Elbadawifatcow

228Notes1Introduction1.
TheInternationalLandCoalitioninitsTiranaDeclarationofMay2011defines'landgrabbing'asanacquisitionorconcessionoflandthatinvolvesoneormoreofthefollowing:(1)inviolationofhumanrights,especiallytheequalrightsofwomen;(2)notbasedonFree,PriorandInformedConsentoftheaffectedlandusers;(3)notbasedonathoroughassessment,orareindisregardofsocial,economicandenvironmentalimpacts,includingthewaytheyaregendered;(4)notbasedontransparentcontractsthatspecifyclearandbindingcommitmentsaboutactivities,employment,andbenefitsharing;and(5)notbasedoneffectivedemocraticplanning,independentoversight,andmeaningfulparticipation.
2.
HeadeyandFan(2010)havearguedthatthemuchlargerriseinricepricestookplacemainlyinthefirstfewmonthsof2008wasabubblephenomenoncausedbyexportrestrictionbyseveralkeyexportersandlargeprecautionarypanicimportsbymajorinternationalconsumers.
3.
Thedecliningglobalfoodpricespriorto2007haveoftenbeenblamedontheWesterncountries'farmsubsidies,whichhaveledtounnaturallylowfoodpricesandthedumpingofcheapfoodexportsintodevelopingandemergingeconomies.
4.
Seewww.
fao.
org/wfs/index_En.
htm2TheFoodSecurityStatusofArabCountries1.
Regressionresultsshowthatthefoodpriceindexandtheoilpriceindexhavebeenhighlycorrelatedsince2000andparticularlywhenoilpricesareaboveacertainlevel(usuallyaboveUS$60perbarrel)(ESCWA2010,p.
7).
2.
Between1992and2002,sixofthecountriesintheWilsonandBruinssamplereceivedfoodaid:Jordan,Lebanon,Iran,Syria,Israel,andPalestine.
Overthisperiodtheyallreducedtheirdependenceonfoodaid.
3.
TheGHIisamultidimensionalapproachtomeasuringhungerbycombiningthreeequallyweightedindicators:(1)theproportionofundernourishedasapercentageofpopulation,(2)theprevalenceofunderweightchildrenyoungerthanfiveyearsold,and(3)themortalityrateofchildrenyoungerthanfiveyearsold.
Theindexrangesfrom0to100,with100beingtheworstscore(IFPRI2011b).
4.
IFPRIhasregressedGHIonGNIpercapita,whichshowsthathungerdeclineswithincreasesinGNIpercapita.
RegionsinwhichGHIdatapointsareabovetheregressionlinehavemorehungerthanwouldbeexpectedgiventheirpercapitaincomes,andviceversa.
FortheNearEastandNorthAfricaregiontheGHIdatapointsareveryclosetotheregressionline.
5.
ThismirrorseventsintheUS.
FourdecadesagotheUSpromotedacheapfoodpolicythatpusheddownthepercentageofincomespentonfoodbyNotes229nearly50percent,butatthesametimetheamountspentonhealthnearlytripled,muchoftheincreaseduetodietary-relateddiseaseandobesity(IFPRI2011d).
6.
Notehowthedifferentmeasurementsoffoodsecuritybydifferentauthorscomeupwithdifferentcountryclassifications.
Forexample,accordingtoWilsonandBruins,Jordanishighlyfoodinsecure,whereasaccordingtoDiaz-Bonillaetal.
,itisneutral.
3TheEvolutionofFoodSecurityStrategiesintheArabWorld1.
Egyptwaspreviouslyafoodexporterbutnowimportslargequantitiesofpreviouslyself-sufficientcrops.
TheNileDelta,atraditionallyrichagriculturalarea,isincreasinglysufferingfromsoilsalinisationduetointensiveirriga-tionandseawaterinfiltrationastheMediterraneanslowlyrises.
Thisregion,whichhastraditionallyprovidedoverhalfofEgypt'sfoodneeds,maylosemuchofitsproductivityoverthenextfewdecades.
2.
ConcernsaboutfoodsecurityhavemademanyofthecountriesintheArabworldreluctanttojointheWTO.
Theirhighdependenceonimportedfoodmadethemworriedabouttheimplicationsofmultilateralliberalisationofagriculturaltradeandtheirabilitytosustaindomesticproductionofareason-ableproportionoftheirfoodrequirementsaswellastheiraccesstoworldfoodmarkets(ESCWA2001,p.
1).
3.
KeyworksthatdefinetheconceptincludeWilliamson(1990,1993,2000,2002,2004,2009).
KeyworksthatanalysetheconceptincludeBurkiandPerry(1998);Fineetal.
(2003);Gore(2000);Naim(2000);niandenses(2005);Rodrick(2006);SerraandStiglitz(2008);Stiglitz(1998);Stiglitz(2004).
4.
Inrecentyearsanumberofinternationalorganisationshavedevelopedindi-catorstomeasurethesedistortionsintheagriculturalsector,suchastheWorldBank(Anderson2006,2010;Portugal2007;JoslingandValdes2004).
MuchoftheworkanalysingthedistortionsinagriculturehasfocusedonAfrica(Abbott2007;Alfierietal.
2007;Baffes2007;Brooksetal.
2007).
TheAfricanDevelopmentBank(2012)hascarriedoutasimilarexerciseforTunisia.
5.
TheExport-PlusProgrammeofferscashsubsidiestodefraytheshippingcostofagriculturalexportsthatabidebythequalityrequirementsofthedestina-tioncountry.
Itmainlybenefitslarge-scaleproducersandtraders.
6.
TheESCWAanalysisisinterestinginthatitillustratesthedangeroftreatingtheArabworldasahomogeneousregion.
TheESCWAcalculationsshowthattheagriculturalpotentialvariesconsiderablybetweenthedifferentArabnations,andasaresult,appropriatefoodsecuritystrategiesarelikelytovary–domesticgrainproductionwaseconomicallyefficientinEgypt,Syria,andPalestinebutnotinJordanandLebanon.
7.
ThepoliticsofwaterintheArabandMENAregionsisalsoakeydimen-sionofregionalpoliticsthatinfluencesdomesticagriculture–Turkey,forexample,controlsthewatersoftheEuphrates,denyingSyriaandIraqvalu-ableresources,Iraq'saccesstothewatersoftheTigrisisrestrictedwhilstIsraelsiphonsoffthewatersoftheJordanRiver,denyingaccesstothefarmersoftheJordanvalley.
230Notes8.
Between1984and2000theGSFMOpaidfarmersanaveragepriceofUS$502pertonneofwheatwhilstthecorrespondingaverageimportpricewasUS$120pertonne(Elhadj2004,p.
12).
9.
NotonlyisSaudiawater-scarcecountry,indesertconditionsittakestwotothreetimesmorewatertoirrigateahectareoflandforcropgrowingthanitdoesintemperateclimatesbecauseofevaporationinthesearingheat.
HencefoodproductionismorewaterintensiveinSaudithanelsewhere.
10.
Intermsofbarley,whichislargelyusedforanimalfeed,Saudiisalreadytheworld'slargestimporter,withimportsin2009reaching7.
7milliontonnes(around40percentofthetotalavailableonglobalmarkets).
Thegovern-mentsellsthebarelytolivestockownersatasubsidyofaround60percent.
Thegovernmentnowplanstopromotealternativefeedsandtoimportgrainstobeprocessedintofeedstufflocally.
11.
Targetedcropsarewheat,barley,maize,sorghum,soybeans,rice,sugar,oilseeds,greenfodder,livestock,fisheries,andanyotherstaplefoodcrops.
4CausesoftheGlobalFoodCrisisanditsImpactontheArabWorld1.
Wheninterestratesarelow,moneyflowsoutofinterest-bearingassetstoforeigncurrencies,emergingstockmarkets,othersecurities,andcommodi-ties,includingfoods.
2.
FAOestimatesthatonly18percentoftotalwheatproductionand6percentoftotalriceproductionareexported,suchthatsmallchangesinoneofthemainexporter'stradepoliciescanhavemajoreffectsonworldtradeflowsandinternationalprices.
3.
HeadeyandFan(2010)arguethatthericemarkethasspecialfeaturessuchthatricepricesrosesignificantlymorethanothergrainsduringthefoodcrisis,andexportrestrictionsanddemandsurgeshadamuchgreaterimpactonricepricesthanonthepricesofothergrains.
Ricehasweaksubstitutioneffectswithothercerealsintermsofbothproductionandconsumptionsinceitismainlyproducedbysmallholdersandisalargepartofthedietofmillions.
Henceproductionandconsumptionarepriceinelastic.
Inaddition,globalmarketsarethin,andAsiangovernmentsareunwillingtoallowdomesticpriceincreasesleadingtodistortionaryinterventionsinmarkets.
Thesefeaturesofthericemarketmakericepricesparticularlyvolatile.
Whereastradeshocks(exportrestrictionsanddemandsurges)areestimatedtohavecausedmostoftheincreaseinriceprices,thesefactorswerelessimportantinothergrainmarketswherelessofthedominantexportersimposedrestrictions–exportrestrictionsanddemandsurgesareestimatedtoberesponsibleforjustoverhalfofthe72percentpriceriseinwheat(Headey2010).
4.
AspointedoutbyFritschel(2011),theseexportbansareperfectlylegalbecausecurrenttradearrangementsallowcountriestorestrictexportsintheeventof'criticalshortagesoffoodstuffs'.
SomeanalystsarguethattheWTODohaRoundoftradenegotiationsshouldbereopenedandpressureexertedtoabolishexportbans.
Othersarguethatthisisnotviableandthatthewayforwardistoraiseglobalfoodproductionandimprovereservestocksinindi-vidualcountries.
Notes2315.
ThesecountrieswerechosenastheyarethecountriesthatarepartoftheEuro-MediterraneanPartnership.
6.
AlbersandPeeters(2011)useeconometricestimationstoexaminedownwardpricerigidityinconsumerpriceinflationinSouthernMediterraneancountries.
Theyfindthata10percentupwardshockinglobalfoodpricesleadsalmostimmediatelytoanincreaseinCPIinflation,butthata10percentdecreaseinglobalfoodpriceshasnoeffectonthesecountries'CPI(ibid.
,box2).
7.
Forexample,althoughlessthan3percentofthepopulationlivebelowthe$1-per-daypovertylineinEgypt,Morocco,andTunisia,over12percentfallbelowthe$2-per-daylevelinTunisiaandMorocco,withthisfigurerisingto18.
5percentforEgypt.
Likewise,inYemenandIraqthereisarelativelyhighdistributionofpeoplelivingclosetothepovertyline.
8.
Breisingeretal.
(2012)did,however,findapositiverelationshipbetweengrowthinthemanufacturingandservicesectorsandareductioninchildstunting,andtheyconcludedfromthisthatgrowthinthesetwosectorscanbeanimportantdriverofpovertyreductionandincreasedfoodsecurityinMENA.
9.
Theyconstructcountry-specificfoodpriceindiceswhichincludebeef,maize,rice,sugar,andwheat.
10.
Thesefiguresreflectthefactthatfoodisan'inferiorgood';thatis,peoplespendasmallershareoftheirincomeonfoodasincomesrise,hencetherela-tionshipbetweentheshareoffoodintotalexpenditureandGDPpercapitaatthecountrylevelisnegative.
5TheArabResponsetotheGlobalFoodCrisis1.
EgyptandMoroccospendmoreonfuelsubsidiesthanonfoodsubsidies,whilstTunisiaspendsmoreonfoodsubsidies.
2.
Forexample,the10CentralandEasternEuropeancountriesthatjoinedtheEUin2004initiatedsubsidyreformintheearly1990sandbetween1995and2005reducedsubsidiesonaverageby50percent,from2.
1percentto1.
2percentofGDP.
3.
AlthoughEgyptisemphasisingdomesticfoodproductionshehasalsorecentlyadaptedherproductionstrategytosavewaterandpreserveresources.
Forexamplethereisanewfocusonpoultryproductionratherthanbeefproductionandarecentcutintheareaplanedwithrice,allofwhichispolicydriven.
6LandAcquisitionOverseas–LandGraborWin-Win1.
ChinadiffersfromtheArabinvestorsinthatmuchofthelandithasacquiredistoproduceindustrialinputssuchasrubber,palmoil,andcottontobeshippedbacktoChina.
InsofarasitusesthelandtoproducefoodcropsinAfrica,itdoessomainlyforthelocalAfricanmarket.
2.
However,althoughmuchoftheArabinvestmentisinAfrica,withtheinten-tionofgrowinggrains,includingwheat,withtheexceptionofEthiopia,Africaisnotaregionwithlargeamountsofuncultivatedlandsuitableforwheatproduction.
232Notes3.
Since2002,underitsCorporateAgriculturalFarmingPolicy,Pakistanhasofferedforeigninvestorsthefollowingincentives:100percentforeignequityinvestment;full100percentremittanceofalldividends,capitalandprofit;noupperceilingonlandholding;purchaseoflandor50-yearleasethroughopenauction,extendablefor49years;exemptionfromexistinglabourlaws;zeropercentcustomsdutyandsalestax;exemptionofdutypayableonland;exemptionfromtaxondividends.
4.
TheGlobalWitnessreportdefinestransparencyastherighttoaccessinforma-tion,therighttoparticipateindecisionmaking,andtherighttochallengedecisions.
Intermsoflandacquisitionsthisentailstransparentlandplanning;free,prior,andinformedconsent;publicdisclosureofallcontractdocuments;andmulti-stakeholderinitiatives,independentoversight,andgrievancemechanisms.
5.
Forexample,theSaudiCompany,SaudiStar,acquireda50-yearleaseon10,000hectaresinEthiopiaforanannualleasefeeofUS$17,000withnoprovisionstoincreasetheannualpaymentsinlinewithinflation(Woertz2013,p.
202).
6.
TheFAOhaspointedoutthattheGuidelinescannotpreventlarge-scalelandacquisitionsandarevoluntaryanddonotestablishlegallybindingobliga-tionsnorreplaceexistingnationalandinternationallaws,treaties,oragree-ments.
Rather,theyaredesignedtoguidenationalpolicyandlegislationinmanycountries.
7PoliciesforArabIntegrationintoGlobalFoodMarketsandArabDomesticAgriculture1.
TheLogisticsPerformanceIndex(LPI)isbasedonaworldwidesurveyofoperatorsontheground(globalfreightforwardersandexpresscarriers),whoprovidefeedbackonthelogistics'friendliness'ofthecountriesinwhichtheyoperateandthosewithwhichtheytrade.
Theycombinein-depthknowledgeofthecountriesinwhichtheyoperatewithinformedqualitativeassessmentsofothercountrieswithwhichtheytradeandexperienceofgloballogisticsenvironment.
Feedbackfromoperatorsissupplementedwithquantitativedataontheperformanceofkeycomponentsofthelogisticschaininthecountryofwork.
TheLPIconsiststhereforeofbothqualitativeandquantitativemeasuresandhelpsbuildprofilesoflogisticsfriendlinessforthesecountries.
Itmeas-uresperformancealongthelogisticssupplychainwithinacountryandofferstwodifferentperspectives:internationalanddomestic.
2.
The2010ESCWAreportarguesthatincreasingfoodsecuritycausestheoppor-tunitycostsofconflicttoincrease,andthatimprovedfoodsecuritybringsotherdevelopmentopportunities,whichalsoincreasetheopportunitycostofconflict.
Bycontrast,inafoodinsecureenvironment,theconflictingpartieshavenothingtolose.
Hence,improvingfoodsecurityhasthepotentialtoreduceconflictintheregion.
3.
Fortradeinallgoods,intraArabtradeaccountsforonly11.
3percentoftheregion'stotaltrade.
4.
TheOverseasDevelopmentInstitute(2012)arguesthatalthoughtherewasasteepdeclineinaidtoagriculturesincethe1980s(fromanaverageofUS$10Notes233billionperyearinthe1980stoUS$5billionperyearintheearly2000sor20percentoftotalaidto3.
7percentoftotalaid),andarecentrecoveryinitsshareoftotalaidsincethe2008foodcrisis,boththeextentoftheinitialdeclineandtheextentoftherecoveryhavebeenoverstated.
8ReformingSocialSafetyNets1.
CavatortaandWaples(2014)provideanexampleofhowsurveyandcensusdatacombinedwithGeographicalInformationSystems(GIS)canbeusedtomapspatialpatternsoffoodinsecurityinPalestine,whichcouldinturnhelpwiththegeographicaltargetingofsocialsafetynetprogrammes.
2.
AlbersandPeeters(2011)usethefollowingclassifications:directsubsidies(bothuniversalandself-targeted);implicitsubsidiesviapricecontrols;importandexportrestrictions;government-controlledmonopolies;andrationedsubsidiesviavouchers(allofwhicharepartoftheoverallsubsidysystem),whichtheydistinguishfromotherformsofsocialsafetynet,suchastransfersandincomesupport,notlinkedtotheconsumptionofgoodsandservices.
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255AbraajCapital,133,142AbuDhabi,54AbuDhabiFundforDevelopment,139,140,142AbuDhabiInvestmentAuthority,140Africa,93,223,231n2seealsospecificcountrieslandacquisitionin,70,127–9,133,149,156,160unusedarablelandin,156AfricanDevelopmentBank,183,184,199agri-business,13,54,128,190agriculturalfutures,78–9AgriculturalRevivalProgramme(ARP),136AgriculturalStructuralAdjustmentPlan,50agriculturaltradeliberalisation,42,185–6agriculture,220inArabcountries,21,23–4,37,39–40,45–7,50–2,71,82,172–96,223cashcrops,39,40,53,130,223–4declineinoutput,35exports,7,8,28–9,39,50,51,53,54,80–1,118,171,189–90,221,62–5,223–4foodsecurityand,187–95governmentexpenditureson,179–81growthrates,23importtariffson,45,47,49,66,115,118,171,200,201landavailablefor,174–6landdistributionfor,62overseaslandacquisitionfor,1,9,16,54,67–70,122–5,126–63,226povertyand,187–95productivity,2,24,35,53,71,79,81,172–81,184–5,191,223protectionof,51–2subsidised,45,46,51,60–1,63–6technologies,54waterpoliciesand,181–5agroindustry,69,195,223–4AlDahraAgriculture,142alfalfa,64Algeria,6,9,36,115,117,119foodproductionin,123–4impactoffoodpriceincreasesin,90–1povertyin,94tradelogistics,165unrestin,108waterresources,184Al-HasaIrrigationandDrainageProject,59Al-Kharjfarm,57–8AlliedMiddleEastSupplyCentre,40Al-QudraCompany,139,142aquaculture,66aquaponics,54ArabAuthorityforAgriculturalInvestmentandDevelopment(AAAID),139,142–3Arabcountries,222seealsospecificcountriesagriculturein,21,23–4,37,39–40,45–7,50–2,71,82,172–96,223economicgrowthin,12,21,101,218foodgapin,43,44–5foodsecurityin,4,7–9,12,19–38,95–103,164,172–4,218–27foodsecuritystrategiesin,39–72foreignlandacquisitionby,1,9,16,54,67–70,122–5,126–63,226futurepredictionsforfoodgapin,35,37–8incomegrowthin,21,37,45,71integrationintoglobalfoodmarkets,164–9Index256IndexArabcountries–continuedpopulationgrowthin,20–1,35,44–5,71,219–20povertyin,10,93–103,187–95,203–4,213regionalcooperationby,169–71regionof,9–10relianceonfoodimportsin,4,6,7,19–21,24–5,39,40,82,221responsetofoodcrisisby,115–25socialreformsin,210–15socialsafetynetsin,2,16,118,202–9,221statusoffoodsecurityin,19–38ArabFundforEconomicandSocialDevelopment,47Arab-Israeliconflict,222ArabLeague,170–1ArabMaghrebUnion,169Arabnationalism,40–1,71ArabOrganisationofAgriculturalDevelopment(AOAG),37ArabSpring,1,12,71,184eventsof,6globalfoodcrisisand,6–9,54,103–13,122socialsafetynetsand,210–15ArchersMidland,54Argentina,122,129,134Australia,41,43,134,138,173autocraticregimes,210–11Bahrain,6,9,106,130barley,60–1,63,65,179,230n10Bedouins,57,58beef,50Benin,152bilateralinvestmenttreaties,139–40BillandMelindaGatesFoundation,4BinLadenCompany,139,151biodiversity,13,152,179,189biofuels,2,76,77–9,81,130boreholedrillings,184Brazil,77,134,138breadshortages,106,121breadsubsidies,34,42,115,121Bunge,54CaissesGeneraledeCompensation(CGC),42,204calorieconsumption,34,97Cambodia,140,145,147–53,162Canada,41Cargill,54Carter,Jimmy,43cashcrops,39,40,53,130,223–4cashtransfers,201,204,206–9cattle,62cerealcrops,80exports,77imports,19,20,24,25,37,43–7,165,172prices,75production,46,62–3,65,123–5,175,223–4yields,176–7,178,179,186childrenfoodprogrammesfor,198malnutritionin,11,95,102childstunting,29,102China,2,76,81,126,128,129,190–1,231n1civilsociety,12,145,159,191climatechange,2,35,80,81,138,170,181,182,184–5,192–3colonialism,129commodityprices,1,79,90,117commoditytrading,2,5,76,78–9CommonAgriculturalPolicy(CAP),4comparativeadvantage,50,64–5,125,227conflicts,24,33,105,222ConsultativeGrouponInternationalAgriculturalResearch(CGIAR),4ConsumerPriceIndex,seeUSConsumerPriceIndexconsumptionpatterns,76creditaccess,189,191cropinsurance,209Daewoo,128,152dairy,21,46,57,62,65,74,76,171,225DavosForum,4DeclarationofNyeleni,12–15democratictransition,105demographics,103,219–20desalination,172,173,182,185Index257developingcountriesfarmersin,4–5foodpricesin,4foodproductionin,156urbanconsumersin,5dietarydiversity,33diets,changesin,2Djibouti,6,9,25,29,98dollar,78,79,81,92domesticfoodproduction,15domesticpolitics,12,45,58Dreyfus,54EaseofDoingBusinessIndex,165EasternEurope,127,202EconomicandSocialCommissionforWesternAsia(ESCWA),8,33,52,143,165,170,171,193–4,220,225economicgrowth,101,187,218,221,222economicimpacts,82–92education,200,201,206,211–14,219–20Egypt,6,7,9,21,25,36,39,82,134,188agriculture,124,172,174,181,188,229n1cerealimports,37fiscalstressin,120foodaidto,42–3foodandfuelsubsidiesin,117,118–19,205–6foodinflationin,107–8,111–12foodproductionin,123–4foodriotsin,106GDPgrowthrates,101landacquisitionby,131obesityin,33–4povertyin,94,95,98,188publicsectorwagesin,115socialinsurancein,212socialsafetynetin,198emergencyhumanitarianrelief,209–11EmergencyProgrammeforArabFoodSecurity,124Emergent,155EmiratesInvestmentGroup,133EnablingTradeIndex,165energyprices,1,81entitlements,11ethanol,77Ethiopia,134,135,137,147–8,150,152–3,155,162,231n2EuropeanMediterraneanPartnership,171EuropeanUnion(EU),171exchangerates,47,118exportbans/restrictions,2,80–8,122,126,129,173,230n4Export-PlusProgramme,51,229n5exports,7,8,28–9,39,51,53,54,62–5,80–1,118,171,189–90,221,223–4externalaccounts,87–92faith-basedwelfareprovision,211familyplanning,217famine,40FAOFoodPriceIndex,1,2,73,74–6farming,seeagricultureFeedtheFutureInitiative,4femaleeducation,219–20femalefarmers,148,226femaleunemployment,103FertileCrescent,39,71fertiliser,16,23,41,45,46,48,51,52,54,59,62,63,64,79,100,174,175,177–8fertilityrate,219financialtrading,78–9FirstWorldWar,40fiscaldeficits,25,116,118,120,121fiscalpolicy,47food,27access,11affordability,11availability,11percentofincomespenton,110–11politicsof,1,6–9,42–3,123,126,222–7foodaid,15,41,42–3,45,118,135,150,172–3,209–11,232n4FoodandAgricultureOrganisation(FAO),8258Indexfoodcommoditymarkets,76,78–9fooddemand,2,20–1,35,37–8,43,81fooddistribution,165foodembargoes,42,43,129FoodforPeaceProgramme,42foodimports,15,16,24,221inArabcountries,4,6,7,19–21,24–5,39,40,82declinein,46–7futuredemandfor,37–8transportcosts,79,167fromUS,91–2foodinsecurity,11,19,24conflictand,33macro-level,221micro-level,29–33,151,221povertyand,93–5,197,218foodmarkets,speculationin,2,5,76,78–9foodpricesArabSpringand,103–13,122conflictsand,105crisisin,1–5declinein,4–5,228n2distortionsin,49–51governmentmeasurestomitigaterising,115–22increasein,41,79–86,95–103,207negativeeffectsofhigh,4–5transmissionof,82–3volatilityin,2,4,5,24–5,122foodproduction,3,15,21,39,79,156seealsoagriculturediversificationof,193domestic,8–9,16,25,35,45–7,51,54–5,57–8,66,71,115,122–5,172–86,220percapita,29inSaudiArabia,55–70foodproviders,13foodreserves,168–9foodriots,105–9foodsecurity,1–4,10–15agricultureand,187–95inArabcountries,4,7,8–9,12,19–38,95–103,164,172–4,218–27conflictsand,222definitionof,10domesticproductionfor,122–5,172–3foodpriceinflationand,95–103foreignlandacquisitionand,67–70,126–63individual,10–12,26–7,173,187–95,221macro-level,11–12,25–6,29,31measurementof,24–35micro-level,29–33asmultidimensionalconcept,218–23national,10regionalapproachto,169–71socialsafetynetsand,201–2strategiesandpoliciesfor,15–18,215–17supply-side,24–6threeAsof,11trade-based,40,48–53,71,122–3,189–90,223–5foodsecurityindex(FSI),25–6foodself-sufficiency,15,40–1,45–6,55–70,122–5,224foodsovereignty,71,174,224–6definitionof,12–15macro,12,15,123–5,222–3post-2007,54–5foodstability,11foodstorage,69,165,167foodsubsidies,34,42,45,96,109,115–19,121,198,202–6foodsystems,13–14foodutilisation,11,33–4foodwaste,34foreigndirectinvestment,68–9foreignlabour,149foreignlandacquisition,1,9,16,54,67–70,122–63,226byArabstates,126–63codeofconductfor,158–60hostcountriesfor,134–8,150–3,158,159institutionalarrangementsfor,138–43jobcreationand,149,150keylanddeals,132–3lackoftransparencyin,145–6,159landundervaluationand,148–9Index259foreignlandacquisition–continuedlocalpopulationsand,146–8,149,151–3negativeexternalitiesof,152oppositionto,151–3problematicnatureof,143–56scaleof,126–9small-scalefarmingand,161–2win-winpotentialof,156–62foreignpolicy,43foreignreserves,90–2Free,PriorandInformedConsent(FPIC),147,158fruits,53,66,171fuelprices,83,100,106fuelsubsidies,117–18,202–6futurestrading,78–9Gaza,94genderinequality,103,145,148,219–20geopolitics,7,40,42,43,45,51,53,78,123,126,153Ginicoefficients,93,101,190globalfinancialcrisis,1,78,154globalfoodcrisis/shock,1–5,71in1970s,41–4Arabresponseto,115–25ArabSpringand,6–9,54,103–13,122causesof,2–3,73–82economicimpactof,82–92factorsin,2foodsecuritystrategiesand,67foodsovereigntyand,54–5impactonpoor,3politicalimpactof,103–13povertyand,93–103socialimpactof,93–103socialsafetynetsand,197–217globalfoodmarkets,79–80integrationinto,164–9GlobalFoodSummits,4GlobalHungerIndex(GHI),27,29,32,167,220,228n3,228n4globalisation,54,210GRAIN,126grainembargo,43exports,81imports,167production,2,79,138reserves,168–9stocks,79–80storage,69,167,168–9GrainSilosandFlourMillsOrganisation(GSFMO),62GreatDepression,40grossdomesticproduct(GDP)agriculturalgrowthratesand,23foodimportsaspercentof,19growthof,21,101percapita,21,22groundwater,183–4GroupofTwenty(G20),226GROWcampaign,4GulfCooperationCouncil(GCC),9,21,26HassadFoodCompany,160healthcare,200,201,211,212,213,214,220hedgefunds,78,155high-incomecountries,121foodsecurityin,26,34–5politicalunrestin,106–7homegardens,194–5humancapital,24,189,198,204,206,220humanitarianrelief,209–11hunger,5,29,97,150,190,215,220Hussein,Saddam,42hydroponics,125IFPRI,seeInternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstitute(IFPRI)IMFstabilisationandstandbyloans,50IMPACTmodel,35importcosts,87,90importsubstitutingindustrialisation(ISI)strategy,45,47,219importtariffs,seetariffsincomedistribution,100–1incomegrowth,21,37,45,71,76,81,219India,2,76,81,122,129Indonesia,140260Indexinequality,11,12,100–1,112,190,219inflation,82–6,95–103,106infrastructuredevelopment,149,157,160–1,168,173,191InternationalCentreforAgriculturalResearchintheDryAreas(ICARDA),178–9,181InternationalConventiononEconomic,Social,andCulturalRights,10,29,35InternationalFinanceCorporation,160internationalfinancialinstitutions(IFIs),49,104,160InternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstitute(IFPRI),5,8,80InternationalLandCoalition(ILC),126,127,129,130,137,138,144–6,148–9,152,154,157,160,161,228n1InternationalMonetaryFund(IMF),49,51,104,120,136–7,199,200,201intraregionaltrade,171Iran,7,9,29,43,188,217,219Iraq,6,9,10,36,39,43,51,171foodaidto,42socialsafetynetin,214–15tradelogistics,165irrigation,47,50,54,58,59,172,175,176,179,182,183,224–5Islamicgroups,211Jannat,133jobcreation,103,149,150Jordan,6,9,21,25,35,36,39,83,106,108,171agriculture,172fiscaldeficits,120foodaidto,45foodandfuelsubsidiesin,109,117–19,205–6foodreservesin,169landacquisitionby,131povertyin,94,100responsetofoodcrisisby,125socialsafetynetin,198tradelogistics,165junkfood,34Kazakhstan,122,134Kenya,133,140,151KingAbdullah'sInitiativeforSaudiAgriculturalInvestmentAbroad(KAISAIA),66,67,69–70,131,139,141–2,150Kissinger,Henry,43Kuwait,6,9,106,107,140KuwaitInvestmentAuthority,140Laborde,David,8labourmigration,toGulfstates,21landacquisitionfunds,155–6landbanks,155landdegradation,24landfragmentation,175landgrab,1,9,16,54,67–70,122–5,126,129,143–56,157seealsoforeignlandacquisitionLandMatrix,127,138landreforms,190–1,226LatinAmerica,48,93,156Lebanon,9,25,29,36,39,40,51,53,92,106fiscaldeficits,121foodaidto,45foodandfuelsubsidiesin,119responsetofoodcrisisby,125tradelogistics,165wageincreasesin,115Liberia,149,152Libya,6,7,9,36,119,120GDPgrowthrates,101landacquisitionby,131tradelogistics,165LibyaAfricaInvestmentPortfolio,140livelihoodprogrammes,209–10,220livestock,45,55,62,65,134,193livingstandards,104,106–7,111LogisticsPerformanceIndex(LPI),165,166,167,168,232n1low-incomecountriesfoodsecurityin,26politicalunrestin,104–5macrofoodsovereignty,1,12,15,123–5,222–3Madagascar,128,152maize,7,8,41,77Mali,147,149malnutrition,11,95,99,102,193,197,208Index261manufacturedgoods,90,219MaritimeConnectivityInex,165market-basedeconomicreforms,50maternityleave,212Mauritania,6,10,29,35,36,94,121povertyin,99–100socialsafetynetin,198meat,21,37,46,54,64,65,74,76,171MemorandaofUnderstanding,137,139–40microcredit,191micro-levelfoodinsecurity,29–33,151,221micronutrients,29,33,208middleclasses,110,111MiddleEastandNorthAfrica(MENA),9–10seealsoArabcountries;specificcountriesGDPgrowthrates,101populationgrowthin,20–1,35middle-incomecountries,219foodsecurityin,26foodwastein,34tradedevelopmentindicatorsfor,165migrantworkers,16,57,107,153,212militaryexpenditures,214milk,37,56,62,67,98,108MillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs),11MineralsEnergyCommoditiesHolding,133monetarypolicy,47Morocco,6,9,21,25,36,52,90,94,106,188,223agriculture,172,181,224fiscaldeficits,120foodandfuelsubsidiesin,117,119foodproductionin,123–4povertyin,98,100socialsafetynetin,198waterresources,184Mozambique,149,152,155–6multinationalcompanies,54,154Myanmar,150naturaldisasters,80,185naturalresources,9,14,158,174,179,182,187,192,194,221,222neocolonialism,153neoliberalism,42,48–53,71,123,189–90NewAgriculturalDevelopmentPlan,37NewDealonGlobalFood,201NewVisionforAgriculture,4Niger,150NileDelta,39,229n1nutrition,33–4,190,221nutritionprogrammes,206–9NyeleniForumforFoodSovereignty,12–15obesity,33–4oilembargo,43oilprices,24–5,42,57,58,77,79,90,91,184,199,228n1oilrevenues,16,21,57,59,67,106,219oils/fatspriceindex,75Oman,6,9,21,106,130–1OrganisationofPetroleumExportingCountries(OPEC),42,43,57OttomanEmpire,39overseaslandacquisition,seeforeignlandacquisitionOXFAM,4Pakistan,133,134,135,137,150,151,153,155,232n3Palestine,9,10,35,36,39,171foodaidto,45,209socialsafetynetin,198panicbuying,2pensions,211–12Philippines,134,140,150PolicyAnalysisMatrix(PAM),125,227politicaleconomy,7,69politicalunrest,105–7seealsoArabSpringpoliticsdomestic,12,45,58offood,6–9,42–3,123,126,222–7ofglobalfoodcrisis,103–13poorpeopleeffectofrisingfoodpriceson,3hungerand,5populationgrowth,20–1,35,44–5,57,71,76,81,218–20,222262Indexpopulationpolicy,219poverty,10,11,34agricultureand,187–95inArabcountries,10,93–103,187–95,203–4,213deficit,99foodinsecurityand,197,218foodpriceinflationand,95–103rural,187–95,208–9tradeliberalisationand,186urban,99–100,194–5,206pricecontrols,116,198procurementprocess,168protectionism,49,51–2PublicLaw(PL)480,42publicsector,107,115,116,199,200,211publicworksprogrammes,206–9Qatar,9,54–5,106,116,123,130agriculture,172,173landacquisitionby,133,139,160QatarInvestmentAuthority,140QatarNationalFoodSecurityProgramme(QNFSP),125,139,168rainfall,185,187realestatebubble,78,155regionalcooperation,165,169–71remittances,16researchanddevelopment,173,179,180–1reserves,90–2resourceendowments,24seealsonaturalresourcesResponsibleAgriculturalInvestments(RAI),158RevealedComparativeAdvantage(RCA),125,227rice,7,8riceprices,1,41,80–1,83,228n2,230n3ricesubsidies,116RiyadhDeclaration,124,170royalfamilies,139ruralpoverty,187–95,208–9Russia,122,129salestax,201salinity,174SaudiArabia,6,9,40,43,106,107agriculturalexports,64–5agriculturein,55–66domesticpolitics,58foodgapin,55–7foodproductionin,57–8foodreservesin,168foodself-sufficiencyin,46,55–70foodsubsidiesin,116foreignlandacquisitionby,67–70graintiesof,168landacquisitionby,130,131,138–42,144,150,154oilrevenues,57,59,67politicaleconomy,69populationgrowthin,57waterscarcityin,55SaudiArabianAgriculturalBank(SAAB),62schoolfoodprogrammes,198,201,208SecondWorldWar,40sectoradjustmentloans,49–50SectorWideApproaches(SWAPS),221Sen,Amaytra,11silk,39,40smallfarmers,13,47–8,51–2,54,66,186,189–93,226socialcontracts,104,210–13socialimpacts,93–103socialinsurance,211–12SocialProtectionFloor(SPF),215socialreforms,210–15socialsafetynets,16,72,118,197–217,221socialunrest,105–7seealsoArabSpringsocialwelfare,104solardesalinisation,172,173SoutheastAsia,127SouthKorea,126,128,129,152,154sovereignwealthfunds,139,140SovietUnion,43soyabeans,7,41,77state,roleofthe,12strategicreserves,168–9Index263structuraladjustmentloans,49–50stuntingindicator,29,102sub-SaharanAfrica,156,172,202Sudan,6,9,25,39,82,171agriculturein,47–8,136–7,174,186–7landacquisitionin,134,135–7,144,150,155SuezCanal,39–40sugarpriceindex,76sugarsubsidies,34supplychains,165sustainablelivelihoodsapproach,193–4Syria,6,9,21,25,29,36,37,39,53,188fiscaldeficits,120foodaidto,45foodandfuelsubsidiesin,117,119povertyin,94Tanzania,130,134,148,150,190tariffs,45,47,49,66,115,118,171,200,201taxes,115,118,171,200,201Thailand,134TiranaDeclaration,228n1TotalFactorProductivity(TFP),53trade,39–40,171tradeagreements,168trade-basedfoodsecurity,16,40,48–53,71,122–3,189–90,223–5tradedeficits,87–92tradeliberalisation,42,185–6tradelogistics,165–7,168tradepolicy,45tradestress,27transactionriskmitigation,168transferprogrammes,120–1,197–8,200,204,206–9transportcosts,79,167treecrops,171TripleFcrisis,1Tunisia,9,21,25,36,188,223agriculture,52,172foodandfuelsubsidiesin,117,119GDPgrowthrates,101povertyin,94structuraladjustmentin,50unrestin,6,7,108,109–10waterresources,184Turkey,134,188Ukraine,122,134,138,149,173undernourishment,34unemployment,6,12,102–3,104,109,112,187,195,218,219unemploymentinsurance,212UnitedArabEmirates(UAE),7,9,34,46,54,98,106,107,116,130,131landacquisitionby,131,133,142tradeagreementsby,168UnitedNations,215UnitedStates,7,41–3,58,77,91–2UnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment(USAID),4UniversalDeclarationofHumanRights,10urbanconsumers,5urbanisation,21,37,222urbanpoverty,99–100,194–5,206USConsumerPriceIndex(CPI),1,3,84VAT,52,199,201vegetables,50,53,66,171Vietnam,122,129,134,140,190violence,108–9virtualstockpiles,165,169virtualwatertradeconcept,50,65wageincreases,115,116,199,200,219WashingtonConsensus,42,48–53,71,123wastewaterrecycling,183waterharvesting,179waterpolicies,181–5waterresources,67,170,174,179,183,222,224–5,229n7waterscarcity,21,23–4,35,55,64,65,123–4,174,176waterusetechnologies,54WestBank,94WesternSahara,6264Indexwheat,7,8,40,42exports,81imports,66,69,108prices,1,41,79,230n8production,46,50,59–65subsidies,63,65,66WheatImportSupplyChain(WISC),167,168womeneducationfor,187,219–20farmers,226landacquisitionand,148rural,194WorldBank,4,7,8,37,49–50,51,104,107,122,144,146,160,165,199,201,203–4,223–4WorldFoodProgramme(WFP),33WorldHealthOrganisation(WHO),11WorldTradeOrganization(WTO),229n2Yemen,6,9,10,25,29,33,35,36,90–1,106,108,119,171,188foodaidto,45,209foodexpendituresin,96foodsecurityin,99foodsecuritystrategyfor,215–17foodsubsidies,119povertyin,94,99–100schoolfoodprogrammein,208socialsafetynetin,198violentprotestsin,108–9waterresources,183youthunemployment,12,102–3,104,187,219Zambia,152