alkalineverletgo

MetamorphosisAsIlookback,IthinkthatIwentthroughametamorphosisofmotivationinmycareer.
Throughout,Iwasconsistentinmyintriguewithchallengestosolvedifficultproblems.
WhenIwasstudyingformydoctorateatStanford,myorientationwastowardbasicresearch.
Mythesisworkwascertainlychal-lengingandIlearnednewtechnologies.
IexperiencedasenseofsatisfactionwhenIusedcreativeideastosolvesomereallydifficultproblems.
ButwhatdidIactuallyaccomplishAlthoughthemeasurementsthatImadewereanimportantstepinthebasicunderstandingofscience,whatcouldIdowithitHowcouldIexplainthesignificanceoftheexperimentanditsresultstoanyoneexceptanotherphysicistWhenIcompletedmyworkontherubymaser,Icouldpointwithpridetotheradical,creativenewdesignthatIhaddevised.
Itreducedthesizeandweightoftheconventionalmaserconfigurationbyafactorof200andsimultaneouslyachievedatenfoldimprovementinperformance.
Yet,althoughthistimeIworkedonsomethingthatcouldbetouchedandfeltandIcouldseetheresults,inasenseitwasahollowvictory.
Thatmaserstillrequiredcryogeniccoolingandconsequentlywasimpractical.
Whentheopportunitytoworktowarddevisingalaseraffordeditself,thelightssuddenlywentonandthebellsstartedringing.
Thelevelofmyexcitementishardtodescribe.
WhyBecausethisprojecthadeverything!
Therewerethetoughchallengingproblemstosolve,severeenoughtogivenaggingdoubtsaboutwhethertheEpilogue:Afterthoughts233234Epilogue:Afterthoughtsprojectcouldevenbeaccomplished.
Therewasafeelingoffiercecompeti-tionintheair.
ThesubjectmatterwasanareainwhichIwassubstantiallyprepared.
Ipossessedtherequisitephysicsandengineeringtools,alongwithextensiveexperiencewithrubycrystalsandlaboratoryinstrumentation.
Successfulresultswouldbeof"breakthrough"scientificimportance,andyetatthesametime,ithadtherealpotentialofsomethingenormouslyuseful.
Iamremindedofanexperiencedactorwhocomesacrossascriptthatstrikesachord.
"I'vegottohavethatpart.
That'sthescriptI'vebeenwaitingforallmylife.
"ItShouldHaveBeenDoneEarlierHundredsofdifferentlasertypeshavebeendemonstratedinthelaboratoryovertheyears.
Thelaserhasfoundmany"homes"inamyriadofapplica-tionsincountless,unconnectedfields.
Giventhatsomanylasershavebeendeveloped,somescientistsandjour-nalistshaveengagedinphilosophicalmind-gamewritings.
Theyargue,"Lookhoweasyitistomakealaser;itshouldhavebeendoneyearsearlier.
"It'sgreattohave"20-20"hindsight—thepresenceeffect.
Thepre-laserperioddidfostermanyproposals,thoughts,ideas,andconceptsbutnothingdefini-tive.
AsIhaverepeatedlypointedout,aglobaleffortwasinplace,butlaserswerenot"comingforth.
"Apparentlyitwasnotsoeasy.
By1960,theuseofarubycrystalforlaserpurposeshadbeenabandonedandthoroughlydiscreditedbyrespectedandacclaimedscientistsaswellasalloftheprominentlaserteams(Bell,TRG,etc.
).
Researchersrefusedtoworkonrubybecauseitemployedaground-statelowerlaserleveltooper-ate,andtheconventionalwisdomwasthatonlya"four-level"systemwithanelevatedlowerlevelwasfeasible.
IfIhadn'tpersistedalone,outonalimb,itisquiteclearthatcertainlyin1960,andpossiblyintheyearsthereafter,noonewouldhavemadearubylaser.
Thinkaboutit…maybenever!
Havingbeendiscarded,therewasnotanydrivetogobackinthatdirection.
Iflaseractioninrubyhadnotbeenachieved,whenwouldthefirstlaserhavecomeaboutInanattempttoanswerthatquestion,considerthefollowingfacts.
Theannouncementoftherubylaserachievementcameasahugeshockthatechoedthroughthescientificcommunity.
Theexcitement,inspiration,andstimulusitprovidedforscientistsbothinandoutofthefieldwasincredible.
Epilogue:Afterthoughts235Thedoubts,whichatthispointweregrowinglarger,weresuddenlyerased;itactuallycouldbedone!
AndtheoutpouringofnewfundingthatresultedfromthatJuly7,1960,newsannouncementwasenormous.
Sincecrystallaserdevelopmentgenerallywasspurredonandgreatlyaccel-eratedbyknowledgegainedfromtherubydevice,itisunlikelythatanycrys-tallaserwouldhavebeenrealizedformanyyearstocome.
ThegaslaserofDecember1960wasalsounlikelytohavebeencreatedwithouttherubylaserinspiration.
Evenbefore1960,thegaslaserattemptsbySandersatBellLabshadalreadybeenabandoned.
And,asdocumentedbythetwicepreviouslycitedBennettSciencejournalinterview,BellLabswasonthevergeofcuttingoffJavan'sfunds.
BellreverseddirectionandincreasedthefundingandeffortlevelforJavan'slaserprojectonlyaftertherubylaserannouncement.
BoththeColumbiaRadiationLaboratoryandTRGwereobsessedwithalkalivaporsystems.
ButasIhavedocumentedearlier,thesesystemsneverprovedtobeworkable.
Infact,theremightnothavebeenanylasersbeforetheappearanceofsemiconductorlaserslatein1962—orperhapsmuchlater.
Eventhesemiconductorlaser'sdevelopmenttimetablewasmovedforwardandbenefitedfromthesuccessandinspirationoftherubylaser.
Thehistoricalwriters,whodescribethecreationofthelaserasaracebeing"wonbyahair"havebeenconfusedbytheproliferationofvariouskindsoflasersthatquicklyfollowedtheruby.
Theyseemtobeoblivioustotheexplosivestimulusinresearchandfundinglevelsthatimmediatelyflowedasaresultofthesurprisingrubysuccessstory.
Therubylaserwas,infact,thefountainfromwhichallotherlasersgrew.
Asnotedbefore,itwasthe"king"ofhigh-poweredlasersforatleasttenyears.
Lookingback,therealityisthattheracewaswonnotbyahair;itwaswonbyamile!
WhyWasItheOneWhywasItheonetomakethefirstlaser…Goodquestion!
Ibelieveitwastheresultoffulldedication,concentration,focus,andtenacity.
Neverunderestimatetheintensedriveandmotivationofamaverickscientist.
AsIexplainedearlier,IneverletgoofthefactthatIwasworkingonsomethingthathadneverbeendonebefore.
Imethodicallyandcarefullytraveleddowntheroadtowardthelaser,onestepatatime.
Iconsciouslyavoidedcomplicateddevicesanddesignsaswellasimprac-ticalandcumbersomeequipmentincludingvacuumsystems,thecomplex236Epilogue:Afterthoughtsprocessesingasdischarges,specialmirrormechanisms,andimmaturemir-rorcoatingtechnology.
Ialsorejectedcorrosivechemicalhandling,cryogen-ics,newcrystalgrowingprograms,andspeciallampdevelopments.
Iwasadamantaboutkeepingsimplicityinmydesignapproachandnotgettingsidetrackedintotheneedtodevelopnewmaterialsandcomponents.
InthatregardIwassuccessful,asIendedupusingcommerciallyavailablerubylasercrystals,flashlamps,andsilvermirrorcoatings.
IpointedlystayedclearofatrendthatanumberofotherscientistswereensnaredintoaphenomenonIdescribeasthe"guru"effect.
Whenestab-lishedandacclaimedscientistssetforthanagenda,thereisatendencyformanydisciplestofollowwithoutcarefuldeliberation.
WhenSchawlowandTownesadvancedtheirpotassium-vaporproposal,fewscientistsquestionedtheircalculationsortheanalysisoftheirproposal.
(Imayhavebeentheonlyone).
WhenSchawlowproclaimedtheunworthi-nessofthepinkruby,againhispronouncementwasnotquestioned.
ThescientistswhodidfollowthoseSchawlow-Townesprincipleswereledinunproductivedirections.
PriceofSuccessAlltogether,mylaserdevelopmentactivitytooknine-and-a-halfmonthsfromthestartofadedicatedfull-timeefforttoitsconsummation.
Itwasanerve-rackingexperiencetryingtocounteracttheeffectsofallthenegativeconventionalwisdomandthereluctantsupportofHughesmanagement.
AlthoughIwasgenerallyoptimistic,IhavetoadmitthatIcertainlyhadmyowndoubts.
Ofcourse,therewasalifetimeofpreparationbehindthosenine-and-a-halfmonths.
Thisincludedthechildhoodelectronicstraininginmyfather'shomelaboratory;theindustrialjobandlaboratoryexperience;thelonghoursintheStanfordphysicsbasementandguidancefromWillisLamb.
(Maybeeventhatchildhoodinitiationfromthelightexperimentinmymother'srefrigeratorwasafactor.
)TheentireprojectcostHughessome$50,000includingsalaries,equip-ment,andalltheoverheadexpenses.
Bycontrast,TRGaloneconsumedoveronemilliondollarsontheirARPAcontract.
AndAliJavansaidthatBellLabshadputtwomilliondollarsintohisgaslaserproject.
Hughesclearlyenjoyedoneofthebestresearchbargainsoftheera.
Epilogue:Afterthoughts237LaserNobel(s)TenNobelprizeshavebeenawardedtophysicistsaseitheradirectorindi-rectresultofthelaser.
Theseinclude:Basov,Prokhorov,andTownes(1964),whobasicallyworkedoutthetheoryandpracticeoftheammoniamaser;AlfredKastler(1966),whopioneeredaparticularconceptofopticalpump-ing(althoughdifferentthanthatusedinlasers);DennisGabor(1971),whoworkedoutthetheoryofholography(three-dimensionalphotography);ArthurSchawlowandNicolaasBloembergen(1981),forlaserspectros-copyandnonlinearoptics;andStevenChu,ClaudeCohen-Tannoudji,andWilliamPhillips(1997),whodevelopedmethodstocoolandtrapatomswithlaserlight.
1TheNobelFoundationfromtimetotimemakesamistake;ithappens.
2Sincethefoundationisprivate,itisbeholdentonoone.
Therearenochecksandbalances.
Anoft-citederroroftheNobelFoundationwastheiraward-ingofthe1909PrizeinPhysicstoGuglielmoMarconiforinventionoftheradio,whichNikolaTeslahaddevelopedyearsearlier.
TheNobelawardforthemasermayhavebeenoneoftheirothererrors.
IthinkitisfairlyclearthatthemaseronlycameintoenoughprominencetowarrantconsiderationbytheNobelphysicscommitteeafteralaserexistedandtherewasthealleged,butincorrectconnectionviathesocalled"opti-calmaser.
"Ifthemaserwasreallyanimportantbreakthrough,inandofitself,thenitismorelikelythatprizewouldhavebeenawardedmuchear-lier,ratherthan10yearsafterthemasercameintoexistence.
No,themaserprizeswerenotawardeduntilafteralaserhadbeencreated.
Anotherfactormighthavebeeninplay.
TheNobelcommitteeresponsibleforthephysicsprizeistheSwedishRoyalAcademyofScience,comprisedentirelyofacademicmembers.
Theyare,notsurprisingly,highlybiasedinfavorofacademia.
ItisextremelyrarethattheNobelphysicscommitteeawardsprizestonon-academics.
Forexample,AlexanderGrahamBell(thetelephone),ThomasAlvaEdison(theelectriclightbulb),andtheWrightbrothers(firstmannedflight)wereneverNobellaureates.
EveniftheNobelcommitteeinsistedonrecognizinganacademicper-sonaspertheirpattern,Idon'tthinktheydidtheirhomework.
Itwould1Editor'snote:Addendum7listsall38Nobellaureatescitedforachievementsrelatedtolasersthrough2017,includingprizesinChemistryaswellasPhysics.
2Editor'snote:InaparalleltoTed'sexperience,theNobelPhysicsPrizewasawardedin2014tothreelatercontributorstodevelopmentoftheLED,nottoitsoriginalinventorin1962,NickHolonyak,Jr.
238Epilogue:AfterthoughtshavemademoresensetorecognizetheRussianphysicistValentinFabrikant.
Althoughhedidn'tactuallysolvethelaserproblem,heconceivedofandpro-posedalaserbeforeanyoftheworkdonebythemaserscientists.
LasersinMedicineFromwhenIwasaboy,continuingthroughmyformativeyears,myfatherAbeexertedstrongpressuresonmeandattemptedtoshapemycareer.
Hetriedtovicariouslyliveagainthewayhewouldhavelikedto,ifhecouldhavestartedhiscareeroveragain.
Hewaspreoccupiedwiththeideathatthethen-newfieldofelectronicscouldbeusefullyemployedtomodernizeandadvancethearchaicwaysofmedicine.
Hehadexperiencedproblemsofacceptanceandcredibilitywhenhecameupwithnewideastomakemedi-calinstrumentationmoresophisticated.
Hewasnotamemberofthe"M.
D.
club.
"Myfather'ssolutiontotheproblemwasformetobetrainedinmedicineaswellaselectronicengineering.
Ididtry.
Itookacourseinhumanphysiol-ogyattheColumbiaUniversityMedicalSchoolinthesummerbeforeshift-ingmygraduatestudiesfromColumbiatoStanford.
Ididn'ttaketostudiesinthebiologicalsciencesverywell—toomuchmemorizing,toolittlethink-ing!
Iwasmoreusedtoandmorecomfortablewiththephysicalsciencessince,byandlarge,theyareveryintuitive.
IabandonedthemedicaltrackandwentontomygraduatestudiesatStanfordasdescribedearlier.
Yet,becauseofthateducationalexperience,itisthatmuchmoreimpor-tanttomethatsuchsignificantcontributionstomedicinearebeingmadebythelaser.
Seeingandwatchingthedevelopmentofrevolutionarymedical-laserproceduresisespeciallygratifyingandrewardingtome,andit,happily,fulfillsmyfather'sdream.
Hisheartwasintherightplace.
3AConcludingThoughtIfanyoneiscreativeandwillingtoentertainnewanddifferentconceptsandpursuethem,heorshemightwanttoreflectcriticallyonthefollowingfamous"lastwords.
"3Itisevenmoreheart-warmingthatmyfatherbenefitedfromlasersurgeryonhiseyes,andmysister'svisionisnowpossibleonlyasaresultofanavailablelaserprocedure.
Epilogue:Afterthoughts239"Inventorshavelongsincereachedtheirlimit,andIseenohopeforfur-therdevelopment.
"—SaidinA.
D.
10byJuliusSextusFrontinus,Romanengineer"Heavier-than-airflyingmachinesareimpossible.
"—Saidin1895byLordKelvin,PresidentoftheRoyalSociety"Allconfidentpropheciesforfuturesuccess[ofmannedflightare]whollyunwarranted,ifnotabsurd.
"—SaidinDecember1901byGeorgeMelville,USNavychiefengineer,exactlytwoyearsbeforetheWrightbrothers'suc-cessfulflightatKittyHawk"Thereisnolikelihoodmancanevertapthepoweroftheatom.
"—Saidin1923byRobertA.
Millikan,thewinnerofaNobelPrizeinPhysics"Thereisnottheslightestindicationthatnuclearenergywilleverbeobtain-able.
Itwouldmeanthattheatomwouldhavetobeshatteredatwill.
"—Saidin1932byAlbertEinstein"Manwillneverreachthemoon,regardlessofallfuturescientificadvances.
"—Saidin1957byDr.
LeeDeForest,inventoroftheAudionvacuumtubeandBellLabsresearcher"Pinkrubycrystalisnotaviablemediumforcreatinganopticalmaser[laser].
"—SaidbyArthurSchawlow,BellLabsphysicist,inSeptember1959,eightmonthsbeforeIsucceededinmakingthefirstlaserusingpinkruby.
Newideasaredestinedtoencounternegativereactions.
Ignoretheconven-tionalwisdom.
JUSTDOIT!
240Epilogue:AfterthoughtsLaserplasticsurgeonNurongNimsakul,M.
D.
,attheInternationalInstituteofLaserMedicine,Japan.
MaimanArchiveAndrewMester,M.
D.
otolaryngologist(left)andAdamMester,M.
D.
radiologist,bothmedicallaserpractitioners,withTedandKathleenatthe1993Bangkokmeet-ingoftheInternationalSocietyforLaserSurgeryandMedicine;theirfatherEndreMester,M.
D.
,Hungarianphysicianandsurgeon,pioneeredlow-levellasertherapy(LLLTorphotobiomodulation).
CourtesyofAndrewMesterEpilogue:Afterthoughts241RepresentingLaserCentersofAmerica,whichintroducedlasertechnologyandtech-nicaltrainingtohospitals,Tedrespondstoaninterviewerin1991.
MaimanArchive