightattendants,butwasbaseduponlargeframenormsformenandmediumframenormsforwomen,renderingcompliancemoreburdensomeforwomenthanformen);seealsoLaffeyv.
Nw.
Airlines,366F.
Supp.
763(D.
D.
C.
1973),vacatedandremandedinpartandaff'dinpart,567F.
2d429(D.
C.
Cir.
1976)(strikingdownaruleforbiddingfemaleflightattendantstoweareyeglasses).
659.
517F.
Supp.
292(N.
D.
Tex.
1981).
660.
Id.
at294.
661.
Id.
at294n.
3.
662.
Id.
at302.
663.
Id.
at303.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED121codesasanissueimpactingworkers'collectiverightsasworkersandaswomen.
Theychallengedthebrandingprocessasanunacceptableformofsocialcontrolthatoccurredupongenderedaswellasclassedterrain.
664Thepresenceofunionsandtheflightattendants'allianceswithfeministgroupsattheheightoftheirpowerandinfluenceplayedasignificantroleinturningthetideofcommunityopinionintheirfavor,andwithit,ultimately,courts'viewsaboutthelegitimacyofthesexualizedbrandingpracticesemployedbytheairlines.
VIII.
CONCLUSIONKatharineBartlettobservedmorethanadecadeagothatcourtsinterpretingTitleVIIhavepaidexcessivedeferencetocommunitynormsandusedthemasanobjectivestandardforevaluatingemployerpractices,exacerbatingthegapbetweenthelaw'saspirationsanditsactualimpact.
665Thistrendhasbeenparticularlynoticeableintheappearancecodecases,wheretheappearancecodesarepredicatedonestablishedcommunitynormsthatsimplyencodesexualstereotypes.
666InthisArticle,wearguedthatemployers'increasinglysophisticatedbrandingstrategiescreateaproperty-likeinterestthatisengraftedontothefaces,bodies,andpsychesofservicesectorworkersthroughappearancecodes.
Thecodesreflecttheculturalstereotypesoftheday,basedastheyareuponcustomersurveysorfeedback.
Theworkersthusbecomeuniformed,painted,smiling,talkingbillboardsmirroringtheculturalstereotypesoftheemployer'stargetmarket.
Whenthelawenforcessuchcodes,itauthorizesemployerstoconvertculturalstereotypesintoaformofproperty—separateanddistinctfromtheworkers'actualphysicalandmentallabor—andtoseizetheprofits.
Totheextentthatthelawreflectsandissteepedinthesocialpracticesandbiasesthatitseekstoeradicate,itshouldnotsurpriseustolearnthatitisincapableofrisingabovethesepracticesandbiases.
Ascriticalracefeministshaverepeatedlyremindedus,"themaster'stoolswillneverdismantlethemaster'shouse.
"667Thisisparticularlyaptasadescriptionofantidiscriminationlaw.
AsJudithButlerrecentlyexplained,[W]eoughtnottoidealizethelawasaneutralinstrumentthatmightinterveneinthesocialoperationofsuchcategories[ofdiscrimination]inordertoeliminatethem.
Antidiscriminationlawparticipatesintheverypracticesitseekstoregulate;antidiscriminationlawcanbecomeaninstrumentofdiscriminationinthesensethatitmustreiterate—andentrench—thestereotypicalordiscriminatoryversionofthesocialcategoryitseekstoeliminate.
.
.
.
Insofar664.
SeeEileenBoris,DesirableDress:Rosies,SkyGirls,andthePoliticsofAppearance,69INT'LLAB.
&WORKINGCLASSHIST.
123,127(Spring2006).
665.
KatharineT.
Bartlett,OnlyGirlsWearBarrettes:DressandAppearanceStandards,CommunityNorms,andWorkplaceEquality,92MICH.
L.
REV.
2541(1994).
666.
Id.
at2543–44.
667.
AudreLorde,TheMaster'sToolsWillNeverDismantletheMaster'sHouse,inTHISBRIDGECALLEDMYBACK:RADICALWRITINGSBYWOMENOFCOLOR108,109(CherrieMoraga&GloriaAnzalduaeds.
,1981).
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PM122DUKEJOURNALOFGENDERLAW&POLICYVolume14:132007as.
.
.
societyisunderwrittenbystereotype,itishardtoseethatantidiscriminationlawmighttranscendthestereotypesitseekstoeliminate.
668Thelawdoesnotsimplyreflecttheunderlyingsocialnormsandvalues,however;italsoreaffirmsandenforcesthem,creatingaswellasreflectingconsensusand,ultimately,distributingpower.
669Thisisparticularlytruewheresocialmovementsanimatetheevolutionoflaw,asinthecaseofbothantidiscriminationlawandlaborlaw.
Thelawthathasdevelopedaroundtheregulationofworkerappearancehasfunctionedtodelegatetoemployersthepower"toenforcethedominantexpectationsaboutappearanceandtodisciplinedeviancefromtheapprovedsocialnorms,"including"policingandreinforcinggenderlines,"enforcing"socialnormsregardingproperbehavior,"and"insist[ing]thatemployeesconformtosociallyconstructednormsandexpectationsabouthowthesexesshouldactandlook.
"670Thus,weshouldlooktolawtointervenetowardtheendofchangingthosesocialnorms.
AsscholarsrangingfromCassSunstein671toPaulineKim672toCynthiaEstlund673toDuncanKennedy674andKarlKlare675havesuggested,shiftingthegroundor"default"rulesintheemploymentcontextwouldbeadesirablesteptowardalteringthegroundrulesfortheexerciseofpoweratwork.
Evenwithashiftindefaultrulesunderlyingtheat-willemploymentcontract,however,individualworkersareunlikelytohavethebargainingleveragetonegotiatefaircompensationortoresistaltogethertheimpositionofcorporatebrandingthatunderminesindividualautonomy.
Onlybystandingtogether—astheSafewayworkersdidagainsttheSmileprogram,ortheflightattendantsdidagainsttheairlines'sexstereotypedbrandingstrategies—mightworkershavethestrengthtodemandappropriatecompensationortoresistbranding.
Whilenecessary,however,collectiveactionmaynotbesufficient.
DarleneJespersen'sstorytellsuswhy:Eventhebest-intentionedeffortsofmajoritarianlaborunionsseekingtoadvancetheinterestsofworkersquaworkersoverlooktheinterestsofoutlierindividuals—thosewhocompriseanumericalminorityintheoccupationalcategoryatissue.
Moreover,laborunionsconfrontthesamesortsofunderlyingassumptionsabouttheprimacyofemployerpropertyrights668.
JudithButler,AppearancesAside,88CAL.
L.
REV.
55,62(2000).
Forexample,theJespersencourteffectivelytookjudicialnoticeofculturalnormsregardingthewidespreaduseofmakeupbywomeninAmericansocietyinconcludingthatHarrah'spolicywasnotunreasonable,hintingthatitwasrelyinguponnormsofthe"entertainmentindustry.
"Jespersenv.
Harrah'sOperatingCo.
,444F.
3d1104,1112(9thCir.
2006)(enbanc).
Atthesametime,however,thecourtrefusedtotakejudicialnoticeofthetimeittakestoputmakeuponandtheexpenseofmakeup,insteadrequiringJespersentopresentevidenceofthetimeandcostinvolvedincomplyingwiththerule.
Inconstructingantidiscriminationdoctrine,then,thecourtchosetoreifyaparticularsetofculturalstereotypes.
669.
SeeDUNCANKENNEDY,SEXYDRESSINGETC.
107(1993).
670.
Klare,supranote92,at1398,1420.
671.
CassR.
Sunstein,SwitchingtheDefaultRule,77N.
Y.
U.
L.
REV.
106(2002).
672.
PaulineT.
Kim,BargainingwithImperfectInformation:AStudyofWorkerPerceptionsofLegalProtectioninanAt-WillWorld,83CORNELLL.
REV.
105,147–55(1997).
673.
CynthiaL.
Estlund,HowWrongAreEmployeesAboutTheirRights,andWhyDoesItMatter,77N.
Y.
U.
L.
REV.
6,21–28(2002).
674.
KENNEDY,supranote669,at107.
675.
Klare,supranote92,at1448.
02__AVERY_CRAIN.
DOC2/8/20072:01PMBRANDED123tomanageandcontroltheirbusinessesandtheirworkforcesthatplaintiffsinindividualemploymentdiscriminationcasesmustovercome,andinafarmorehostile,ossified,andweakenedlegalarena.
676Finally,sexualizedbrandinginnonsexualizedcontextsimposesburdensthatworkersshouldnotberequiredtoaccept,regardlessofthecompensationoffered.
AsDarleneJespersen'scaseillustrates,progressivedoctrinalreforminantidiscriminationlawisanessentialpieceofaplatformforprogressivechange.
Attheendoftheday,DarleneJespersen'sstorydemonstratesthatthemostpromisingstrategiesarethosethatconnectworkers'identitiesasworkerswiththeirstatus-basedidentitiesandproceedsimultaneouslyonmultiplelegalandsocialfronts.
Collectiveorganizingandbargainingstrategies,TitleVIIlitigation,andcommunityactivismandmediacampaignsareallnecessarytoalterbothlegalrulesandculturalnormsthatdrivesex-stereotypedcorporatebranding.
Sometimeslegalreformwillbringpressuretobearonculturalnorms,whileonotheroccasionsorinothercontexts,culturalnormswillcausedoctrinalshiftsinlaw.
Lawisbothconstitutiveandreflective,butitalwaysmatters.
676.
SeegenerallyCynthiaL.
Estlund,TheOssificationofAmericanLaborLaw,102COLUM.
L.
REV.
1527(2002).