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UniversityofMontanaUniversityofMontanaScholarWorksatUniversityofMontanaScholarWorksatUniversityofMontanaGraduateStudentTheses,Dissertations,&ProfessionalPapersGraduateSchool1999D.
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R.
E.
andtheDiffusionofinnovations:ImplicationsforD.
A.
R.
E.
andtheDiffusionofinnovations:Implicationsforassessingreporteddrugalcoholandtobaccouseamong8th10thassessingreporteddrugalcoholandtobaccouseamong8th10thand12thgradestudentsinMontanapublicschoolsand12thgradestudentsinMontanapublicschoolsDustenR.
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R.
E.
andtheDiffusionofinnovations:Implicationsforassessingreporteddrugalcoholandtobaccouseamong8th10thand12thgradestudentsinMontanapublicschools"(1999).
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IMaureenandMikeMANSFIELDLIBRARYTheUniversityofIVIONTANAPermissionisgrantedbytheauthortoreproducethismaterialinitsentirety,providedthatthismaterialisusedforscholarlypurposesandisproperlycitedinpublishedworksandreports.
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D.
A.
R.
E.
andtheDiffusionofinnovations:impiicationsforAssessingReportedDrug,Aicohoi,andTobaccouseAmong8*^,10*^,and12*^GradeStudentsinMontanaPublicSchoolsbyDustenR.
HollistB.
A.
TheUniversityofMontana,1997PresentedinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsForthedegreeofMasterofArtsTheUniversityofMontana1999Approvedby:ChairpersonDean,GraduateSchoolDateReproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
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UMINumber:EP39536AllrightsreservedINFORMATIONTOALLUSERSThequalityofthisreproductionisdependentuponthequalityofthecopysubmitted.
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UMTUMIEP39536PublishedbyProQuestLLC(2013).
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Hollist,DustenR.
.
M.
A.
.
May1999SociologyD.
A.
R.
E.
andtheDiffusionofInnovations:ImplicationsforAssessingReportedDrug,Alcohol,andTobaccouseAmong10^^,and12"^GradeStudentsinMontanaPublicSchools.
Chairperson:FredW.
ReeABSTRACTAlthoughmuchtimeandmoneyhasbeenallocatedtoschool-baseddrugresistanceeducation,littleifanyprogresshasbeenmadereducingdruguseThispapercomparestheD.
A.
R.
E.
programtoamodelbaseduponEverettRogers'Diffusionofinnovations,andamodelconstructedusingmeasurescitedintheliteratureasfactorsassociatedvi/ithat-riskyouth(riskfactors).
Thefundamentalconcernofthispaperistoexaminethedegreetowhichthosefactorsthatfacilitatetheadoptionofdrugusingbehaviorsleadtoabetterunderstandingofadolescentdrug,alcohol,andtobaccouse.
Rogers'model,atheoreticallybasedmodelappliedtobehavioralchange,isshowntohavemorepromiseforfutureresearchinthisarea.
11Reproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
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AcknowledgementThisworkIslargelyindebtedtoFredW.
ReedandWilliamH.
McBroomattheUniversityofMontanawhohavegivencountlesshoursofmentoring,editing,evaluation,andencouragementtomeduringthecourseofthisproject.
Inaprofessionwherementoringisseeminglydisappearing,theygavemetheirtimeandmentalresourcesthatwereessentialcomponentsofthecompletedworkpresentedhere.
AspecialthankstoFredwhonurturedtheoriginalidea,wasinstrumentalinkeepingtheprojectontaskandheadingintherightdirection.
AdditionalthankstoCindyGarthwaitwhoservedastheoutsidemembertomycommittee.
Thankyouforthesupport,encouragementandadvice.
ToPeteSurdockJr.
MSW.
ACSW.
ProjectDirectorChemicalDependencyBureau,MontanaDepartmentofPublicHealthandHumanServices,BruceParsonsPh.
D.
andSteveHarrisonPh.
D.
independentresearchersandownersofIntermountainEvaluationServicesInc.
Helena,Mt.
Thankyouforthegiftofdata.
ThedatausedinthisstudytakenfromtheMontanaPreventionNeedsAssessmentsurveywassupportedthroughfederalgrant#277-97-6005giventotheMontanaChild,AdolescentandAdultNeedsAssessmentStudies:AlcoholandotherdrugsCSAP.
ToLonnieSchaible,whowhilecompletinghisownworkhasgivenmenumeroushoursoffeedback,computerandtechnologicaltraining,andanopenmindtobounceideasoffof.
ThankyouLonnie,ourworkhasjustbegun!
!
!
Aspecialthankstothefollowingpeoplewhowerealsoessentialtothecompletionofthispaper.
TaraKenirywhoservedaseditorforthemultipledraftsandrevisionsthatthispaperhasundergone.
ChuckHarrisforalloftheencouragement,adviceandcomputerhelpandShariLinjala,thedepartmentsecretaryforalwaystakingthetimetomakesurethatalltheessentialpaperworkwascompletedandthebureaucraticdedalinesmeet.
Finally,tomywifeCheri,andourtwochildren,MariahandTristen,towhomIowethebiggestgratitudeofall.
ThankyouCherifortakingcareofourchildrenandallowingmeboththeflexibilityandtimeneededtocompletethisproject.
ToMariahandTristen,forbeingtheconstantinspirationthatcontinuestodrivemeforwardinpursuitofmygoalsandtheflexibilitytobethebestdaddythatIcanbe,thankyou,Iloveyou.
IllReproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
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TableofContentsAbstractiiAcknowledgementsiiiListofTablesvIntroduction1Theory1-D.
A.
R.
E22-DiffusionofInnovations9DataandMethods1-Data182-LogicoftheAnalysis19VariablesandMeasures20Analysis23Results24Conclusions28References32Appendices36AppendixI:MontanaPreventionNeedsAssessmentQuestionnaireAppendixII:OperationalizationsAppendixIII:Inter-ItemCorrelationTablesIVReproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
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ListofTablesTableTitlePage1RegressionEquation:D.
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R.
E.
Model242RegressionEquation:DiffusionModel263RegressionEquation:RiskFactorsModel284Inter-ItemCorrelation:D.
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E.
ModelAppendixIII5Inter-ItemCorrelation:DiffusionModelAppendixIII6Inter-ItemCorrelation:RiskFactorsModelAppendixIIIReproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
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IntroductionPublicconcernoverdrugusehasresultedinbroadresourcesbeingavailablefordrugresistanceeducationprograms.
Atlastcount,therewereroughlyfiftydifferentprogramseducatingyouthsinanefforttoreduceadolescentdruguse(DonnermeyerandRussell1998;151).
Althoughmostcommunitiesthroughoutthenationhaveadoptedsometypeofdrugresistanceeducationprogram,mostevaluationsoftheseprograms,withoneortwonotableexceptions,havediscoveredlittleornoimpactonyouthdruguse(Ennett,Tobler,Ringwald,andFlewelling1994).
Oneviewsuggeststhatthevarietyofsituationaldeterminantsofdruguseistoopowerfulforafewhoursofin-classtrainingtoovercome.
Whilethatviewcertainlygainscredencefromavolumeofsocialsciencetheoryandevidence,thepurposeofthispaperistoproposethatdrugresistanceeducationprogramsmayshowfewpositiveresultsbecausetheyfailtotakeadvantageofwell-knownevidenceandtheoryonthediffusionofinnovationsandbehaviorchange.
Usingtheassumptionsofthenation'smostwell-knowndrugresistanceeducationprogram(D.
A.
R.
E.
DrugAbuseResistanceEducation)wewilldeterminethedegreetowhichdruguseamongyouthscanbepredicted.
WewillthenaddresshowthatsamebehaviorcanbepredictedusingthepropositionsofEverettRogers'approachtothediffusionofinnovations.
Thefundamentalassumptionisthatthosefactorsthatbestexplaintheadoptionofabehaviorarelikelytobethemostimportantinthereductionofthesamephenomenon.
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TheoryDARE.
(DrugAbuseResistanceEducation)TheD.
A.
R.
E.
programoriginatedin1983throughacombinedeffortbetweentheLosAngelesPoliceDepartmentandtheLosAngelesUnifiedSchoolDistrictinanefforttoeducatestudentsabouttheharmfuleffectsofdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco(D.
A.
R.
E.
,1988:I).
WhiletheprogramisavailabletostudentsatgradelevelsKthrough12,thecorecurriculumtargetsthosestudentsatthefifthandsixthgradelevel.
Dr.
RuthRich,acurriculumspecialistwiththeLosAngelesUnifiedSchooldistrictadaptedthecorecurriculumoftheD.
A.
R.
E.
programfromthedesignofProjectSMART(Self-ManagementandResistanceTraining):apreventioncurriculumcreatedbytheHealthBehaviorInstitutefortheUniversityofSouthernCalifornia(D.
A.
R.
E.
,1988:41).
WhiletheD.
A.
R.
E.
programisalsoconcernedwithstudents'involvementwithviolenceandgangs,thisstudywillfocusexclusivelyontheprogram'sphilosophytoprovideresistancetrainingtocombatadolescentdrug,alcohol,andtobaccouse.
OurconcernhereistoexaminethedegreetowhichthosefactorsincludedintheD.
A.
R.
E.
curriculum,asessentialcomponentsofresistanceeducation,leadtoanexplanationoflifetimereporteduseofdrugs,alcohol,andtobaccoinoursampleofMontana8*^,10*"^,and12'^gradestudents.
D.
A.
R.
E.
'sinvolvementwithviolenceandgangresistancetraining,albeitpotentiallyimportant,isbeyondthescopeofinterestforthisproject.
Reproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
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InitspresentformtheD.
A.
R.
E.
programdoesnotofferaclearstatementdescribingitsviewofthedrugadoptionprocess.
^Throughanexaminationofthelistofcoreprogramelements,however,twelvekeypointsassertedbytheprogramtoincreasestudents'abilitytoresistdrugs,alcohol,andtobaccowereidentified.
ThesekeypointsarepresentedbelowintheordertheyareaddressedintheD.
A.
R.
E.
curriculum(D.
A.
R.
E.
,1988:1-3,41-47).
PersonalsafetyisthefirstelementaddressedintheD.
A.
R.
E.
curriculum.
Theprogrammaintainsthatinorderforstudentstoresist,theymustbeeducatedaboutpersonalsafety.
Tomeetthisobjectivestudentslearnaboutrulesthathelpthemstaysafe.
Inaddition,studentslearnthattheyhavetherighttosaynotodrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
Studentslearnabouttheirrightsasyoungpeopleandareencouragedtoavoidbehaviorthattheyfeeliswrong.
Itisassertedthatstudentswhodevelopasenseofpersonalsafetyaremorelikelytoresistdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
D.
A.
R.
Econtendsthatinorderforstudentstoresist,theymustknowabouttheharmfuleffectsofdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
Studentslearnabouttheharmfuleffectsofthesesubstancesonthebody.
Theyareeducatedaboutreasonswhypeoplechoosetousedrugs,therisksthatareinvolvedandtheimportanceofsaying"no".
Thosestudentswhoareeducatedabouttheharmful'D.
A.
R.
E.
Americawasqueriedtoassurethatafullcomplementoftheirmaterialswaspresented.
Theyrespondedstatingthatalloftheinformationabouttheprogramisavailableontheirwebpage.
Thiswork,therefore,usesallD.
A.
R.
E.
documentsavailableasofMay1'1998andtheD.
A.
R.
E.
webpagehttp://www.
dare.
comasofDecember15*1998.
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effectsaremorelikelytoresistdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco,accordingtoD.
A.
R.
E.
arguments.
Anawarenessoftheconsequencesassociatedwithdrug,alcohol,andtobaccouseispresentedintheD.
A.
R.
Eprogramasanessentialpartofresistanceeducation.
Studentsareaskedtolistthepositivebenefitsandnegativeconsequencesassociatedwithdrug,alcohol,andtobaccouse.
TheD.
A.
R.
Eapproachassertsthatitisimportantforyouthstorealizethatthenegativeconsequencesarefargreaterthananypossiblebenefitsgained.
Itispurportedthatstudentswhoareawareoftheconsequencesassociatedwithdrug,alcohol,andtobaccousewillbemorelikelytoresisttheiruse.
ResistanceagainstpeerpressureisincludedasanimportantpartofthetrainingofferedthroughtheD.
A.
R.
E.
program.
Studentsaretaughtaboutthemajorsourcesthatinfluencebehaviorandtheimportantroleofpeersinthisrelationship.
Studentslearnthatpeerpressuremaycomeinvaryingformsfromsomethingassimpleasfriendlypersuasiontosevereteasingorthreats.
Theprogramassertsthatstudentswhoareabletomanagenegativepeerpressurearemorelikelytoresistdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
Self-esteemisanothercriticalcomponentoftheresistancetrainingofferedintheD.
A.
R.
E.
program.
Studentsaretaughtthatinordertomakepositivechoicestheymustdevelopconfidenceintheirabilitytomakegooddecisions.
D.
A.
R.
E.
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contendsthatstudentswhoareabletomaintainhighselfesteemaremorecapableofovercomingstressandnegativepeerpressureandthereforelesslikelytouseorexperimentwithdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
AssertivenesstechniquesareemphasizedintheD.
A.
R.
E.
approachasanecessarycomponentofdrugresistanceeducation.
Throughrole-playing,studentslearnthedifferencebetweenpassiveandassertivetechniques.
Theyarethenchallengedtotrythesetechniquesatsomepointduringthefollowingweek.
D.
A.
R.
E.
maintainsthatthosestudentswhodevelopandutilizeassertivenesstechniquesaremorelikelytoresisttheinvitationtouseorexperimentwithdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
StressisaddressedintheD.
A.
R.
E.
programasamajorfactorinfluencingthedecisiontousedrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
Studentsareeducatedaboutstress:theylearnhowtoidentifythecausesofstressandareencouragedtoavoidstress-producingsituations.
Studentslearnthatinordertomanagestress,theymustbeabletodevelopconstructivemethodstocombatit.
D.
A.
R.
E.
assertsthatstudentstaughttorecognizestressandmethodstocopewithitaremorelikelytoresistdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
TheinfluenceofthemediaisalsoaddressedintheD.
A.
R.
E.
program.
Studentslearntoidentifystrategiesusedbythemassmediatopromotecertainproducts.
Aspartofahomeworkassignment,studentsarechallengedtoReproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
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analyzecommercialspromotingalcoholandtobacco,lookingforthesellingpointsthatareused.
D.
A.
R.
Econtendsthatstudentswhoareabletoidentifymediaglamorizationoftheseproductsarealsomorelikelytoresistdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
TheabilitytomakematuredecisionsispromotedintheD.
A.
R.
E.
programasanessentialcomponentofdrugresistanceeducation.
Studentslearntoevaluatedecisionsbasedupontheamountofriskthatisinvolved.
Theyarepresentedwithastep-by-stepprocessthatisassertedtohelpthemmakebetterdecisions.
Role-playingisusedtopresentsituationsthatmayoccur.
Studentsareencouragedtoevaluatetherangeofpossiblechoicesavailable,alongwiththepositiveandnegativeconsequencesassociatedwiththeirdecisions.
Itisassertedthatstudentswholearntomakedecisionsbaseduponaconsiderationofconsequencesandalternativesratherthanemotionorpeerpressurearemorelikelytoresistdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
TheD.
A.
R.
E.
approachmaintainsthatinorderforstudentstoresist,theymusthavealternativestodrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
Alternativessuchassportsandphysicalfitnessactivitiesareofferedastoolsfordealingwithstressandpeerpressure.
Studentsareencouragedtoconsideractivitiestheyenjoythatcouldbeusedtorelievestressandasalternativestodrug,alcohol,andtobaccouse.
TheD.
A.
R.
E.
approachcontendsthatstudentswhoareawareofReproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
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alternativesotherthandrug,alcohol,andtobaccoaremorelikelytoavoidusingorexperimentingwiththesesubstances.
Theimportanceofpositiverolemodelsisaddressedasacriticalcomponentofdrugresistanceeducation.
TheD.
A.
R.
E.
officerisassertedtoprovideapositiverolemodeltostudentsasarepresentativeofthelawenforcementcommunity.
Olderstudentsarealsobroughtintotheclassroomtoencouragestudentstoresist.
D.
A.
R.
E.
maintainsthatstudentswhohaverolemodelswhodonotusedrugsaremorelikelytoavoiddrug,alcohol,andtobaccouse.
TheD.
A.
R.
Eapproachassertsthatinorderforstudentstoresisttheymustbeabletodevelopandutilizepersonalsupportnetworks.
Studentslearnthatthesenetworksincludetheirfamilyandfriends.
Theylearnthatthepeopleinthesesupportnetworksareavailabletohelpthemresistdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
TheD.
A.
R.
Eapproachcontendsthatthosestudentswhoareawareofsupportfromfriendsandfamilyaremorelikelytoresistdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
Thesetwelveprogramcomponentsmaybestatedashypothesesasfollows;1-PersonalSafetv:Studentswhoareconcernedwithpersonalsafetyarelesslikelytouseorexperimentwithdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
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2-Harmfuleffects:Studentswhoknowabouttheirharmfuleffectsarelesslikelytouseorexperimentwithdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
3-Consequences:Studentswhoareawareoftheirconsequencesarelesslikelytouseorexperimentwithdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
4-PeerPressure:Studentswhoareabletoidentifyandresistpeerpressurearelesslikelytouseorexperimentwithdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
5-Self-esteem:Studentswhoareabletodevelopandmaintainpositiveselfesteemarelesslikelytouseorexperimentwithdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
6-Assertiveness:Studentswhodevelopassertivenesstechniquestosay"no"arelesslikelytouseorexperimentwithdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
7-Stress:Studentswhoareabletomanagestressarelesslikelytouseorexperimentwithdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
8-MediaInfluence:Studentswhoareabletoresistmediaglamorizationarelesslikelytouseorexperimentwithdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
9-MatureDecisionMakingAbilities:Studentswhoareabletodevelopmorematuredecisionmakingabilitiesarelesslikelytouseorexperimentwithdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
10-Alternatives:Studentswhoareawareofalternativesarelesslikelytouseorexperimentwithdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
11-PositiveRoleModel:Studentswhohavepositiverolemodelsarelesslikelytouseorexperimentwithdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
12-SupportSvstems:StudentswhoareabletodevelopasupportsystemofReproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
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familyandfriendsarelesslikelytouseorexperimentwithdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
EverettRogers'ModeloftheDiffusionofInnovationsIn1962,EverettRogerspublishedthefirsteditionofthediffusionofinnovations.
Sincethattime,ithasundergonethreefurthereditionswiththefourtheditionpublishedin1995.
Inthenearlyfortyyearssinceit'sdevelopment,thediffusionofinnovationshasbeenappliedtomultipleexaminationsoftechnologytransmissioninthefieldofagriculture.
Inaddition,ithasbeenusedtoexaminesocialphenomenonwellremovedfromit'soriginalpurpose.
Thediffusionofinnovationsisusedheretoexamineteendruguseinanattempttoforwardknowledgeaboutreasonswhydruguseisprevalentamongteensandtogeneratenewideasforpossibleintervention.
Rogersdefinesdiffusionas"Theprocessbywhichanewideaiscommunicatedthroughcertainchannelsovertime,amongthemembersofasocialsystem"(Rogers1995:5).
Aninnovationisanidea,belief,ortechnologythatisnewtothepeopleorgroupofpeopletowhichitisbeingpresented.
Thediffusionofinnovationsistheprocesswherebynewideas,beliefs,andtechnologiesaretransmittedfromaninitialinnovatororchangeagenttoothermembersofasocialsystem.
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10Inorderforaninnovationtobesuccessfullytransmitted,aneedforthenewideamustexist,orbeperceivedtoexist,atthetimeitispresented.
Theinnovation-décisionprocessisafive-stagetransitionthroughwhichanindividualorgroupmustpassinordertocompletetheadoptionofaninnovation.
Whileprogressionthroughtheinnovation-décisionprocessmayvary,eachstageisapotentialrejectionpoint,whereapotentialinnovatordecidesagainstthenewidea,thereforeexitingtheinnovationprocess.
Thefirststageintheinnovation-décisionprocessisknowledge.
Here,apotentialuserisgiveninformationaboutdrugs.
Thisincludesabasicunderstandingofthetechniqueneededtousedrugsalongwiththeanticipatedeffects.
^Rogersstatesthatwhilemostknowledgeaboutaninnovationissoughttoaddressaperceivedneed,knowledgeofaninnovationmayalsocreateaneedthatpreviouslydidnotexist.
Adolescentdruguse,then,mayresulttoaddressaperceivedneedofapotentialuser,orasaresultofhearingaboutdrugsandtheiradvantagesfromsomeoneelse,orhavingseenthebenefitsthatusersgainsuchasacceptance,socialprestigeandbecomingknownamongadmiredpeople.
Afterknowledgeaboutdrugsisobtained,adolescentsareconditionedtodesiretheadvantagesthathavebeenpresented.
Thisisthepersuasionstage.
Atthisstage,anattitudeisdevelopedbasedupontheinformationexperienced.
Ifthisattitudeisnegative,thepotentialusermaydecidetodropoutofthe"Thisinsight,originallyappliedtoagriculturalinnovations,isstrikinglysimilartoHowardBecker'smodelthatexaminestheprocessoflearningtosmokemarijuana(Becker,1966).
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11innovation.
Apositiveattitudehowever,mayleadtoadecisionbeingmadetotrydrugsforthefirsttime.
Thisisthedecisionstageoftheadoptionprocess.
Ifthepotentialuserhasdevelopedapositiveattitudetowarddrugsinthepreviousstagetheymustdecidetotrydrugsinordertocontinuetheadoptionprocess.
Thisistheimplementationstage.
Itisherethatusewilloccurforthefirsttime.
Afterthetrialattempt,however,thenewusermayormaynotdecidetousedrugsagain.
Thedecisiontocontinueusingdrugsisbaseduponthedegreetowhichthenewuserisconvincedthattheyhavemadetherightchoice.
Thisistheconfirmationstage.
Atthisfinalstage,adolescentusersseekreinforcementfrompeers,closefriendsandotherssupportingtheirdecision.
If,afterusingdrugsforthefirsttime,thenewuserisconvincedthattheyhavemadetherightchoice,thelikelihoodthattheywillcontinuetousedrugsisverygood.
However,iftheresponsefrompeers,familyandothersisnotconfirmatory,orifthenewuserdidnotenjoytheeffectsexperienced,futureuseisveryunlikely.
Theinnovation-décisionprocesspresentedbyRogersallowsforanexaminationoftheprogressionintodruguse.
Itishowever,verydifficultconceptuallytotesttheelementspresentedinthemodelwithresultsfromacross-sectionalsurveyliketheoneusedinthisstudy.
Rogersdoes,however,providegoodmeasuresofthekeyelementsintheinnovation-décisionprocess.
ThesemeasuresarepresentedinamannerconducivetoconceptualizationandReproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
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12testingwiththedataavailable.
Theseelementsusedare:RelativeAdvantage,Compatibility,Complexity,Triability,andObservability.
Althoughmanyinnovationsareintroduced,theytendtobediffusedandimplementedatdifferingrates.
Someareadoptedimmediately,whileothersareneveradopted.
Therateatwhichaninnovationisadoptedisinfluenced,inpart,bytherelativeadvantageitoffersovertheideathatitisreplacing.
Rogersdefinestherelativeadvantageofaninnovationas"thedegreetowhichitisperceivedasbeingbetterthanthepracticesitsupersedes"(Rogers1995:212).
Hegivesthefollowingexampletoillustraterelativeadvantage.
Intheearly1980'sveryfewpeoplehadVCR'sduetothesubstantialcost.
Asthedemandincreasedandthepricedroppeddramaticallyhowever,moreandmorepeopleboughtVCR's.
Consequently,oneishardpressedtoenterahometodayandnotfindaVCR.
Thisdrasticreductioninpriceisviewedasarelativeadvantage.
Therelativeadvantagesassociatedwithadolescentdruguseareasenseoflookingcool,aperceivedmaturityassociatedwithuse,andtheabilitytofitinwithpeers.
Druguseisviewedintermsofthebenefitsthatitprovides.
Tothedegreethatdruguseisseenasameanstogainsocialprestige,thegreaterthelikelihoodthatuseandexperimentationwithdrugswilloccur.
Anotherfactoraffectingtheadoptionofaninnovationisitscompatibilitywiththesystemwhereitwillbeused.
Compatibilityisdefinedas"thedegreetoReproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
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13whichaninnovationisperceivedasconsistentwithexistingvalues,pastexperiences,andneedsofpotentialadopters"(Rogers1995;224).
Toillustratecompatibility,RogersspeaksaboutthenorminmodernIndiaagainsteatingfoodwiththelefthand.
Heidentifiesthedegreeofdifficultythatwouldexistintryingtopersuade900millionIndianstostopeatingwiththeirrighthand.
Duetothefactthatthischangeviolatesaculturalnorm,thelikelihoodthatitwillbeadoptedissignificantlylessthanitmightotherwisehavebeen.
Parents'attitudetowarddruguse,alongwiththeattitudesofclosefriendsdeterminetoalargedegreehowcompatiblethisbehaviorwillbeinapotentialuser'slife.
Thoseadolescentswhosefamilyandfriendsfeelthatdruguseisacceptablearenotforcedtoweighthepossibilityofrejectionfromfamilyandfriends.
Thisfacilitatesthetransitionintouseandexperimentationwithdrugs.
Thistransitionmayalsobefacilitatedbytheperceivedneedfordruguseinanadolescent'slife.
Tothedegreethatdruguseiscompatiblewiththeattitudesandbeliefsofapotentialusersfriends,family,andpeers,thegreaterthelikelihoodthatusewilloccur.
Complexityalsoaffectstherateatwhichaninnovationwillbeadopted.
Rogersdefinescomplexityas"thedegreetowhichaninnovationisperceivedasrelativelydifficulttounderstandanduse"(Rogers1995:242).
Toillustratecomplexity,Rogersspeaksaboutthefirstusersofthehomecomputerasbeinghobbyistswholovedtechnologicalgadgets.
TothemthecomputerwasaReproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
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14relativelysimpledevice,somethingtoplayaroundonintheirsparetime.
Itwasn'tuntiltheearly1980'swhenlaypeoplebeganusingpersonalcomputersthatthecomplexityinvolvedbecameanissue.
Thisrelationshipisseenaroundtheworldtoday,withpersonalcomputeruserswhointeractwiththeirmachinesasthoughtheyarelivingbeingsthatrespondtoverbalthreatsandstimulation.
Perceivedriskandavailabilityarebothfactorsaffectingthecomplexityofadolescentdruguse.
ThoseyouthswhodonotassociatealargedegreeofriskwithdruguseandthosereportinglittledifficultyinobtainingdrugsaremorelikelytobecomeInvolvedwithdrugusethanthosewhoreportgreatriskandlittleavailabilityoropportunity.
Inessencethen,themorecomplexdrugsareperceivedtobebythepotentialuserinregardtoperceivedriskandavailability,thelesslikelythatusewilloccur.
Afourthfactoreffectingtheadoptionofaninnovationisitstrialability.
Trialabilityisdefinedas"thedegreetowhichaninnovationmaybeexperimentedwithonalimitedbasis'(Rogers1995:243).
Anexampleoftrialabilitywouldbeatractorsalesman,whoratherthaninsistingafarmerpurchasehisproduct,choosestoleaveitwiththefarmerforafewdayssaying,"TryItoutandletmeknowwhatyouthink".
Inthismanner,thesalesmanhastheadvantageoflettingthetractorsellitself.
Thefarmerisnotpressuredtopurchasetheproduct,ratherthroughatrialattemptheisabletotesttheadvantagesforhimself.
TheReproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
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15salesmanisconfidentthattheadvantageswillbesuchthatthefarmerwillbeunabletoresistthenewtechnology.
Theabilitytoexperimentwithdrugsisameasureoftheirtrialability.
Adolescentswhohaveseenpeers,siblings,parents,andotheradultsusedrugsaremorelikelytoexperimentwithdrugsthemselves.
Ifdruguseisviewedbythepotentialuserassomethingthattheycouldbe"hooked"onoraddictedtoafteronetime,thedecisiontoexperimentwillbemuchmoredifficultthanitwouldbeforpotentialuserswhohadpreviouslyviewedothersexperimentwithoutaddiction.
Tothedegreethatadolescentscanexperimentwithdrugs,orwatchothersaroundthemexperiment,thegreaterthelikelihoodthatusewilloccur.
Observabilityor"thedegreetowhichtheresultsofaninnovationarevisibletoothers"(Rogers1995:244)alsoaffectsaninnovation'srateofadoption.
ToillustrateobservabilityRogersgivestheexampleofsafesex.
ExpertsstatethatinordertoavoidtransmissionoftheHIV/AIDSvirussafesexpracticesmustbeused.
However,theambiguousnatureoftheterm"safesex"coupledwiththelackofreportedcasesofHIV/AIDSincertainpartsofthenationhavefailedtoshowimmediateresultsthatareobservabletoatriskpopulations.
Thislackofobservabilitytomeasuretheexpert'sclaimhasleadtoadisregardbymanyofthiswarningresultinginunprotectedsexratesthatarestillveryhighintheUnitedStatestoday.
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16Theabilitytoseethatothersviewtheadolescentdruguserascoolormatureisacriticalfactorindeterminingwhetherornotusewillcontinue.
Ifthereactionbyothersisdifferentthanthenewuserhadanticipated,are-evaluationoftheinnovationmayoccurandtheIndividualsuseofdrugsmaybelimitedtoaone-timeexperiment.
Ifhowever,theresponsefromdruguseisfavorable,thenewuserislikelytocontinuetousedrugsasameansofgeneratingprestigefromfriends,family,andothers.
Therefore,tothedegreethattheperceivedresultscanbeseeninthoseclosesttothenewuser,thegreaterthelikelihoodthatusewillcontinueafterthetrialattempt.
Thecommunicationchannelusedtopresentaninnovationisalsoanimportantpartoftheadoptionprocess.
Althoughthemassmediaareeffectivetoolstocommunicateanewideatoalargegroupofpeople,interpersonalchannels,(thoseinvolvingface-to-faceinteraction)aremorelikelytoresultinapositiveattitudetowardthenewidea.
TheeffectivenessofachannelthroughwhichapotentialusermightreceiveinformationaboutdruguseisinfluencedbyatermRogersreferstoas"homophily".
Homophilyisdefinedas"thedegreetowhichtwoormoreindividualswhointeractaresimilarincertainattributes,suchasbeliefs,education,socialstatus,andthelike"(Rogers1995:19).
Inregardtoadolescentdruguse,thechannelthroughwhichdruguseiscommunicateddeterminestoalargedegreetherateatwhichitwillbeadopted.
Thebestchannelsfortransmittingdrug-usingbehaviorstoadolescentyouthsareReproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
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17thoseInvolvingclosefriendsandfamily.
Thesechannelsarelikelytobehomophllous.
Theestablishednormsandvaluesinthesechannelsarealsolikelytobethesamenormsandvaluesofthepotentialuser.
TothedegreethatdruguseIstransmittedamongchannelsInvolvingpeers,closefriendsandfamily,thegreatertherateatwhichandthelikelihoodthatanewuserwilluseorexperimentwithdrugs.
ThediffusionofInnovationsoffersacomprehensivelookIntotheprocesswherebyanewIdeaIspresentedandImplementedorrejected.
Itallowsforanexaminationofthefactorsthatfacilitatethetransmissionofdrugusingbehaviorsamongadolescents.
FromthediffusionofInnovationsapproachwearepresentedwiththefollowinghypotheses;1-RelativeAdvantage:Studentswhoreportdruguseasameanstogainsocialprestigearemorelikelytouseorexperimentwithdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
2-Compatibllltv:Studentswhoreportthatdrug,alcohol,andtobaccousewillnotconflictwiththebeliefsofparentsandpeersaremorelikelytouseorexperiment.
3-Complexltv:StudentswhoreportasmallamountofperceivedriskandlittledifficultyInobtainingdrugs,alcohol,andtobaccoaremorelikelytouseorexperiment.
4-Triabilitv:Studentswhoreporthigherlevelsofrisktakingbehavioraremorelikelytouseorexperiment.
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185-Observability:Studentswhoreportthattheyknowsomeonewhousesdrugs,alcoholandtobacco,aremorelikelytouseandexperiment.
DataandMethodsDataThedataforthisprojectcomefromasurveyofstudentsinMontana'spubliceducationsystem.
StudentsinselectedMontanaschoolsatthe8*'^,10**^,and12*"gradelevelswereadministeredtheMontanaPreventionNeedsAssessmentSurvey^duringthe1997-1998academicyear.
Thetotalnumbersurveyedafterexcludingcasescontainingmissingdatais14,192.
Over99%ofthosesurveyedwerebetweentheagesof13-18.
Themale/femaledistributionshows49.
6%oftherespondentsweremalesand50.
4%females.
Ofthoseresponding.
84.
7%consideredthemselvestobeWhite,notofHispanicoriginvs.
7.
9%ofNativeAmericanand2.
2%whoclaimedtobeofSpanish/Latino/Hispanicdescent.
Inaddition,28.
4%oftherespondentsclaimedtoliveonafarmorinthecountry,while71.
6%reportedtheylivedinacityortown.
Thesurveycontainsquestionsregardingvariousaspectsofstudents'livesincludingattitudestoward,andreporteduseofillicitdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
Thesurveyinstrumentalsocontainsasectionaskingstudentsabouttheavailabilityofthesesubstances,alongwithsectionscontainingneighborhoodcharacteristics,familycharacteristicsandperceptionsofthebehaviorsofclosefriends.
^AcopyoftheMontanaPreventionNeedsAssessmentSurveyisincludedinAppendixIofthisdocumentforreference.
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19LogicoftheAnalysisThequestionofinterestinthisstudyis"Howimportantarethosefactorsthatbestexplaintheadoptionofabehavior(inthiscasedrug,alcohol,andtobaccouse)inthereductionofthesamephenomenon"ToanswerthisquestionthedegreetowhichboththeD.
A.
R.
E.
andtheRogersDiffusionofInnovationsmodelspredictadolescentreporteduseofdrugs,alcoholandtobaccomustbederived.
Theobjectivehereistoexaminebothmodelsindividuallytoidentifythosefactorsineachthatareshowntobegoodpredictorsandtocompareandcontrastbothmodels.
Inlinewiththequestionthatisbeingaddressed,thisstudyisconcernedwithhowthecurrentD.
A.
R.
Emodelcouldbenefitfromexistingknowledgeabouthumanbehaviorcontainedinthediffusionofinnovationsapproach.
Athirdfocusofthispaperaddressestheimportanceofidentifiableriskfactorsaspredictorsofadolescentdruguse.
Theriskfactorsapproachmaintainsthattherearecriticalfactorsassociatedwithadolescentdruguse.
Theapproachassertsthatasthenumberoftheseriskfactorsincreases,sodoesthelikelihoodthatdrug,alcohol,andtobaccousewilloccur.
Weproposethatthenumberofriskfactorsreportedisimportant,ratherthananyspecificcombinationoffactors.
Anindividualreportinganyfourriskfactorstherefore,ismorelikelytousedrugs,alcoholandtobaccothananindividualreportinganytworiskfactorsregardlessofwhichcombinationoffactorsarereported.
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20Amodelcontainingeightriskfactorssupportedintheliteratureispresentedintheanalysistoprovideadditionalinformationaboutadolescentdruguse.
ThismodelwillallowtheresearchertotestadditionalvariablesthatwerenotidentifiedintheD.
A.
R.
E.
andDiffusionofInnovationsModelsandassessthedegreetowhichtheypredictreporteduseinthisdataset.
Thefactorsincludedinthemodelare:perceivedpeeracceptanceofdruguse(Newcomb1986,Farrelletal.
1992,Greenwood1992,Vega1993,Farrell1993),schoolenjoyment(Graham1996,Farrell1992),tackofsocialconformity(Newcomb1986,Greenwood1992,Felix-Ortiz1992,Farrell1993,Vega1993,Graham1996),psychopathology(Newcomb1986,Greenwood1992,Farrelletal.
1992,Felix-Ortiz1992,Vega1993),perceptionofadultuse(Newcomb1986,Farrelletal.
1992,Felix-Ortiz1992,Vega1993,Farrell1993),siblinguse(Greenwood1992,Felix-Ortiz1992,Vega1993),G.
P.
A.
(Newcomb1986,Greenwood1992,Felix-Ortiz1992,Graham1996),andreligiosity(Newcomb1986,Greenwood1992,Felix-Ortiz1992)VariablesandMeasuresThevariablesthatusedinthisanalysisareoperationalized^belowasfollows:DependentVariable:LifetimeReporteduseisameasureoftherespondentreportedlifetimeuseof*SomefactorsidentifiedintheD.
A.
R.
E.
andDiffusionofInnovationsmodelshavebeenlistedasriskfactorsinthatbodyofliterature.
^ThequestionsusedtooperationalizethevariablesusedintheanalysisarepresentedverbatiminAppendixIIattheconclusionofthisdocument.
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21alcohol,tobacco,andanassortmentofillicitdrugs,rangingfromzeroto40+times.
IndependentVariables:DARE.
Variables1-Personalsafetyisameasureofreportedsecurityinthecommunityandathome.
2-HarmfulEffectisameasureoftheperceivedeffectsofdrug,alcohol,andtobaccouse.
3-Consequencesisameasuredofthenegativeoutcomesassociatedwithdrug,alcohol,andtobaccouse.
4-PeerPressureisameasureofpeerinfluenceonthedecisionsofstudents.
5-Self-esteemisameasureofstudents'perceptionsaboutthemselvesaswellastheirperceptionsofhowtheythinkothersfeelaboutthem.
6-Assertivenessisameasureofstudents'abilitytoresistspeerpressure.
7-Stressisameasureofreportedconflictamongmembersoftherespondents'family.
8-MediaInfluenceisnotincludedintheanalysisduetoaninadequatemeasuretooperationalizethisvariable.
9-MatureDecision-MakingAbilitiesisameasureofstudents'abilitytothinklogicallyandweighthecostsandbenefitsofdecisionstheymake.
10-Alternativesisameasureofotherthingstodointhecommunityotherthandrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
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2211-PositiveRoleModelisameasureofolderadultswhoInfluencethebehavioroftherespondent.
12-SupportSystemsisameasureoffriends,familyandpeersusedtohelpstudentsresistdrug,alcohol,andtobaccouse.
DiffusionofInnovationVariables1-RelativeAdvantageisameasureoftheperceivedbenefitsassociatedwithdrug,alcohol,andtobaccouse.
2-Compatibilityisameasureofthedegreetowhichdrugusingbehavioriscompatibleinthelivesofpotentialusers.
3-Complexityisameasureofthedegreeofdifficultyassociatedwithdrug,alcohol,andtobaccouse.
4-Triabilityisameasureofthedegreeofriskanindividualiswillingtotake.
5-Observabilityisameasureofthedegreetowhichadolescentdruguserscanseetheresultsfromdrug,alcohol,andtobaccouseinfriends,family,andpeers.
Riskfactorsvariables1-PerceivedPeerAcceptanceofDrugUseisameasureofreportedpeeruseofdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
2-SchoolEnjoymentisameasureofhowoftenstudentsreportedthattheyenjoyedbeinginschool.
3-LackofSocialConformityisameasureofreporteddeviance.
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234-Psychopathologyisameasureofstudentsreporteddegreeofhappinesswithlife.
7-PerceptionofAdultUseisameasureofperceivedadultuseofdrugs.
8-SiblingUseisameasureofperceivedsiblinguseofdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
9-G.
P.
Aisameasureofreportedgradesoverthepastyear.
10-Religiosityisameasureofhowoftentherespondentattendedreligiousservices.
AnalysisTheindicatorsareusedinanordinaryleastsquaresanalysis.
ThekeyfactorstakenfromtheD.
A.
R.
Emodelareaddressedintheanalysisfirst.
Usingordinaryleastsquaresregression,theindependentvariablesfromtheD.
A.
R.
E.
modelareregressedonasingledependentvariable.
Inthisanalysisthedependentvariableisameasureofstudentslifetimereporteduseofdrugs,alcohol,andtobaccotakenfromtheresponsesgivenontheMontanaPreventionNeedsAssessmentquestionnaire.
AftertheD.
A.
R.
Emodelhasbeencomputed,thisprocessisappliedtothediffusionofinnovationsandriskfactorsmodels.
Theresultsobtainedthroughtheanalysisarereportedinatablebytableanalysisofthethreemodelsexaminingthedegreetowhichtheypredictlifetimereporteduseinthisdataset.
Whiletheprimaryobjectiveistoexaminethedegreetowhicheachofthethreemodelspredictsuse,individualfactorswillbeReproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
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24addressedwithineachmodeltoallowthereadertoseethosefactorsthatwereorwerenotsignificantpredictorsofthedependentvariableinthisdataset.
ResultsD.
A.
R.
E.
Table1.
RegressionEquationDARE.
ModelVariablesbPPPersonalsafety.
005200.
014.
047HarmfulEffects-.
394-.
144.
001Consequences-.
930-.
465,001AssociatedwithUsePeerPressure.
002460009.
199SelfEsteem000.
004-.
016.
038Assertiveness-.
738-151.
000Stress.
104019009AbilitytoMake-.
260-.
123000MatureDecisionsAlternatives.
003800-.
006356PositiveRoleModel.
001100.
004.
631SuppportNetwork.
003640-.
013.
109ModelRN=14,192R*.
749.
562Table1,showstheregressionequationoftheD.
A.
R.
E.
modelwhichwasabletoexplain56.
2%ofthevarianceinthedependentvariableLifetimeReportedUse.
WhiletheR^valueisrelativelylarge,themajorityoftheexplainedvarianceisduetotheeffectoffourvariables.
ConsequencesAssociatedwithUseisthemostsignificantpredictorwithabetavalueof-.
465.
Thisnegativerelationshipshowsthatasthelevelofawarenessabouttheconsequencesassociatedwithdrug,alcohol,andtobaccouseincreases,thelikelihood,orrateatwhichstudents'reportusingthesesubstancesdecreases.
Assertiveness(p=-.
151),alsoasignificantpredictorofreporteduse,indicatesthatasastudentsReproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
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25reportedabilitytosay"no"todrugs,alcohol,andtobaccoincreases,theamountofreportedusedecreases.
HarmfulEffects(p=-.
144)provedtobeasignificantpredictorshowingthatasthelevelofawarenessoftheharmcausedbydrugs,alcohol,andtobaccoincreases,thereporteduseofthesesubstancesdecreases.
ThefinalfactortoemergeasasignificantpredictorisAbilitytoMakeMatureDecisions(p=-.
123).
Thisrelationshipshowsastheleveltowhichstudents'canevaluatetheirdecisionsfocusingonlong-termeffectsincreases,thelevelofreportedusedecreases.
WhentheequationwascomputedusingthestepwiseregressionoptionofSPSS,thesefourfactorsemergedastheonlysignificantpredictorsinthemodel.
SelfEsteem,PeerPressure,Stress,PositiveRoleModel,andSupportNetwork,allcomponentsaffirmedintheD.
A.
R.
Eapproachascriticalfactorsofresistanceeducation,didnotprovetobesignificantpredictorsintheresponsesofstudentssurveyedinthisstudy.
Whilethesevariableslackofexplanatorypowermaybeduetoinadequateoperationalization,thepresentfindingisalsoconsistentwiththeliteraturecitedabove.
DiffusionofInnovationsTable2showstheregressionequationobtainedfromtheDiffusionofInnovationsmodel.
Thevalueindicatesthatthemodelaccountsfor60%ofthevarianceinthedependentvariableLifetimeReportedUse.
Allofthevariablesexamined,withtheexceptionofComplexity,avariablemeasuringtheReproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
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26difficultyinobtainingandusingdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco(P=.
070),areshowntoberobustpredictors.
RelativeAdvantage,thestrongestpredictorinthemodel((3=.
543),indicatesthatasthelevelofperceivedbenefitfromuseincreasessodoesthelikelihoodthatitwilloccur.
Compatibility(P=.
347)showsastheTable2.
RegressionEquationDiffusionofinnovationsModelVariablesbPPRelativeAdvantage.
786.
543.
001Compatibility.
432.
347.
001Complexity.
174.
070.
001Trialability.
246.
117.
001Observability.
732,289.
001ModelRN=14,192R:.
774.
600degreetowhichstudents'feeluseiscompatiblewiththebehaviorsoffamilyandfriendsincreases,theprobabilitythatastudentwillreportlifetimeuseofdrugs,alcohol,andtobaccoincreasesaswell.
Observability(p=.
289)measuresthedegreetowhichstudentsperceiveothersattitudestowardusetobepositive.
Asthelevelofperceivedacceptancebypeersincreases,sodoesthelikelihoodthattherespondentwillreportprioruseofdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
Trialability(p=.
117),indicatesastheleveltowhichstudentsareabletoobserveothersusingdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco,thegreaterthelikelihoodthattheywillreportlifetimeuseofthesesubstances.
Thediffusionofinnovationsmodelisintendedtoshowfactorsthatfacilitatethetransitionintodrugusingbehaviorstherefore,thepositiverelationsbetweenthefactorscontainedinthemodelandLifetimeReportedUsearetobeReproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
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27expected.
Allfiveofthefactorsexaminedwereshowntobesignificantwhenenteredsimultaneously:however,whentheequationwascomputedusingthestepwiseregressionfunctioninSPSS,Complexitywasomittedfromthemodelduetothatvariables'inabilitytoeffectuatechangeinthemodelvalue.
AlthoughComplexitywasnotshowntobeastatisticallysignificantindicator,theoreticallyandintuitivelythemeasureisanimportantonewithregardtoadolescentdrug,alcohol,andtobaccouse.
RiskFactorsTable3showstheregressionequationfortheriskfactorsmodel.
Themodel,asshownthroughthevaluewasabletopredict68.
4%ofthevarianceinthedependantvariable,provingtobethebestpredictorofLifetimeReportedUse.
Thisisnotsurprisingconsideringthenatureofthethreemodelspresented.
TheD.
A.
R.
EandDiffusionofInnovationsmodelsbothhaveconceptualbases,whiletheriskfactorsmodelisconstructedfromvariablesshowninpreviousstudiestobesignificantpredictorsofadolescentdruguse.
AlthoughtheR^valueisrelativelylarge,itisprimarilyduetothreevariables;LackofSocialConformity(p=.
380),PerceivedPeerAcceptanceofUse(p=.
362),andPerceptionsofAdultuse(p=.
201).
Inessence,asthelevelofreporteddeviance,peeracceptanceofuse,andperceivedadultuseincreased,sodidthelikelihoodthattherespondentreportedlifetimeuseofdrugs,alcohol,andtobacco.
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28Table3.
RegressionEquationRiskFactorsModelVariablesbPPPerceivedPeer.
362.
311.
000AcceptanceofUseSchoolEnjoyment.
118.
033.
000LackofSocial1.
215380.
000ConformityPsychopathology.
000427-.
002.
773Perceptionsof.
412.
201000AdultUseSiblingUse.
411.
088.
000G.
P.
A-.
707-.
080.
000Religiosity-.
368-.
051.
000ModelRN=14,192R:.
827.
684WhencomputedusingthestepwiseregressionfunctioninSPSS,thevariablesG.
P.
A.
(p=-.
080)andsiblinguse(p=.
88)werealsoincludedinthemodel.
Althoughthererelationshipsarenotasstrongastheotherthreeidentifiedabove,studentswithhigherreportedgradepointaveragesreportslightlylowerratesoflifetimeuseofalcohol,drugs,andtobacco.
Conversely,astheamountofreportedsiblinguseincreases,sodoesthelikelihoodofstudentsreportedprioruseofthesesubstances.
TheremainingvariablesinthemodelwereunabletoeffectanychangeinthedependentvariableandthereforewereexcludedbySPSSfromthefinalstepwisemodel.
ConclusionsWhileallthreeofthemodelspresentedweregoodpredictorsofadolescentsubstanceuse,thediffusionofinnovationsmodelprovedtobethemostpowerful.
FourofthefivefactorsincludedintheRogers'modelwereReproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
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29showntobesignificant,whileonlyfouroftheelevencomponentsoftheD.
A.
R.
E.
modelandfouroutoftheeightcomponentsoftheriskfactorsmodelresultedassignificantpredictors.
ThisisanimportantfindingwhenconsideringthatboththeD.
A.
R.
E.
andriskfactorsmodelswerespecificallycreatedtolookatthedruguse.
Thediffusionofinnovationsmodel,incontrast,wasdevelopednearlyfortyyearsagotoexaminethediffusionandadoptionofagriculturepracticesandtechnology.
Thedegreetowhichthemodelhasbeenabletoexplainadolescentdrugusesuggestsaneedformoretheoreticallybasedexplanationsandexaminationsofthisphenomenon.
Anotherimportantfindingistheamountofoverlapamongthevariablesshownintheanalysisassignificantpredictorsfromthethreemodels.
ConsequencesAssociatedwithUse,thestrongestindicatorintheD.
A.
R.
E.
model,isacomparablemeasureofrelativeadvantageasitispresentedintheRogersmodel.
PerceptionsofAdultUseandPerceivedPeerAcceptanceofUse,bothsignificantindicatorsintheriskfactorsmodel,aresimilarmeasuresofthevariablecompatibilityinthediffusionofinnovationsmodel.
Furthermore,thisstudyhasbeenabletogenerateacritiqueoftheD.
A.
R.
Emodelnotadequatelyaddressedinpriorliterature.
Whileself-esteem,positiverolemodeling,stress,andpeerpressurearepresentedascriticalcomponentsfordrugresistanceintheD.
A.
R.
E.
program,theyhadverylittleexplanatorypowerwithregardtoreportedlifetimeuseofdrugs,alcohol,andReproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
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30tobacco.
TheintroductionofthediffusionofinnovationsmodelhasexpandedtheabilitytowhichweareabletoevaluateeffectivelyprogramslikeD.
A.
R.
E.
andidentifiedtheneedtoexaminecriticallyexistingdrugresistanceeducationinAmericanschools.
Thedegreetowhichthediffusionofinnovationsmodelhasbeenabletoexplainadolescentdrugusehighlightstheneedforacontinuationofstudiesliketheonepresentedhere.
Itsupportstheinitialassumptionthatthosefactorsthatfacilitatetheadoptionofdrugusingbehaviorsmaybeveryimportantinthereductionofthisphenomenonandtherefore,mustbegivenadequateattentionindrugresistancecurriculum.
Ithasalsoshowntheimportanceandutilityoftheoreticalmodelsbasedonafoundationofcoresociologicalfindingstoexplainboththesocialprocessesforwhichtheywereoriginallyintendedandthosebeyondthescopeoftheiroriginalpurpose.
Itisshownherewithregardtopredictingteendruguse,thefollowingfactorsareofcriticalimportance:attitudesofpeers,parentalinvolvementandtheconsequencesassociatedwithuse.
Theattitudesoffriendsisshowninthisstudy,asamajorcomponentofrelativeadvantageandcompatibilityinthediffusionofinnovations,tobethemostpowerfulinfluenceonreportedteendruguse.
Parents'attitudestowarddrugsarealsoshowntobeofimportancewithregardtoteenuse.
Althoughpeersareshowntobethemostinfluentialfactorinthedecisiontouse,studentsinthisstudygavecredencetotheattitudesthatReproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
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31theyassociatedwiththeirparents.
Parents,therefore,needtorealizehowimportanttheirattitudesareindeterminingwhetherornottheirchildrenwillexperimentwithdrugs.
Alongwiththesetwofactors,emphasisshouldbeplacedontheconsequencesassociatedwithuse.
Iwouldrecommendthatthattheconsequencesassociatedwithdruguseincludethelackofopportunitiesthatresult,alongwithpossiblehealthhazardsassociatedwithuse.
Inconclusion,themajorityofworkthathasbeendonetoevaluatetheeffectivenessofschool-baseddrugresistanceeducationprograms,tothispoint,hasresultedinverylittlenewknowledgeaboutuse.
Althoughmuchtimeandmoneyhasbeenallocatedtoexaminethisphenomenon,weasasciencestillknowverylittleabouttherootcausesofadolescentdruguse.
Thismaybebecauseoftheseeminglynarrowlypragmaticandatheoreticalnatureofpreviouswork.
Futurestudiesmaywanttoexploretheuseofotherbehavioralmodelssimilartothediffusionofinnovationsinanefforttoadvanceexistingknowledgeaboutadolescentdruguseandasawaytoimproveboththeevaluationandeffectivenessofschoolbaseddrugresistanceeducation.
Wehaveshowntheimportanceoftheoreticallyinformedresearchinthisimportantareaofconcern.
Surelyresearchfollowingthisbriefstudymustcontinuetobegroundedinandexpandthescopeofcurrenttheoriesthatdealwithadolescentdruguse.
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Reproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
Furtherreproductionprohibitedwithoutpermission.
36AppendicesReproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
Furtherreproductionprohibitedwithoutpermission.
AppendixIMontanaPreventionNeedsAssessmentSurveyReproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
Furtherreproductionprohibitedwithoutpermission.
MONTANAPREVENTIONNEEDSASSESSMENTSURVEY1-Thankyouforagreeingtoparticipateinthissurvey.
ThepurposeofthissurveyistogatherinformationneededtoplanalcoholanddrugpreventionprogramsforMontana'sschoolsandcommunities.
2.
Thesurveyiscompletelyvoluntary,anonymous,andconfidential.
ItwilltakeaboutoneclassperiodtofinishDONOTputyournameonthequestionnaire.
3.
ThisIsnotatest,sotherearenorightorwronganswers.
Wewouldlikeyoutoworkquicklysoyoucanfinish4.
AllofthequestionsshouldbeansweredbycompletelyTilllnginoneoftheanswerspaces.
Ifyoudonotfindananswerthatfitsexactly,usetheonethatcomesclosest.
Ifanyquestiondoesnotapplytoyou.
oryouarenotsurewhatitmeans,justleaveitblank.
Youcanskipanyquestionthatyoudonotwishtoanswer5.
Forquestionsthathavethefollowinganswers:NOtnoyesYESIMark(theBIG)YESIifyouthinkthestatementIsDEFINITELYTRUEforyou.
Mark(thelittle)yesifyouthinkthestatementIsMOSTLYTRUEforyou.
Mark(thelittle)noifyouthinkthestatementisMOSTLYNOTTRUEforyou.
Mark(theBIG)NOIifyouthinkthestatementisDEFINITELYNOTTRUEforyou.
Example:Chocolateisthebesticecreamflavor.
ONOtOneyesOYESIIntheexampleabove,thestudentmarked"yes"becauseheorshethinksthestatementismostlytrue.
Pleasemaiitonlyoneanswerforeachquestionbycompletelyfillinginthecircle.
O19orolderO10thO12thThesequestionsaskforsomegeneralinformationaboutthepeoplecompletingthesurvey.
Pleasemarktheresponsethatbestdescribesyou.
1.
Howoldareyou013015O17O14Q160182.
WhatgradeareyouinQsth3.
Areyou:OMaleOFemale4.
Whatdoyouconsideryourselftobe(Chooseonebestanswer.
)OWhite,notofHispanicOriginOAmericanIndian/NativeAmencan,Eskimo,orAleutOSpanisn/Hispanic/LatinoOBlackorAfricanAmencanOAsianorPaoflcIslanderOOther(PleaseSpecify5.
ThinkofwheyoulivemostofthetimeWhichofthefollowingpeoplelivetherewithyou(Chooseajjthatapply.
)OMotherOStepmotherOFosterMotherOGrandmotlterOAuntOFatherOStepfatherOFosterFatherOGrandfatherOUncleOOtheradultsOBrother(s)OStepbrother(s)OSister(s>OStepsister(s)OOtherchildren6.
WhatisthelanguageyouusemostoftenathomeOEnglishOSpanishOAnotherLanguage7WhereareyoulivingnowOOnafarmOInthecountry,netonafarmOInacity.
town,orsuburb8.
WhatisthezipcodewhereyouliveWriteinthenumbersanddarkenthecirclesforyourzipcode.
59oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo0*0009.
WhatisthehighestlevelofschoolingyourfathercompletedOCompletedgradeschoolorlessOSomehighschoolOCompletedhighschoolOSomecollegeOC.
mpletedcollegeOGraduateorprofessionalschoolaftercollege0Don'tknowODoesnotapply10.
WhatisthehighestlevelofschoolingyourmothercompletedOCompletedgradeschoolorlessOSomehighschoolOCompletedhighschoolOSomecollegeOCompletedcollegeOGraduateorprofessionalschoolaftercollegeODon'tknowODoesnotapply(VVMnmrETino*hiaumtoIoonpvanginqwn(|*aueoeoRMWSwdICIIwIKJ|.
bb§SoI.
IOMoroo-^owoo)oyio-^oOU>OUgON>O(0OII(OIIK)b>00w00-ioliOliObOroC)OoiOtnQo_1o§isiS§B§wIIIsSXIIIo>wO)ooowocoo-ioooen->ooo-vlI.
oK>o_LoO0>OOOOO00OensiO)XI(OXIIlIIorooN)ooK)o"*oo-*o00oisisioooo-0o00oo4a-o00ooooMenXIIlIIinenenN^XIenIIo->o^o-**ooocoowXIII00beno0000hjoooenXIIlilto-itotno>toO)XIIlIIlO(OIj.
too00ooNoPersonal'safetyHarmful'"EffectsConsequenceIwAssociatedwithUse.
PeerPressureI(nSelfEsteemIotAssertivenessIStressAbilitytoMake100MatureDecisionsItoAlternativesPositiveRoleIoModelSupportI-'Networkor(D(DzIo0s1o3s0)If3.
XO>70moa.
(DTable5.
Inter-ItemCorrelationMatrixDiffusionofInnovationsModeloG>Ifil115I12a*Q.
o3!
5(0.
2c4t!
5aO51X=15.
305S=5.
7932.
551X=18.
810.
000S=6.
7573.
468.
488X=11.
104000.
000S=3.
3794.
399.
353.
280X=7.
080.
000.
000.
000S=3.
1505-.
732-.
219-.
262-.
195X=14.
667.
000.
000.
000.
000S=3.
204Reproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
Furtherreproductionprohibitedwithoutpermission.
Table6.
Inter-ItemCoorelationMatrixfortheRiskfactorsModelILfIf1IIsIQl<3(A_lOQ.
Q.
<(AO:812345671X=12.
980S=7.
2562.
329X=8.
601.
0008=2.
3783.
492.
274X=3.
081.
000.
0003=2.
6524.
250.
285.
092X=8.
130.
000.
000.
0008=3.
1555.
551.
263495.
213X=8.
196000.
000000.
0008=4.
1246.
312.
129.
207.
121.
304X=5.
931.
000.
000.
000.
000.
0008=1.
7787-.
284-.
297-.
282-.
216-274-.
141X=3.
92000.
000.
000.
000.
000.
0008=.
978-.
221-.
195-.
189-.
106-.
235-.
179.
219000.
000.
000.
000000.
000.
000X=2.
61S=1.
15Reproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.
Furtherreproductionprohibitedwithoutpermission.