要多leavemealone

InternationalJournalofAsianLanguageProcessing26(1):1-201SentimentClassificationofChineseGrammaticalConstructionsSisiHuangandWeidongZhanDepartmentofChineseLanguageandLiterature,CenterforChineseLinguistics100871,PekingUniversity,NO.
5YiheyuanRoad,HaidianDistrict,Beijing,Chinahuanglingyu_hi@126.
com,zwd@pku.
edu.
cnAbstractInthispaper,wediscusstwotypesofconstructionsthatcontributetosentimentcomputation:degreeconstructionsandsentimentconstructions.
Whiledegreeconstructionscanaltersentimentintensity,sentimentconstructionscanconveysentimentindependently.
Wegatheredagrandtotalof208instancesofbothtypes,including32degreeconstructionsand176sentimentconstructions.
Forthesakeofextractingsentimentinformation,wefurtherdividedsentimentconstructionsintotwosubtypes,namelythoseexpressingspeaker-orientedsentimentsandthoseexpressingsubject-orientedsentiments.
Asfortheformer,thesentimentholderisthespeakerwhoutterstheconstruction;asforthelatter,thesentimentholderistheentitystatedanddescribedbytheconstruction,typicallyactingasthesubjectofthesentenceinquestion.
Altogetherthereare159instancesoftheformersubtype(accountingforroughly90%ofallsentimentconstructions)and17instancesofthelattersubtype(accountingforroughly10%).
Bypresentingapreliminarydescriptionofsentimentcharacteristicsofeachtype,wehopethatthefindingsofthisstudywouldbeconducivetosentimentcomputation.
KeywordsSentimentanalysis,Degreeconstruction,Sentimentconstruction,Constructionsexpressingspeaker-orientedsentiments,Constructionsexpressingsubject-orientedsentiments1.
IntroductionSentimentcomputationisatrendingtopicintoday'sfieldofnaturallanguageprocessing(NLP).
Generallyspeaking,sentimentanalysisinitsbroadsenseconcernsthespeaker's2SisiHuangandWeidongZhanpsychologicalattitudescontainedinthetext;initsnarrowsense,sentimentanalysismakesadistinctionbetweenapprovalanddisapprovalexpressedbythespeakerwithregardtoanentityorevent(Zhou,2008).
Thebroaddefinitionisadoptedhere.
Sentimentanalysiscantargetsuchlevelsaswords,phrases,sentences,texts,andmulti-texts,dependingonthegranularityoftextprocessing(Zhao,2010).
Studiesofword-levelsentimentanalysisarerelativelyabundantandfocusonautomaticretrievingofsentimentwordsandconstructingofsentimentlexicons.
Althoughsentimentsofphrasescaningeneralbederivedviasentimentwordsplusrules,itisimpossibleforcertainphrasestohavetheirsentimentderived.
Wiebeetal.
(2002)minesalotofEnglishsubjectivephrasesandbuildalexiconofsubjectivephrases.
ManyscholarsanalyzingChinesealsonoticedtheimportanceofsuchphrases.
Asstatedin(Hou,2013),evaluativephraseswhosesentimentsareincapableofbeingderivedshouldbeincludedintoevaluativephraselexicons,suchas:(1)是男人吗1bemanSFPcanbecountedasadecentman(2)还是人吗stillbehumanSFPcanstillbecountedasadecenthumanMoreover,manyoftheexistingsentimentlexicons,includingWordSetsforSentimentAnalysisbyHowNetandSentimentLexiconOntologyDatabasebyDalianUniversityofTechnology,havealsoincludedafewsuchphrases.
However,phrasescollectedbythesesentimentlexiconsareinsufficientinnumberandtype,andnosentimentknowledgedatabasespecificallydesignedforgatheringsuchphrasesisknowntoexistatpresentinChina.
Givensuchbackground,thisstudymadeaninitialexplorationonthebasisofContemporaryChineseConstructionDatabase.
AsGoldberg(1995)stated,CisaCONSTRUCTIONidefCisaform-meaningpairsuchthatsomeaspectofFiorsomeaspectofSiisnotstrictlypredictablefromC'scomponentpartsorfromsomeotherpreviouslyestablishedconstructions.
ContemporaryChineseConstructionDatabasehascollected1035instancesofconstructionsanddescribedmultiplecharacteristicsofeachconstruction.
Amongtheseconstructions,somecontribute1Abbreviationsusedinthispaperarelistedasfollows:DE:structuralparticle.
ZHE:structuralparticle.
ZHAO:structuralparticle.
BA:structuralparticle.
SFP:sentencefinalparticle.
NEG:negativemarker.
ASP:aspectualmarker.
-CL:classifier.
-suffix:boundsuffix.
DI:prefixforordinalnumbers.
v:verb.
n:noun.
a:adjective.
vp:verbphraseandadjectivephrase.
np:nominalphrase.
SentimentClassificationofChineseGrammaticalConstructions3nonetosentimentanalysis,suchas:2(3)v来v去(看来看去)vcomevgo(lookcomelookgo)vrepeatedly(lookatitrepeatedly)Suchconstructionconveys"repetition",andby"lookcomeandgo"ismeant"lookrepeatedly".
Itneitherconveysanysentimentnoralterssentimentintensity,henceoutofconsiderationofthisstudy.
Twotypesofconstructions,instead,areofprimaryconcernhere:(i)degreeconstructions,whichexpress"degree"andarecapableofalteringsentimentintensity,suchas:(4)要多a有多a(要多好有多好)needhowahavehowa(needhowgoodhavehowgood)asaas(asgoodas)and(ii)sentimentconstructions,whichexpresssentimentwithouthavingsentimentwordspresent,suchas:(5)心都提到嗓子眼儿了heartalmostracetothroat-suffixASPone'sheartisinone'smouthInsentimentcomputation,thefunctionofadegreeconstructionisakintoa"degreemodifier"andthatofasentimentconstructionissimilartoasentimentword.
Theultimategoalofconstructingasentimentknowledgedatabaseistoserveforextractionofsentimentinformation,classificationofsentimentinformation,etc.
Thusinanalyzingsentimentconstructions,itisveryessentialtoexaminehowtheholderandtargetofsentimentcouldbedeterminedbyvirtueofsentimentconstructions.
Sincesentimentconstructionsare,ingeneral,predicationsorcompletepropositions,identifyingtheholderofsentimentistypicallyeasy.
Basedondifferentholdersofsentiment,sentimentconstructionscanfallintotwocategories:thoseexpressingspeaker-orientedsentimentsandthoseexpressingsubject-orientedsentiments.
Intheformercategory,theholderofsentimentisthespeakerwhoutterstheconstruction,asin(6):(6)小王说:"小李算什么男人"Xiaowangsay:"Xiaolicountwhatman"Xiaowangsaid:"CanXiaolibecountedasadecentman"2Constructionsincludethosewithvariablesandthosewithoutvariables.
Theformercanbeinstantiatedby"要多a有多a"(asgoodas)where"a"standsforthevariable.
Thelattercanbeinstantiatedby"心都提到嗓子眼了"(one'sheartisinone'smouth).
Whenitcomestoconstructionswithvariables,lowercaselettersareusedifallvariablesbelongtothesamecategory,orotherwise,uppercaseletterssuchasXandYwillbeadopted.
.
4SisiHuangandWeidongZhan(7)小王说:"小李站也不是,坐也不是.
"Xiaowangsay:"XiaolistandalsoNEGbe,sitalsoNEGbe.
"Xiaowangsaid:"Xiaolidoesn'tknowwhetherheshouldstandorheshouldsit.
"In(6),"Xiaowang"istheoneutteringtheconstructionandmeantimetheholderofsentimentsuchthat"XiaowangdoesnotcountXiaoliadecentman".
Thesentimentof"Xiaoli",asthetargetofsentiment,isnonethelessundeterminable.
In(7),"Xiaoli"isthesubjectofthesentenceandalsotheholderofsentimentsuchthat"Xiaolifeelsratherawkward",whereasthesentimentof"Xiaowang"isundeterminable.
Sentiments,byclassification,caneitherhaveapositive-negativesplitorbedividedintomoreclasses.
Forexample,HowNet'sWordSetsforSentimentAnalysishasdividedsentimentwordsintofourclassesincludingwordsofpositivesentiment,wordsofnegativesentiment,wordsofpositiveevaluation,andwordsofnegativeevaluation.
Incomparison,theSentimentLexiconOntologyDatabaseproposedbyDalianUniversityofTechnologyhascategorizedthespectrumofsentimentsintohappiness,fondness,anger,grief,fear,disgust,andsurprise,andspecifiedeachinto20subclassesinthelightofsentimentintensityandcomplexity.
Afinegranularityofclassificationwaspursuedasaprincipleinthisstudy.
Insectionsthatfollow,wepresentedafine-grainedanalysisondegreeconstructionsandsentimentconstructions.
2.
DegreeConstructionsIncontemporaryChinese,themostcommonwayofexpressingdegreeisthroughtheuseofdegreeadverbs.
HowNet'sWordSetsforSentimentAnalysishasincludedlistsoffrequentlyusedwordsexpressingvariousdegrees(219Chinesewordsand170Englishones)anddistinguished6levelsofdegree,viz.
极其/最(extremely/most),很(very),较(more),稍(-ish),欠(insufficiently),and超(too).
Asstatedin(Lv,1956),inadditiontodegreeadverbs,6morewaysofexpressingdegreeincluding:(i)exclamatives,asin:好快!
Howfast!
Sofast!
(ii)reduplicationofadjectives,asin:少而又少fewandagainfewveryfew(iii)analogytotypicalentities,asin:SentimentClassificationofChineseGrammaticalConstructions5白似雪whitelikesnowaswhiteassnow(iv)enhancementbycontrastwithresults:哭得石人落泪cryDEstonemanshedtearscrysohardthatevenastonemanwouldshedtears(v)useofcomparisonandhypothesistoexpressextremes,asin:要多高有多高needhowtallhavehowtallastallasand(vi)exploitationofimplicitnesstoexpressextremes,asin:说不出的妙utterNEGoutDEexcellenceunutterableexcellenceViewedfromthewaysofexpressingdegree,alldegreeconstructionslistedinContemporaryChineseConstructionDatabasecan,byandlarge,beencompassedintothe6typesabove.
InaccordancewithHowNet'sclassificationofdegreesinWordSetsforSentimentAnalysis,amongthesixtypesofconstructionsstatedabove,constructionsclassedundersuchtypesof"useofcomparisonandhypothesistoexpressextremes"and"exploitationofimplicitnesstoexpressextremes"shouldcomeatthelevelof"extremely/most".
Constructionsbelongingtothetypeof"exclamatives",whileconveyingdegreesnothighenoughtoreachextremes,shouldnonethelessbeabletostayatthelevelof"very".
Thedegreesexpressedbyconstructionsunder"analogytotypicalentities"and"enhancementbycontrastwithresults"mayhingeuponthekindsof"typicalentities"and"results",butthebottomlinecouldbenolowerthanthelevelof"very".
Inparticular,constructionssuchasthefollowingones:(8)a到/得不能再aato/DENEGcanfurtheracouldnotbea(ainitscomparativeform)containresultsthatculminatein"不能再a"(couldnotbea(ainitscomparativeform)).
Therefore,thetwoconstructionsshouldfallatthelevelof"extremelyormostly".
Constructionssuchas:(9)a不到哪儿去aNEGtowhere-suffixto6SisiHuangandWeidongZhannotveryacontainnegativewordssuchthattheyhavealevelofdegreelowerthan"very".
Thisisalsotruein:(10)不怎么aNEGhowanotsoaOthertypesofconstructionsexpressalevelofdegreewhichishighbutnothighenoughastoreachthelevelof"extremelyormost",andhencecanonlystayatthelevelof"very".
Besides,constructionssuchas:(11)看(把)npvp得see(BA)npvpDEseehownpvpexpress"过于a(tooa)",andshouldfallatthelevelof"too".
Inthisview,thelevelsofdegreeconveyedbydegreeconstructionsarenotasclearlydemarcatedasthoseconveyedbydegreeadverbs.
Thus,wemaysimplifyHowNet's6levelsofdegreeinto4levels,resultinginanewversionof"extremely/most","very","insufficiently",and"too".
Appendix1presentstheanalysisresultsof32constructionsaccordingtothesefourlevels.
3.
ConstructionsExpressingSpeaker-OrientedSentiments3.
1.
CategoriesofConstructionsExpressingSpeaker-OrientedSentimentsThesentimentcontainedwithinaconstructionbearsacloserelationtoitsmeaning.
Constructionssharingsimilarmeaningstendtoexpresssimilarsentiments.
Asstatedin(Zheng,2010)idiomaticconstructionsexpressingpejorativesentimentscanbeclassifiedintothosecontainingnegativecomment,thosecontainingblame,andthosecontainingrefutation,andidiomaticconstructionsexpressingpejorativesentimentssignificantlyoutnumberthoseexpressingcommendatorysentiments.
In(Zheng,2014),formalcharacteristicsofidiomaticconstructionsexpressingpejorativesentimentsaresummarized:idiomsexpressingpejorativesentiments,whencontainingsecondpersonpronouns,expresspejorativesentimentstoahigherdegreeoffossilization;idiomsexpressingpejorativesentimentsoftencarryinterrogativemarkers;idiomsexpressingpejorativesentimentsareusuallyrestructuredconstructions;idiomsofsluicingstructurestypicallyexpresspejorativesentiments;andmostpejorativeidiomscontainpolaritywords(summaryadverbs,negativewords,andwordswithsmallsubjectivequantity).
Wearguedthatnegativecommentandblame,ascommentsinabroadsense,couldbelumpedtogetherforelaboration.
Inourview,constructionsexpressingthreatthatwereclassedunderconstructionsexpressingblamealongwithconstructionsexpressingSentimentClassificationofChineseGrammaticalConstructions7anti-interferenceandahands-offattitudeaccordingto(Zheng,2014)arefarfrombeingconstructionsexpressingcomments,andshouldbeanalyzedseparately.
Forthisreason,wedividedconstructionsexpressingpejorativesentimentsintofourcategories:constructionsexpressingnegativecommentorblame,constructionsexpressinganti-interferenceorahands-offattitude,constructionsexpressingthreat,andconstructionsexpressingrefutation.
Moreover,althoughconstructionsexpressingcommendatorysentimentsarerelativelyfew,thisdoesnotmeantheyshoulddeserveanylessattention.
Ingeneral,constructionsexpressingcommendatorysentimentscanbeclassedintothoseexpressingpositivecommentandthoseexpressingapprovalorsupport.
Theformalcharacteristicsproposedin(Zheng,2014),thoughcruciallyimportant,stillcallforfurtherspecification.
Adetailedanalysiswasprovidedbelow.
3.
2.
ConstructionsExpressingPejorativeSentiments3.
2.
1.
ConstructionsExpressingNegativeCommentorBlameNegativecommentandblameareactsofevaluation.
Acompleteevaluationissupposedtoincludesuchelementsasanholderofevaluation,anevaluativeword,atargetofevaluation,andaconclusion,forinstance,holderofevaluation(I),evaluativeword(think),targetofevaluation(Xiaowang),andconclusion(isagoodkid).
However,certainconstructionsmayexplicitlyencodeonlyoneorafewofthoseelements.
Weofferedaclassificationofconstructionsbasedondifferentencodedelements.
Holderofevaluation+evaluativeword+targetofevaluation,asin:(12)不是我说你NEGbeIblameyouIdon'tintendtoblameyou,but…"我(I)","说(blame)",and"你(you)"areholderofevaluation,evaluativeword,andtargetofevaluationrespectively.
Usually,theholderofevaluationandevaluativewordcanbeomitted,butarenonethelessexplicitlyencodedintheseconstructions.
SincethemaximofQuantityundertheCooperativePrinciple(Grice,1975)isviolated,conversationalimplicatureisthusgenerated,typicallygivingrisetonegativesentiments.
Explicitlymarkingthetargetofevaluation,asin:(13)好你个np(好你个李云龙)wellyou-CLnp(wellyou-CLLiYunlong)np,howdareyoudothat(LiYunlong,howdareyoudothat)Inthisconstruction,thetargetofevaluationisprecededby"你个(yousuch)",henceexplicitlymarked.
ThisviolationoftheMaximofQuantityalsobringsaboutconversationalimplicaturewhichisprimarilynegativesentiment.
8SisiHuangandWeidongZhanTargetofevaluation+conclusion,asin:(14)不过就是X(不过就是个科长)afteralljustbeX(afteralljustbe-CLsectionchief)bejustaXafterall(bejustasectionchiefafterall)Suchconstructionsnormallycontainanadverb"就(just)"thatconveyssmallsubjectivequantity3,andinsodoing,theycontainaconclusionmadebytheholderofevaluationwithrespecttothetargetofevaluation,viz.
thatthetargetofevaluationistoo"small,orinferiorinrank".
Since"small"iseasilyrelatedtocontemptandpejorativemeaning,suchconstructionsareendowedwithnegativesentiments.
Therearealsocounter-expectation4constructions,forexample:(15)早不vp晚不vpearlyNEGvplaterNEGvpshouldhavevp-edearlierorshouldhavevp-edlater早不来晚不来earlyNEGcomelaterNEGcomeshouldhavecomeearlierorshouldhavecomelaterTheutterance"Heshouldhavecomeearlierorshouldhavecomelater"means"(thespeaker)hasnotexpectedthat'hecameatsuchatime".
Theconclusionmadebytheholderofevaluationpertainingtothetargetofevaluationisthat"thisdoesnotmeetthespeaker'sexpectation".
Counter-expectation,inmostcases,isbad,andthisiswhysuchconstructionstendtocarrywiththemnegativesentiments.
Questioningthetargetofevaluation:includingmainlyconstructionswithinterrogativewordssuchas:(16)你以为你是谁3Subjectivequantityreferstoquantityofcontainedsubjectiveevaluation,vis-à-visobjectivequantity.
Subjectivequantityincludesbothsmallsubjectivequantityandlargesubjectiveamount.
Theformercanbeinstancedby:才+三+天/就+三+天only+three+day/just+three+dayjustthreedays/onlythreedaysThelattercanbeinstancedby:都+三+天+了already+three+day+SFPthreedaysalreadyReadersmayreferto(Chen,1994)foradetaileddiscussion.
4Expectationreferstoanabstractworldthatbearsalinkwithhumanknowledgeandconception.
Usually,itiscloselyboundupwithcertainsocialconventions,stateofknowledgeofthespeakerandhearerinaspeechevent,andspecificcontextofanutterance.
Counter-expectationinformationreferstoutteranceinformationcontrarytoaparticularexpectation.
ReadersmayrefertoWuFuxiang(2004)foradetaileddiscussion.
SentimentClassificationofChineseGrammaticalConstructions9youthinkyoubewhowhodoyouthinkyouareSuchconstructionsachievetheeffectofnegativeevaluationthroughquestioningaparticularaspectofthetargetofevaluation.
Intheaboveinstance,theeffectthat"youhavedonethingsthatsortillwithyourstatus"isillustratedbymeansof"questioningyourstatus",andcertainly"doingthingsthatsortillwithyourstatus"isbad.
Objectivelydescribingthetargetofevaluation:Theseconstructionsobjectivelydescribethetargetofevaluation.
Nowthataspectspertinenttothetargetofevaluationareinviolationofthegeneralexpectationsofsociety,negativesentimentsthusensue.
Theyincludethefollowingtypes:Atypicality.
Constructionsofthissortusuallycontainwordslike"是(be)","算(count)","像(resemble)","叫(call)"aswellasnegativeorinterrogativewords,asin:(17)算什么n(算什么厨师)countwhatn(countwhatchef)cannotbecountedatypicaln(cannotbecountedatypicalchef)"Cannotbecountedatypicalchef"means"notatypicalchef,orineligibleasachef".
Humanbeingsareapttofavorthetypicalanddisfavortheatypical,soitisnaturaltheseconstructionsembodynegativesentiments.
Irregularity,asin:(18)东X西Y(东张西望)eastXwestY(eastlookwestgaze)X/Yabout(look/gazeabout)"Look/gazeabout"means"look/gazeinalldirections".
Humanscravefordisciplinedactionsandregularthings;consequently,irregularityisassociatedwithnegativesentiments.
Themajorformalcharacteristicofsuchconstructionsisjuxtaposition.
Deficiency,asin:(19)要np1没np1,要np2没np2neednp1NEGnp1,neednp2NEGnp2np1isneeded,butonedoesnothaveone,andnp2isneeded,butonedoesnothaveone.
要房没房,要车没车needhouseNEGhouse,needcarNEGcarAhouseisneeded,butonedoesnothaveone,andacarisneeded,butonedoesnothaveone.
Normally,humansdesireasenseofpossession,hencedeficiencyiscloselycoupledwithnegativesentiments.
10SisiHuangandWeidongZhanExcess,asin:(20)张口X闭口X(张口钱闭口钱)speakXshutupX(speakmoneyshutupmoney)bealwaysinastateoftalkingaboutX(bealwaysinastateoftalkingaboutmoney)Theconstructionmeans"bealwaysinastateoftalkingaboutX".
Thiswouldarouseinpeopleasenseofexcessthateasilyboresthem.
Constructionsofnegativecommentandblamemainlyconveyameaningofreproach.
3.
2.
2.
ConstructionsExpressingAnti-InterferenceandaHands-offAttitudeConstructionsexpressinganti-interferenceprevailincontextswherethespeakerisintendedtodosomethingbutinterferedbythehearer.
Theyoftendeliverasenseof"youleavemealone",asin:(21)你管得着吗youcontrolDEZHAOSFPyoucan'tmakemeConstructionsexpressingahands-offattitudegenerallyappearatatimewhenthespeakergetsrejectedafteranattemptatreasoningwiththehearer,andchieflyconveyameaningof"won'tbothertogetinyourway",asin:(22)爱v不v(爱去不去)wishvNEGv(wishgoNEGgo)vifyouwishto,anddon'tvifyouwishnotto(goifyouwishto,anddon'tgoifyouwishnotto)Theabovetwoconstructionsmainlydisplaythespeaker'ssentimentsofdissatisfactionandimpatience,andoccasionallymayexpressresignation.
3.
2.
3.
ConstructionsExpressingThreatInconstructionsexpressingthreat,thespeakerconveysdissatisfactionabouttheon-goingbehaviorofthehearerbymeansofthreatorwarninginordertostopthehearerfromdoingit.
Constructionsexpressingthreatarerealizedinmainlyfourways:(i)Byemphasizingtheimportanceofthespeaker'swordsandinstructingthehearertolistencarefully,asin:(23)你(们)听着you-suffixlistenZHElisten,you(allofyou)(ii)Byusingacompletehypothesiscompoundsentence,asin:SentimentClassificationofChineseGrammaticalConstructions11(24)再X我就不客气了continueXIthenNEGpoliteSFPcontinuetoX,andIwillsetyoustraight再说话我就不客气了continuespeakIthenNEGpoliteSFPonemoreword,andIwillsetyoustraight(iii)Byusingthefirsthalfofacompletehypothesiscompoundsentencetoindicatewhatthehearerisexpectedtodorightnow,asin:(25)放X点儿/些behaveX-CL-suffix/-CLXalittle(iv)Byusingthesecondhalfofacompletehypothesiscompoundsentencetoindicatepossiblesevereconsequences,asin:(26)X可不是闹着玩的XeverNEGbetriflewithDEdon'tyouevertriflewithX打架可不是闹着玩的fightingeverNEGbetriflewithDEdon'tyouevertriflewithfightingConstructionsexpressingthreatmainlydisplaythespeaker'ssentimentofdissatisfaction.
3.
2.
4.
ConstructionsExpressingRefutationMostconstructionsexpressingrefutationcontainsuchinterrogativewordsas"什么(what)"and"哪儿(where)".
Rhetoricalquestions,asoftenhappensincontemporaryChinese,areaccompaniedbyasenseofrefutation.
Theformalcharacteristicsofsuchconstructionswerelistedbelow.
"什么(what)"constructions,asin:(27)X什么呀(好什么呀)XwhatSFP(goodwhatSEPwhatisXaboutitanyway(whatisgoodaboutitanyway)"哪儿(where)"constructions,asin:(28)哪儿跟哪儿啊wherewithwhere-suffixSFPwhatdoesthishavetodowiththat"Even"constructions,asin:12SisiHuangandWeidongZhan(29)还np呢(A:我想吃苹果.
B:还香蕉呢.
)evennp呢(A:Iwanteatapple.
B:evenbananaSFP.
)Isn'tnpanevenbetteridea(A:Iwanttoeatanapple.
B:Isn'tabananaanevenbetteridea!
)Constructionscontainingwordsthatconveydistanceandfinality(e.
g.
"去(go)","得(stop)")orcertainpejorativewords(e.
g.
"死(die)","头(head)","球(ball)","鬼(ghost)","梦(dream)"),asin:(30)去你的(31)鬼才知道呢goyouDEghostonlyknowSFPyougotohellwhothehellknows(32)不X能死啊(不说话能死啊)NEGXcandieSFP(NEGtalkcandieSFP)wouldyoudieifyoudonotX(wouldyoudieifyoudonottalk)(33)X个头(吃个头)(34)做梦吧你X-CLhead(eat-CLHead)dreamSFPyoudon'tX(don'teat)youjustdreamonConstructionsexpressingrefutationmainlyconveythespeaker'ssentimentsofdissatisfactionandimpatience.
3.
3.
ConstructionsExpressingCommendatorySentiments3.
3.
1.
ConstructionsExpressingPositiveCommentThereisafarfewernumberandtypeofconstructionsthatexpresspositivecommentthanconstructionsthatexpressnegativecomment.
Basedontheclassificationofevaluationconstructionsdescribedin3.
2.
1,constructionsexpressingpositivecommentshouldbelongtothecaseof"objectivelydescribingthetargetofevaluation".
Constructionsexpressingpositivecommenttakecoreverbssuchas"是(be)","像(resemble)","够(qualify)","有(have)",etc.
Constructionswithcoreverbsof"是(be)"or"像(resemble)"are,forexample:(35)X是X,Y是Y(鼻子是鼻子,眼睛是眼睛)XbeX,YbeY(nosebenose,eyebeeye)XisexactlywhatXshouldbe,andYisexactlywhatYshouldbe(thenoseisexactlywhatanoseshouldbe,andtheeyesareexactlywhatapairofeyesshouldbe)Constructionswith"够(qualify)"asthecoreverbinclude:(36)够n(够爷们)qualifyn(qualifytrueman)qualifyasn(qualifyasatrueman)SentimentClassificationofChineseGrammaticalConstructions13Constructionswith"有(have)"asthecoreverbinclude(37).
Therearesomeconstructionsthatcannotbeclassedintoanyoftheaforementionedtypes,suchas(38).
(37)真有你的(38)没的说trulyhaveyouDENEGDEblameyoureallyhavecapabilitytodosththereisnothingtoblameConstructionscontainingpositivecommentfunctionmainlytoexpressapproval.
3.
3.
2.
ConstructionsExpressingApprovalorSupportConstructionsexpressingapprovalorsupportareoftwotypes:thoseshowingapprovalfortheintentionofthehearerandremovinghis/hersuspicion,andthoseshowingapprovalfortheopinionofthehearer.
Whenahearerintendstodosomethingbutstillentertainsdoubts,aspeakermayexpressseveraltypesofmeaningtodispelthehearer'sdoubts.
(i)Whatconcernsyouisameretrifle,asin:(39)X没什么大不了的XNEGwhatbigNEGSFPDEXisnobigdeal这事儿没什么大不了的thismatter-suffixNEGwhatbigNEGSFPDEthismatterisnobigdeal(ii)Iwillhelpyouwithyourconcern,asin:(40)X有我呢(这事有我呢)XhavemeSFP(thismatterhavemeSFP)onXyouhavemyback(onthismatteryouhavemyback)(iii)Doifyouwish,asin:(41)爱vp就vp(你爱去就去)wishvpthenvp(youwishgothengo)vpifyouwish(goifyouwish)Constructionsexpressingapprovalforthehearer'sknowledgeusuallycontainbothinterrogativeandnegativewords,asin:(42)谁说不是呢whosayNEGbeSFPwhowoulddeny…4.
ConstructionsExpressingSubject-orientedSentimentsInrespectofnumber,constructionsexpressingsubject-orientedsentimentsarecomparativelyfewerthanconstructionsexpressingspeaker-orientedsentiments,andmainly14SisiHuangandWeidongZhanexpresssentimentsofthefollowingtypes:Awkwardness,suchas:(43)X也不是,Y也不是XalsoNEGbe,YalsoNEGbedon'tknowwhetheroneshouldXoroneshouldY坐也不是,站也不是sitalsoNEGbe,standalsoNEGbedon'tknowwhetheroneshouldsitoroneshouldstandFrustration,suchas:(44)X也得X,不X也得XXalsohavetoX,NEGXalsohavetoXhavenochoicebuttoX去也得去,不去也得去goalsohavetogo,NEGgoalsohavetogohavenochoicebuttogoContempt,suchas:(45)不把X当回事(不把学习当回事)NEGBAXtake-CLmatter(NEGBAstudytake-CLmatter)donottakeXseriously…(donottakestudyseriously)Amazement,suchas:(46)做梦也没想到dreamalsoNEGthink-tohaveneverdreamedofNervousness,suchas:(47)心提到嗓子眼儿了heartracetothroat-suffixASPone'sheartisinone'smouthSadness,suchas:(48)心凉了heartcoldSFPone'sheartsinksReassurance,suchas:(49)一块石头落了地onepiecestonefallASPgroundasapieceofstonehasfallenontothegroundComplicatedsentiment,suchas:SentimentClassificationofChineseGrammaticalConstructions15(50)心里不是滋味heartinNEGbetasteharbormixedfeelingsIntermsoforigin,someoftheaboveconstructionsoriginatefrommetaphorandexaggeration.
Aninstanceofmetaphoris"asapieceofstonehasfallenontotheground"inwhich"apieceofstone"isametaphorfor"one'sconcern"and"hasfallenontotheground"means"wouldnolongerworry".
Thewholeconstructionmeans"totallyrelieved".
Aninstanceofexaggerationis"one'sheartisinone'smouth".
Asone'sheartacceleratesunderexceedinglystressfulconditions,itfollowsthat"one'sheartisinone'smouth"candeliverthemeaningof"acceleratingheartbeats",whichwouldfurtherindicate"anextremelynervousstate".
Otherconstructionsinvolvenegativewordsandwordsconveyingpeople'sthoughtsorknowledge,asin:(51)不知怎么X才好NEGknowhowXthengoodhavenoideahowtoXSomeconstructionsalsoinvolvedoublenegation,asin(43).
5.
ConclusionandFutureWorkInthisstudy,weexaminedavarietyofconstructionsthatcontributetosentimentcomputationbasedonContemporaryChineseConstructionDatabase,andmadepreliminaryattemptsatclassifyingrelevantconstructionsaccordingtotheirformalorsemanticcommonalities.
Among32degreeconstructionscollectedinthisstudy,11fallatthelevelof"extremelyormost",16atthelevelof"very",2atthelevelof"insufficiently",andalso2atthelevelof"too".
Table1summeduptheconstructionalmeaning,sentimentcategory,andnumberofinstancesofsentimentconstructions.
ConstructionalmeaningSentimentcategoryNumber(percentage)negativecomment/blamereproach52(30%)anti-interference/ahands-offattitudedissatisfaction/impatience/frustration36(20%)threatdissatisfaction11(6%)refutationdissatisfaction/impatience28(15%)positivecommentapproval17(10%)approval/supportapproval/support15(9%)subject-orientedsentimentawkwardness,frustration,contempt,amazement,nervousness,sadness,reassurance,etc.
17(10%)Table1ASynopsisofSentimentConstructions16SisiHuangandWeidongZhanInfuturestudy,wewouldcontinuetospecifyourdescriptionsofconstructionsentiments,exploretheirdistributionalcharacteristicsindifferentgenres(vernaculardiscourseornarrative),andinvestigatetheirco-occurrencewithsentimentwords.
Itwashopedthatfindingsofthisstudywoulddrawattentiontosuchconstructionsinanefforttopushforwardsentimentcomputationthroughfurtherresearchesintosentimentconstructions.
AcknowledgementThispaperissupportedbyNationalProgramonKeyBasicResearchProject(973Program)(ProjectNO.
2014CB340504),MajorProjectofHumanitiesandSocialSciencesofMinistryofEducation(ProjectNO.
13JJD740001andNO.
15JJD740002)andMajorProjectofNationalSocialScience(ProjectNO.
12&ZD175)andbegratefultoallthesesupport.
6.
ReferencesChen,X.
H.
,1994,Apreliminarystudyonsubjectivequantity:onadverbsjiu(就)cai(才)dou(都),ChineseTeachingintheWorld,4:18–24.
(陈小荷,1999,主观量问题初探——兼谈副词"就"、"才"、"都".
世界汉语教学.
4:18~24.
)(inChinese)ContemporaryChineseConstructionDatabase(现代汉语构式数据库)http://ccl.
pku.
edu.
cn/ccgd/view.
asp(inChinese)Goldberg,A.
E.
,1995,Constructiongrammarapproachtoargumentstructure.
TheUniversityofChicagoPress,ChicagoGrice,H.
P.
,1975,LogicandConversation.
InP.
Cole.
&J.
Morgan(eds.
)SyntaxandSemantics,Vol.
3:SpeechActs.
NewYork:AcademicPressHou,M.
,2013,Researchonorientationanalysisofopinionphrases,JournalofChineseInformationProcessing,27(6):103109.
HowNet'sWordSetsforSentimentAnalysis(《知网》情感分析用词语集)http://www.
keenage.
com/html/c_bulletin_2007.
htm(inChinese)Huang,S.
S,2015,Astudyofconstruction"r+v+r+de+n"inmodernChinese,MasterThesisofPekingUniversity.
Liu,D.
L.
,2005,ExemplificationofcommonsentencepatternsinspokenChinese.
PekingUniversityPress,Beijing.
(inChinese)Lv,Sh.
X.
,1956,AbriefgrammarofChinese.
TheCommercialPress,Beijing.
(吕叔湘.
,1956,中国文法要略.
北京:商务印书馆)(inChinese)SentimentlexiconontologydatabasebyDalianUniversityofTechnologyhttp://ir.
dlut.
edu.
cn/EmotionOntologyDownload(大连理工大学情感词汇本体库)(inChinese)WiebeJ,WilsonT,BellM.
,2002,IdentifyingCollocationsforRecognizingOpinions.
InSentimentClassificationofChineseGrammaticalConstructions17ProceedingsoftheACL/EACLWorkshoponCollocation:ComputationalExtraction,Analysis,andExploitation,Toulouse,France.
Wu,F.
X.
,2004,Onthepragmaticfunctionoftheconstruction"Xbu-biYZ",ZhongGuoYuWen,32:222231.
(inChinese)Xu,L.
H.
,Lin,H.
F.
,Pan,Y.
etc.
,2008,Constructingtheaffectivelexiconontology,JournalofTheChinaSocietyforScientificandTechnicalInformation,27(2):180-185.
Zhao,Y.
Y.
,Qin,B.
,andLiu,T.
,2010,Asurveyonsentimentanalysis,JournalofSoftware,21(8):18341848.
(inChinese)Zheng,J.
M.
,2008,OntheemotionalmeaningsofidiomsinteachingChineseasasecondlanguage(TCSL),AppliedLinguistics,2:134141.
(inChinese)Zheng,J.
M.
,2010,OntheconstructionofderogatoryidiomsinmodernChinese,PhDthesisofJiNanUniversity.
(inChinese)Zhou,L.
ZH.
,He,Y.
K.
,andWang,J.
Y.
,2008,Surveyonresearchofsentimentanalysis,ComputerApplications,28(11):2725–2728.
(inChinese)Appendix1:AClassificationofDegreeConstructionsatDifferentLevelsLevelsConstructionsNumberextremely/mosta+得+不+能+再+a(好得不能再好)a+DE+NEG+can+further+a(good+DE+NEG+can+further+good)couldnotbea(ainitscomparativeform)(couldnotbebetter)a+到+不+能+再+a(好到不能再好)a+to+NEG+can+further+a(good+to+NEG+can+further+good)couldnotbea(ainitscomparativeform)(couldnotbebetter)要+多+a+有+多+a(要多好有多好)need+how+a+have+how+a(needhowgoodhavehowgood)asaas(asgoodas)再+a+不+过(再好不过)further+a+NEG+over(furthergoodNEGover)couldnotbea(ainitscomparativeform)(couldnotbebetter)再+a+也+没有+np+a(再好也没有他好)further+a+well+NEG+np+a(furthergoodwellNEGhegood)notasaasnpbe(notasgoodasheis)见+过+X+的,没+见+过+这么+X+的(见过差的,没见过这么差的)see+ASP+X+DE,NEG+see+ASP+so+X+DE(seeASPbadDE,1118SisiHuangandWeidongZhanNEGseeASPsobadDE)haveknownofX,butneverofXassuch(haveknownofthebad,butneverofthebadassuch)别+提+多+vp+了(别提多差了)not+mention+how+vp+SFP(not+mention+how+terrible+SFP)donotmentiontheextentofvp(donotmentionhowbaditis)说+不出+的+vp(说不出的好)utter+NEG+DE+vp(utterNEGDEgood)unutterablyvp(unutterablygood)X+就+别+提+了(那高兴劲就别提了)X+then+not+mention+SFP(thatjoyfulnessthennotmentionSFP)noneedtomentionX(noneedtomentionthatjoyfulness)把+np+vp+得(把他气得)BA+np+vp+DE(BAheirritateDE)howitvpnp(howheisirritated)vp+得+np(气得我)vp+DE+np(irritateDEI)vpnptothegreatextentof(irritatemetothegreatextent)veryvp+得+X(好得很)vp+DE+X(goodDEvery)veryvp(verygood)vp+到+X(好到爆)vp+to+X(goodtoburst)veryvp(verygood)比+np+还+np(比专家还专家)than+np+even+np(thanexpertevenexpert)moreofnpthannp(moreofanexpertthananexpert)比+np+更+np(比专家更专家)than+np+more+np(thanexpertmoreexpert)moreofnpthannp(moreofanexpertthananexpert)n+中+的+n(专家中的专家)n+among+DE+n(expertamongDEexpert)nofn(expertofexperts)你+说+a+不+a(你说坏不坏)you+say+a+NEG+a(yousaybadNEGbad)17SentimentClassificationofChineseGrammaticalConstructions19verya,Ithinkyouwillalsoagreewithmea+着+呢(好着呢)a+ZHE+SFP(goodZHESFP)verya(verygood)那+个+X+啊(那个好啊)that+-CL+X+SFP(that-CLgoodSFP)veryX(verygood)那+叫+一+个+a(那叫一个好)that+call+one+-CL+a(thatcallone-CLgood)howaitcanbecalled(howgooditcanbecalled)像+np+一样|似的(像仙女一样)like+np+thesame|alike(likefairythesame)exactlylikenp(exactlylikeafairy)np+一样|似的(仙女一样)np+thesame|alike(fairythesame)likenp(likeafairy)np+vp(仙女下凡)np+vp(fairydescendtotheearthlyworld)asnpvp(asafairydescendstotheearthlyworld)赛+np(赛华佗)match+np(matchHuatuo)goodenoughtomatchnp(goodenoughtomatchthelegendaryChinesesurgeonHuatuo)小+np(小华佗)little+np(littleHuatuo)someoneasgoodasnp(someoneasgoodasthelegendaryChinesesurgeonHuatuo)np1+的+np2(中国的乔丹)np1+DE+mp2(ChinaDEJordan)np1'snp2(China'sJordan)np+第+二(乔丹第二)np+DI+two(JordanDItwo)npnumbertwo(Jordannumbertwo)够+a(够好)enough+a(enoughgood)aenough(goodenough)20SisiHuangandWeidongZhaninsufficiently不+怎么+a(不怎么好)NEG+how+a(NEGhowgood)notsoa(notsogood)a+不+到+哪里+去(好不到哪里去)a+NEG+to+where+to(goodNEGtowhereto)notverya(notverygood)2too看+把+np+vp+得(看把他高兴得)see+BA+np+vp+DE(seeBAhepleaseDE)seehowvpnpbe(seehowpleasedheis)看+np+vp+得(看他高兴得)see+np+vp+DE(seehepleaseDE)seehowvpnpbe(seehowpleasedheis)2Total32