Balakrishna22pipi.com

CBDDistr.
GENERALUNEP/CBD/AHTEG/BD-CC-2/2/627May2009ORIGINAL:ENGLISHSECONDADHOCTECHNICALEXPERTGROUPONBIODIVERSITYANDCLIMATECHANGESecondmeetingHelsinki,18–22April2009reportofthesecondmeetingoftheSECONDADHOCTECHNICALEXPERTGROUPONBIODIVERSITYANDCLIMATECHANGEINTRODUCTIONTheSecondAdHocTechnicalExpertGroup(AHTEG)onBiodiversityandClimateChangewasestablishedinresponsetodecisionIX/16oftheConferenceofthePartiestotheConventiononBiologicalDiversity.
ThepurposeoftheAHTEGistoprovidebiodiversity-relevantinformationtotheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC)throughtheprovisionofscientificandtechnicaladviceontheintegrationoftheconservationandsustainableuseofbiodiversityintoclimatechangemitigationandadaptationactivities.
InordertofullyandeffectivelycompletethetermsofreferenceasoutlinedinannexIIItodecisionIX/16,itwasplannedthattheAHTEGwouldconveneatleasttwomeetings.
ThefirstmeetingwasheldinLondonfrom17to21November2008.
Itaddressedtwomainissues:(i)identificationofrisksandvulnerabilities;and(ii)theenhancementofscientificandtechnicallinksbetweenbiodiversityandclimatechangemitigation.
ThesecondmeetingoftheAHTEGwasheldinHelsinkifrom18to22April,2009inordertoaddressthelinksbetweenbiodiversityconservationandsustainableuseandclimate-changeadaptation,risksandvulnerabilities.
Inparticular,thesecondmeetingaddressedthefollowingelementsofthetermsofreference:Identifyingcase-studiesandgeneralprinciplestoguidelocalandregionalactivitiesaimedatreducingriskstobiodiversityvaluesassociatedwithclimatechange(decisionIX/16,annexIII,paragraph(c));Identifyingwaysthatcomponentsofbiodiversitycanreduceriskanddamageassociatedwithclimatechangeimpacts(decisionIX/16,annexIII,paragraph(l));Identifyingpotentialbiodiversity-relatedimpactsandbenefitsofadaptationactivities,especiallyintheregionsidentifiedasbeingparticularlyvulnerableundertheNairobiworkprogrammeonimpacts,vulnerabilityandadaptationtoclimatechange(developingcountries,especiallyleastdevelopedcountriesandsmallislanddevelopingStates)asadoptedbytheConferenceofthePartiestotheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChangeatitseleventhmeeting(decisionIX/16,annexIII,paragraph(d));Proposingwaysandmeanstoimprovetheintegrationofbiodiversityconsiderationsandtraditionalandlocalknowledgerelatedtobiodiversitywithinclimatechangeadaptation,withparticularreferencetocommunitiesandsectorsvulnerabletoclimatechange(decisionIX/16,annexIII,paragraph(h));Identifyingwaysandmeansfortheintegrationoftheecosystemapproachinimpactandvulnerabilityassessmentandclimate-changeadaptationstrategies(decisionIX/16,annexIII,paragraph(e));Identifyingmeasuresthatenableecosystemrestorationfromtheadverseimpactsofclimatechangewhichcanbeeffectivelyconsideredinimpact,vulnerabilityandclimatechangeadaptationstrategies(decisionIX/16,annexIII,paragraph(f));Highlightingcase-studiesandidentifyingmethodologiesforanalysingthevalueofbiodiversityinsupportingadaptationincommunitiesandsectorsvulnerabletoclimatechange(decisionIX/16,annexIII,paragraph(b));Analysingthesocial,culturalandeconomicbenefitsofusingecosystemservicesforclimatechangeadaptationandofmaintainingecosystemservicesbyminimizingadverseimpactsofclimatechangeonbiodiversity(decisionIX/16,annexIII,paragraph(g));Identifyingmeanstoincentivizetheimplementationofadaptationactionsthatpromotetheconservationandsustainableuseofbiodiversity(decisionIX/16,annexIII,paragraph(m)).
SourcesofinformationforthismeetingincludebackgrounddocumentspreparedbytheSecretariatoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversityandtheWorldConservationMonitoringCentreoftheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP-WCMC).
TheGroupalsoconsideredthefindingsofthefirstAHTEGonBiodiversityandClimateChangeascontainedinTechnicalSeriesNos.
10and25andthefindingsofthefirstmeetingofthesecondAHTEG(UNEP/CBD/AHTEG/BD-CC-2/2/5).
Additionaldocumentsincluderecommendation135(2008)oftheStandingCommitteeoftheBernConvention,adoptedon27November2008,onaddressingtheimpactsofclimatechangeonbiodiversity.
Further,anoverviewofrelevantdecisions,conclusions,meetingsanddocumentsfromtheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC)wasprovidedbyitssecretariat.
Finally,theGroupbenefitedfrominputfromrelevantorganizationsandindividualsassubmittedtotheonlinedialogueonclimatechangeandbiodiversityconvenedbytheSecretariatoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversity,from9to20March,2009.
Item1.
OpeningofthemeetingMr.
JoMulongoyoftheSecretariatoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversity(SCBD)welcomedparticipantsonbehalfoftheExecutiveSecretaryandopenedthemeetingat9a.
m.
onSaturday,18April,2009.
Mr.
MulongoyalsoexpressedhisthankstotheGovernmentofFinlandforhostingandfundingthesecondmeetingandformakingparticipantsfeelsowelcome.
Mr.
MulongoyremindedparticipantsoftheimportanceofthemeetingtotheprocessesoftheConvention,especiallygiventhelengthandbreadthofdecisionIX/16adoptedbytheConferenceofthePartiesonbiodiversityandclimatechange.
Mr.
MulongoyemphasizedthefactthattheConferenceofthePartiesplacedemphasisonimplementation,especiallywithregardstomutuallysupportiveactivitiesamongthethreeRioConventions.
Mr.
MulongoyremindedparticipantsthattheAHTEGisbeingconvenedwithanextensivetermsofreferenceleadingtotheconveningofthetwomeetingswiththissecondmeetingfocusingonriskandadaptation.
Mr.
MulongoyinformedparticipantsthatthefindingsofthismeetingwillbeconveyedtothethirtiethmeetingoftheSubsidiaryBodiesoftheUNFCCCinpreparationfortheCopenhagenmeetinginDecember.
FinallyMr.
Mulongoythankedalloftheorganizationswhonominatedandfundedparticipantsfromtheirorganization.
Mr.
JussiSoramkioftheGovernmentofFinlandwelcomedparticipantsonbehalfoftheMinistryofEnvironmentandtheMinistryofForeignAffairs.
Mr.
SoramkiemphasizedtheircommitmenttolinkingclimatechangeandbiodiversitywithintheframeworksoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversityandtheUNFCCC.
Mr.
SoramkithankedtheDepartmentforEnvironment,FoodandRuralAffairs(Defra)forhostingthefirstmeetingofthesecondAHTEGandfurtherthankedUNEPWCMCforthepreparationoftheirbackgrounddocument.
Mr.
Soramkiexplainedthatwhileagooddealofexpertiseonbiodiversityandclimatechangeexists,thechallengeliesinbringingthisexpertiseintonegotiations.
AsapartytobothConventions,Mr.
SoramkiexplainedthatFinlandisreadytoalsotakeresponsibilityinimprovingthislink.
FinallyMr.
Soramkiprovidedparticipantswithinformationonthelogisticsofthemeetingandthevenue,andinvitedparticipantstoaninformalreception.
Mr.
Soramkiconcludedbystatingthatclimatechangechallengescannotbeaddressedwithoutlinkingtobiodiversityinconsideringbothmitigationandadaptationresponses.
Item2.
Organizationalmatters2.
1.
ElectionofofficersAfteraself-introductionofparticipants(seefulllistofparticipantsinannexI),Mr.
MulongoyinformedparticipantsthattheAHTEGwillbereceivinginputfromtheIndigenouspeoplesandlocalcommunitiesfromtheInternationalSymposiumtobeheldinAnchorageAlaska,from20to24April,2009.
BasedonthesuggestionoftheSecretariat,theGroupelectedMr.
HeikkiToivonen,ResearchDirectorfromtheFinnishEnvironmentInstituteandMr.
GuyMidgley,ChiefDirectoroftheClimateChangeandBio-adaptationDivisionoftheSouthAfricanNationalBiodiversityInstituteasitsco-chairs.
2.
2.
AdoptionoftheagendaTheprovisionalagendapreparedbytheExecutiveSecretary(UNEP/CBD/AHTEG/BDCC2/2/1)wasadoptedbytheGroup.
2.
3.
OrganizationofworkFollowingapresentationbyMr.
JoMulongoy(SCBD)concerningthetermsofreferencebeforetheAHTEG,theGroupadoptedtheproposedorganizationofworkforthemeetingascontainedinUNEP/CBD/AHTEG/BD-CC-2/2/1/Add.
1asaflexibleframeworkfortheworkoftheGroup.
ToaccomplishthisworktheGroupdecidedtobreakintotwoworkinggroups,onetoaddressagendaitem3andthesecondtoaddressagendaitems4and5.
1.
Asmalldraftingcommitteewasalsoestablishedtoaddressagendaitem5.
2.
Beforebreakingintoworkinggroups,Mr.
BarneyDicksonofUNEP-WCMCpresentedtheliteraturereviewonbiodiversityandclimatechangeadaptationpreparedbyUNEP-WCMCwithfundingfromtheGovernmentoftheUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIrelandandtheGovernmentofFinland.
InhispresentationMr.
Dicksonidentifiedthreecategoriesthatwereaddressedintheliteraturereview:thecontributionofbiodiversitytoadaptation,thepossiblenegativeimpactsofadaptationonbiodiversityandtheroleofadaptationintheconservationsector.
Mr.
Dicksonhighlightedthatbiodiversity-basedadaptationisparticularlyimportantforthepoorbecauseofthecontributionofecosystemservicestobiodiversity-basedlivelihoods.
Sectorshighlightedinthebackgrounddocumentincludecoastalecosystems,thewatersector,agricultureandforests.
Mr.
Dicksonremindedparticipantsthatecosystem-basedadaptationshouldbeintegratedwithotheradaptationapproachesinordertoaddressthefullrangeofimpactsthatclimatechangewillhave.
Someofthepossiblenegativeimpactsofadaptationactivitiesthatthebackgrounddocumenthighlightedincludehardcoastaldefencescausingthedegradationofcoastalwetlandsandincreasedirrigationuseinagriculture,whichcandecreasewateravailabilityforecosystems.
Mr.
Dicksonfurtherdiscussedadaptationfortheconservationsectorwithintheframeworkofbothnaturaladaptationandplannedadaptation.
Withregardstoplannedadaptationthedocumentaddressesprotectedareasystems,protectedareamanagementandfunctionalconnectivitybetweenecosystems.
FinallyMr.
Dicksonremindedparticipantsthatnaturalresourcemanagementmaybeoneoftheareaswherethereisthegreatestopportunityforsynergiesbetweenclimatechangemitigationandadaptation;nevertheless,sometrade-offsmayberequired.
Furthermore,inordertofacilitateconsiderationoftheagendaitems,Ms.
HannaHoffmann(UNFCCC)providedparticipantswithanoverviewofadaptation-relatedissuesunderUNFCCCincludinginformationonrelevantbodies,processes,decisions,conclusionsanddocuments.
Ms.
HoffmannalsoprovidedparticipantswithinformationrelatingtotheNairobiworkprogrammeandoptionsforprovidinginputrelatedtotheConventiononBiologicalDiversitytoUNFCCC.
AfurtherpresentationwasdeliveredbyMs.
CarolinaLasenDiazoftheBernConventionwithregardtoongoingprocessesundertheBernConvention.
Ms.
Lasenprovidedanoverviewofthebackground,membershipandobjectivesoftheBernConvention.
MsLasenfurtherintroducedbothclimatechangemitigationandadaptationrelatedRecommendationsadoptedbyBernConventionParties,includingonminimizingtheadverseimpactsofwindpowergenerationandtheestablishmentofaGroupofExpertsonBiodiversityandClimateChange.
Ms.
LaseninformedparticipantsofanumberofrelevantdocumentsandreportsandRecommendation135onaddressingtheimpactsofclimatechangeonbiodiversityincludingtheappendixcontainingproposedactionsforgovernmentsrelatingtovulnerability,invasivealienspecies,protectedareasandprinciplesforadaptationstrategies.
FinallyMs.
Lasendescribedupcomingactivitiesin2009includingthefourthmeetingoftheGroupofExpertsonBiodiversityandClimateChange.
Mr.
JonathanHoekstrafromtheNatureConservancyprovidedparticipantswithadditionaldetailsoncasestudiesconcerningimplementationofclimatechangeadaptationactivitiesthatintegratebiodiversityconservationandsustainableuse.
InparticularMr.
HoekstrapresentedacasestudyfromPapuaNewGuinearegardingthedesignofamarineprotectedareasnetwork,whichincorporatesreefresilienceprinciples,includingrepresentationandreplication,criticalareas,connectivityandeffectivemanagement.
Mr.
HoekstraalsopresentedacasestudyfromNorthCarolinaintheUnitedStatesofAmericainwhichsealevelrise(7.
5cm)isthreateninglow-lyingareas.
Inthiscase,ecosystem-basedadaptationinvolvedpre-storingoysterreefs,restoringhydrologythroughtidalgatemanagementandintroducingnativesalt-tolerantspecies.
Item3.
RiskstoBiodiversityfromClimateChangeandRelatedAdaptationResponsesThisagendaitemisintendedtoaddressitems'c'and'l'ofthetermsofreferencepresentedinannexIIItodecisionIX/16.
Tointroducethisagendaitem,beforetheworkinggroupsbrokeout,Ms.
JaimeWebbeoftheSecretariatoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversitypresentedanoverviewofthebackgrounddocumentonapproachestolinkingbiodiversityandclimatechangerelatedriskandvulnerabilities(UNEP/CBD/AHTEG/BD-CC-2/2/2).
InherpresentationMs.
Webbeintroducedparticipantstotheconceptsanddefinitionsofriskandvulnerability.
Ms.
Webbealsopresentedsomeoftheactivitiesthatarebeingimplementedalreadyinordertoreduceriskstobiodiversityasaresultofclimatechangeincludingexpandingnetworksofprotectedareas,exsituconservationandreducingotherthreatstobiodiversity.
Theco-chairsremindedparticipantsthatadditionalrelevantinformationcanbefoundinthereportofthefirstmeetingoftheSecondAdHocTechnicalExpertGrouponBiodiversityandClimateChange(UNEP/CBD/AHTEG/BD-CC-2/1/5)andthebackgrounddocumentpreparedbyUNEP/WCMC.
Participantsthenbegandiscussionsonhowtheagendaitemshouldbeaddressedemphasizingthechallengeofprovidingkeymessagestotwodifferentaudiences(CBDandUNFCCC)andtheneedtolinkclimatechangeriskwithclimatechangeadaptation.
Participantsalsoemphasizedtheimportanceoflinkingriskstobiodiversitytoclimatechangerelatedriskstoothersectorsandthematicareas,includinglivelihoods.
Finallyparticipantssuggestedthatitwouldbeusefultoidentifygapsininformationorknowledge.
TheworkinggroupaddressingthisagendaitemconvenedunderthechairmanshipofMr.
GuyMidgley(SouthAfrica).
Inordertocompleteitswork,theworkinggroupdecidedtobreakintotwosmallergroups,onetoaddressagendaitem3.
1andanothertoaddress3.
2.
3.
1.
GeneralprinciplestoguidelocalandregionalactivitiesaimedatreducingriskstobiodiversityasaresultofclimatechangeThechairinvitedtheworkinggrouptoconsidertheimpactsofclimatechangeonbiodiversityidentifiedbythefirstmeetingoftheAHTEGandalsointheUNEP-WCMCdocumentwithintheframeworkofriskandvulnerabilityandtoidentifycasestudiesandgeneralprinciplesthatcanbeappliedatvariousscalesinordertoreducetheriskstobiodiversityasaresultofclimatechange.
TheproposedprinciplesarecontainedinannexIItothisreport.
3.
2.
PotentialbenefitsandriskstobiodiversityasaresultofadaptationactivitiesTheworkinggroupchairinvitedtheworkinggrouptoreviewandrevisetable1inCBDTechnicalSeries25,whichpresentsanindicativelistofadaptationactivitiesrelevanttothethematicareasconsideredundertheConventiononBiologicalDiversityandidentifypotentialbiodiversity-relatedimpactsofadaptationactivities,especiallyintheregionsidentifiedasbeingparticularlyvulnerableundertheNairobiworkprogramme.
TheresultsoftheworkareavailableinthetableinannexIItothisreport.
Item4.
BenefitsofBiodiversityforEnhancingAdaptationOptionsunderClimateChangeTheworkinggroupaddressingthisagendaitemconvenedunderthechairmanshipofMr.
IanNoble(WorldBank)andMr.
NevilleAsh(IUCN).
Ininitialdiscussions,theworkinggroupdiscussedthechallengeofproducingareportthatwouldberelevantforboththeConventiononBiologicaldiversityandUNFCCC.
Theworkinggroupdecidedtoseparateitsworkintotwotimephases:firstaddressingthetermsofreferenceitemscallingfortheidentificationandsecondthetermsofreferenceitemsconcerningthedevelopmentofproposals.
Accordinglytheworkinggroupbrokeintothreesub-groupsinordertoidentifythescopeoftheissue,assesshowmuchcanbesynthesizedfromexistingliteratureandsuggestmainmessageswithregardsto(1)restorationandresiliencewithinclimatechangeadaptation;(2)evidencebasedjustificationforthevalueofecosystemservicesinadaptation;and(3)identifyingincentivesfortheinclusionofbiodiversitywithinadaptation.
4.
1.
Proposalsonwaysthroughwhichcomponentsofbiodiversitycanreduceriskanddamageassociatedwithclimate-changeimpactsUnderthisagendaitem,theworkinggroupconsideredthedifferentelementsofrisk(vulnerability,exposuretohazardsandadaptivecapacity)withintheframeworkofecosystemservicesprovidedbybiodiversitytoidentifywaysthatcomponentsofbiodiversitycanreduceriskanddamageassociatedwithclimatechangeimpacts.
4.
2.
ProposalsonimprovingtheintegrationofbiodiversityconsiderationsandtraditionalandlocalknowledgerelatedtobiodiversitywithinclimatechangeadaptationTheworkinggroupdevelopedproposalsonecosystem-basedadaptation.
Thegroupalsobenefitedfromtheworkofthesub-grouponagendaitem3.
2whocontributedinformationonminimizingnegativeimpactsofadaptationonbiodiversitywhilealsomaximizingpositiveimpactsfromsuchactivities.
Theworkinggroupco-chairsalsoinformedparticipantsthatJohnsonCerda,aparticipantinthefirstmeetingoftheAHTEG,willbeprovidingawrittenreportoftherelevantfindingsoftheIndigenousPeoples'GlobalSummitonClimateChangewhichwillbeheldthe20to24April,2009inordertoensurethatguidanceontraditionalandlocalknowledgerelatedtobiodiversityisincluded.
4.
3.
ProposalsonwaysandmeanstoincentivizetheimplementationofadaptationactionsthatpromotetheconservationandsustainableuseofbiodiversityBasedonthedecisionsadoptedundertheConventiononBiologicalDiversityoneconomicsandincentivemeasuresandonareviewofotherrelevantliterature,theworkinggroupconsideredbothfinancialandnon-financialincentivemeasures.
Item5.
AnalysisoftheValueofIntegratingBiodiversitywithinClimate-ChangeAdaptation5.
1.
Theroleofbiodiversityandecosystem-basedadaptationinsupportingadaptationincommunitiesandsectorsvulnerabletoclimatechangeTheworkinggroupco-chairsinvitedtheAHTEGtoidentifytheroleofbiodiversityandecosystem-basedadaptationinclimatechangeadaptationbeyondtheconservationsectorandfocusingonthoseareaswhichhavebeenidentifiedasbeingparticularlyvulnerabletotheimpactsofclimatechangebytheUNFCCCNairobiworkprogrammeonimpacts,vulnerabilityandadaptationtoclimatechange,namely:developingcountries,especiallyleastdevelopedcountriesandsmallislanddevelopingStates.
Accordinglytheworkinggroupsoughttodefineecosystem-basedadaptationandassessthemultiplebenefits.
Theworkinggroupalsoconsideredwaysandmeanstoimplementecosystembasedadaptationinordertomaximizebenefits.
Thesewaysandmeansarepresentedinannex2.
5.
2.
Methodologiesforanalysingthesocial,culturalandeconomicvalueofbiodiversityandecosystem-basedadaptationinsupportingadaptationincommunitiesandsectorsvulnerabletoclimatechangeAsmalldraftingcommitteedevelopedproposalsonmethodologiesascontainedinannexII.
Item6.
PeerreviewofthereportTheGrouphadbeforeitadraftreporthighlightingthemainfindingsfromthesecondmeetingoftheAHTEGaspreparedbytheco-chairs.
TheGroupalsoconsideredkeymessagestobeconveyedbytheExecutiveSecretarytotheSecretariatoftheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange.
Item7.
OthermattersUnderthisitem,participantsraisedtheissueofhowtoreporttotheUNFCCCSBSTA.
TheGroupagreedtocreatethreereports:ThecurrentreporttobepublishedonthewebsiteoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversityasthereportofthemeeting;Acompilationreporttobesentforpeer-reviewcontainingthefindingsofthefirstandsecondmeetingsforsubmissiontothethirty-firstsessionoftheSBSTAinCopenhageninDecember;AsummaryofmainmessagesfromthismeetingwithabriefexplanatorynoteforsubmissiontothethirtiethsessionoftheUNFCCCSBSTAinJune.
Withregardstonextsteps,theGroupagreedtoreviewtherevisedmainmessagespreparedbytheco-chairsandSecretariat.
TheGroupalsoagreedthatthecompilationreportshouldberevisedbythecochairsandSecretariatandsharedwiththeGroupbeforebeingsentforpeerreview,preferablybeforetheendofMay.
TheGroupagreedthatthethreeUNEP-WCMCliteraturereviewspreparedbyUNEPWCMCshouldbeincludedinthepeerreviewprocess.
TheGroupagreedthatthecommentsandsubmissionsofadditionaltextreceivedwouldbeintegratedintothecompilationdocumentbyadraftingcommitteeconsistingofasmallnumbersofparticipantsfromthefirstandsecondmeetings.
Theproposeddatesforthedraftingcommitteemeetingare20–24July,2009.
FinallytheGroupexpresseditsappreciationtotheGovernmentofFinlandforhostingthemeetingandtothesupportstaffwhoallowedthemeetingtorunsmoothly.
Item8.
AdoptionofthereportandclosureofthemeetingTheGroupconsideredandadopteditsreportonthebasisofthedraftreportofthemeetingpreparedandpresentedbytheco-chairs.
Themeetingclosedat7.
15pmonWednesday,22April2009.
AnnexILISTOFPARTICIPANTSCBDPartiesAustralia1.
Prof.
LesleyAnnHughesMacquarieUniversity-Dept.
ofBiologicalSciencesNewSouthWales2109AustraliaTel.
:(612)9850-8195Fax:(612)9850-8245E-Mail:lhughes@bio.
mq.
edu.
auBosniaandHerzegovina2.
Dr.
SenkaBarudanovicAssistantProfessorUniversityofSarajevoFacultyofScienceZmajaodBosne33-35Sarajevo71000BosniaandHerzegovinaTel.
:+38733250489Fax:+38733649196E-Mail:sbarudanovic@email.
com,mehmed.
cero@fmpuio.
gov.
baBotswana3.
Dr.
NkobiMphoMoleeleNationalProjectCoordinatorUniversityofBotswanaMaunBotswanaTel.
:+2676864129E-Mail:nmoleele@orc.
ub.
bw,moleelnm@mopipi.
ub.
bwBrazil4.
Dr.
HaroldodeOliveiraMachadoFilhoSpecialAdviseroftheInterministerialCommissiononClimateChangeEsplanadadosMinisteriosBlockE-2ndfloor-Room24270067-900-BrasiliaDF-BrazilTel.
:(+5561)3317-8130Fax:(+5561)3317-7657E-Mail:haroldo@mct.
gov.
brWeb:http://www.
mct.
gov.
br/climaChina5.
Prof.
LinErdaChiefScientistonClimateChangeChineseAcademyofAgriculturalSciences12.
ZhongguancunSouthStreetBeijing10081ChinaTel.
:86-10-82-10-5998Fax:86-10-8210-5998E-Mail:lined@ami.
ac.
cnCuba6.
Dr.
AvelinoG.
SuarezRodriguezSeniorresearcherInstituteofEcologyandSystematicCubanEnvironmentalAgencyMinistryofScience,TechnologyandEnvironment.
Carr.
Varonakm31/2,Capdevila,BoyerosP.
O.
Box802910800HavanaCubaTel.
:(537)8791917;(537)6438266Fax:(537)8668054E-Mail:avelino.
suarez@ama.
cu;ecologia.
ies@ama.
cuCzechRepublic7.
Dr.
PavelCudlinInstituteofSystemsBiologyandEcologyAcademyofScienceoftheCzechRepublicNaSadkach7CeskeBudejovice37005CzechRepublicTel.
:+420387775623Fax:+420385310249E-Mail:pavelcu@usbe.
cas.
czFinland8.
Prof.
HeikkiToivonenResearchDirectorFinnishEnvironmentInstituteP.
O.
Box140Mechelininkatu34aFin-00251HelsinkiFIN-00251FinlandTel.
:+358204902208Fax:+358204902490E-Mail:heikki.
toivonen@ymparisto.
fiWeb:www.
environment.
fi/sykeHungary9.
Mr.
GyrgyKrel-DulaySeniorResearchScientistInstituteofEcologyandBotanyHungarianAcademyofSciences2-4Alkotmanyu.
,H-2163VacratotHungaryTel.
:36-28-36-01-22,ext.
149Fax:36-28-36-01-10E-Mail:gyuri@botanika.
huMicronesia(FederatedStatesof)10.
Mr.
JosephKonnoOfficeofEnvironmentandEmergencyManagementPS-69PalikirPohnpeiFM96941Micronesia(FederatedStatesof)Tel.
:(691)320-8814Fax:(691)320-8936E-Mail:fsm_snc@mail.
fmPapuaNewGuinea11.
Prof.
JohnDugumanUniversityofPapuaNewGuineaPOBox320UniversityPostOfficeNationalCapitalDistrictPapuaNewGuineaTel.
:(675)3267237E-Mail:dugumanj@upng.
ac.
pg,john.
duguman@gmail.
comSaintLucia12.
Mr.
LyndonJohnAssistantChiefForestOfficerForestryDepartmentUnionCastriesSaintLuciaTel.
:(758)468-5635Fax:(758)450-2287E-Mail:Lynjohn1@yahoo.
com,lynamazon@gmail.
comWeb:http://www.
slubiodiv.
orgSouthAfrica13.
Dr.
GuyMidgleyChiefDirectorClimateChangeandBio-AdaptationDivisionSouthAfricanNationalBiodiversityInstitutePrivateBagX101Pretoria0001SouthAfricaTel.
:27-21-799-8707;27-21-799-8800E-Mail:midgley@sanbi.
orgThailand14.
Dr.
AnondSnidvongsChulalongkornUniversityHenriDunantRoadBangkok10330ThailandTel.
:(662)2189464Fax:(662)2519416E-Mail:anond@start.
or.
thTrinidadandTobago15.
Mr.
KishanKumarsinghHeadofMultilateralEnvironmentalAgreementsUnitMinistryofPlanning,HousingandtheEnvironmentPortofSpainTrinidadandTobagoTel.
:41-868-627-9700,ext2037Fax:49-228-815-1999E-Mail:kishan.
kumarsingh@phe.
gov.
ttTunisia16.
Mr.
MohamedZmerliChefdeservicedel'évaluationenvironnementaleDirectionGénéraledel'EnvironnementetdelaQualitédelaVie10rue9avrilKelibia8090TunisiaTel.
:0021698939485E-Mail:Zmerli2004@yahoo.
frUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIreland17.
Prof.
RobertWatsonChiefScientificAdvisorDepartmentofEnvironment,FoodandRuralAffairsNobelHouse17SmithSq.
LondonSWIP3JRUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIrelandTel.
:44-(0)20-7238-1645or44-07825-721-370E-Mail:robert.
watson@defra.
gsi.
gov.
ukPartyObserversGermany(COP9Presidency)18.
Ms.
CordulaEppleAgencyforNatureConservation(Germany)InselVilmPutbusD-18581GermanyTel.
:+493830186136Fax:+493830186150E-Mail:cordula.
epple@bfr-vilm.
deJapan(COP10Presidency)19.
Mr.
/Dr.
KanehiroKitayamaProfessorCenterforEcologicalResearchKyotoUniversityTel.
:81775498233Fax:81775498233E-Mail:kitayama@ecology.
kyoto-u.
ac.
jpUnitedNationsandSpecializedAgenciesUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP)20.
Mr.
BalakrishnaPisupatiDivisionforEnvironmentalLawandConventions(DELC)UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeP.
O.
Box30552GigiriNairobi00100,KenyaTel.
:+254207625209Fax:+254207623926E-Mail:balakrishna.
pisupati@unep.
orgWeb:http://www.
unep.
orgFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations21.
Mr.
RyudaiOshimaAssociateProfessionalOfficerFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNationsVialledelleTermediCaracalla,100153Rome,ItalyE-Mail:ryudai.
oshima@fao.
orgUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme-WorldConservationMonitoringCentre(UNEP-WCMC)22.
Dr.
BarneyDicksonHeadofClimateChangeandBiodiversityProgrammeUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme-WorldConservationMonitoringCentre219HuntingdonRoadCambridgeCB30DLUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIrelandTel:+441223277314Fax:+441223277136E-Mail:barney.
dickson@unep-wcmc.
orgWeb:http://www.
unep-wcmc.
org/UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC)23.
Ms.
HannaB.
HoffmannProgrammeOfficer,Adaptation,TechnologyandScienceProgrammeSBSTAFocalPointUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChangeMartin-Luther-KingStr.
8Bonn53175GermanyTel.
:492288151110Fax:492288151999E-Mail:hhoffmann@unfccc.
intWeb:www.
unfccc.
intInternationalStrategyforDisasterReduction24.
Dr.
JuliaKleinInternationalStrategyforDisasterReductionDepartmentofForest,Rangeland&WatershedStewardship-ColoradoStateUniversityNaturalResourcesBuilding,Room213FortCollins,Colorado80523UnitedStatesofAmericaTel.
:970-491-0874Fax:970-491-6754E-Mail:jklein@warnercnr.
colostate.
eduIntergovernmentalOrganizationsConventionontheConservationofEuropeanWildlifeandNaturalHabitats(BernConvention)25.
Ms.
CarolinaLasénDiazSecretaryoftheBernConventionBiologicalDiversityUnit-DirectorateofCultureandCulturalandNaturalHeritage(DGIV)ConventionontheConservationofEuropeanWildlifeandNaturalHabitats(BernConvention)CouncilofEuropeAvenuedel'EuropeStrasbourgCedexF-67075FranceTel.
:++33(0)390215679Fax:+33-3-88-41-37-51E-Mail:carolina.
lasen-diaz@coe.
intWeb:www.
coe.
int/biodiversityInternationalUnionforConservationofNature(IUCN)26.
Mr.
NevilleAshHeadEcosystemManagementProgrammeInternationalUnionforConservationofNature(IUCN)RueMauverney28CH-1196,GlandSwitzerlandTel.
:+41229990273E-Mail:neville.
ash@iucn.
orgWorldBank27.
Mr.
IanNobleLeadClimateChangeSpecialistTheWorldBank1818HStNWWashingtonDC,USA20433MailStopMC5-517Tel:+12024731329E-Mail:inoble@worldbank.
orgNon-GovernmentalOrganizationsConservationInternational(CI)28.
Dr.
CeliaHarveySeniorAdvisorConservationInternational2011CrystalDriveSuite500Arlington,VA22202UnitedStatesofAmericaE-Mail:c.
harvey@conservation.
orgWeb:http://www.
conservation.
orgGlobalWitness29.
Prof.
BrendanMackeyAustraliaNationalUniversityE-Mail:brendan.
mackey@anu.
edu.
auGreenpeace30.
Dr.
JanetCotterScientistGreenpeaceInternationalScienceUnitRennesDriveUniversityofExeterExeterEX44RNUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIrelandTel.
:+441392247935/920E-Mail:J.
Cotter@exeter.
ac.
ukWeb:www.
greenpeace.
toInternationalInstituteforEnvironment&Development31.
Dr.
HannahReidSeniorResearcherInternationalInstituteforEnvironment&Development3EndsleighStreetLondonWC1H0DDUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIrelandE-Mail:hannah.
reid@iied.
orgWeb:http://www.
iied.
orgTheNatureConservancy(TNC)32.
Dr.
JonathanHoekstraLeadforClimateChangeAdaptationTheNatureConservancy1917FirstAvenueSeattle,WA98101UnitedStatesofAmericaTel.
:+12063434345ext324E-Mail:jhoekstra@tnc.
orgWeb:http://www.
nature.
org33.
Dr.
BernalHerrera-FernandezDirectordeCienciasdelProgrammaparaCostaRicaNationalImpl.
SupportPartnershipProgramMeso-AmericanandCaribbeanRegionTheNatureConservancyCostaRicaTel.
:506-2520-8017Fax:506-2520-8001E-Mail:bherrera@tnc.
orgWWFUnitedStates34.
Dr.
JeffPriceManagingDirector,ClimateChangeAdaptationWWFUnitedStates125024thStreetNWWashington,DC20037UnitedStatesofAmericaE-Mail:jeff.
price@wwfus.
orgEducation/UniversityTyndallCentre35.
Dr.
RachelWarrenNERCAdvancedResearchFellowTyndallCentreforClimateChangeResearchUniversityofEastAngliaSchoolofEnvironmentalSciencesNorwichNR47TJUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIrelandE-Mail:r.
warren@uea.
ac.
ukOrganizingCommitteeMinistryofEnvironmentofFinland36.
Ms.
MarinavonWeissenbergSeniorAdviserMinistryofEnvironmentLandUseDepartmentKasarminkatu25,P.
O.
Box35FIN-00023HelsinkiFinlandTel.
:+358206107133Fax:+358916039364E-Mail:marina.
weissenberg@ymparisto.
fi37.
Mr.
JussiSoramkiEnvironmentCouncellorMinistryofEnvironmentLandUseDepartmentP.
O.
Box380SF-00131HelsinkiFinlandTel.
:+358916039597Fax:+358916039364E-Mail:jussi.
soramaki@ymparisto.
fiMinistryofForeignAffairsofFinland38.
Mr.
MattiNummelinSeniorEnvironmentalAdvisorMinistryofForeignAffairsDepartmentforDevelopmentPolicyP.
O.
Box176FIN-00161HelsinkiFinlandTel.
:+358916056108E-Mail:matti.
nummelin@formin.
fiSecretariatoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversity39Dr.
IanThompsonResearchScientistCanadianForestServiceNaturalResourcesCanada1219,QueenStreetEastSault-Ste-MarieONTP6A2E5CanadaTel.
:+17055415644Fax:+17055415700E-Mail:ian.
thompson@nrcan.
gc.
ca40.
Mr.
JoMulongoyPrincipalOfficerDivisionofScientific,TechnicalandTechnologicalMatters(STTM)413St.
JacquesStreet,Office800MontrealQuebec,H2Y1N9CanadaTel.
:+1(514)2877027Fax:+1(514)2886588E-Mail:jo.
mulongoy@cbd.
intWeb:http://www.
cbd.
int41.
Ms.
JaimeWebbeProgrammeOfficerDivisionofScientific,TechnicalandTechnologicalMatters(STTM)413St.
JacquesStreet,Office800MontrealQuebec,H2Y1N9CanadaTel.
:+1(514)-287-8718Fax:+1(514)2886588E-Mail:jaime.
webbe@cbd.
intWeb:http://www.
cbd.
intAnnexIITermsofReferenceasAddressedbytheAHTEGI.
Identifyingcase-studiesandgeneralprinciplestoguidelocalandregionalactivitiesaimedatreducingriskstobiodiversityvaluesassociatedwithclimatechange1.
Principlesforadaptationactivityplanningandimplementationa.
Establishobjectivesanddefineexpectedoutcomesforadaptationactivities.
Objectivesshoulddescribehowadaptationactivitiesareintendedtoaddresstheclimatechangeimpactsonthepriorityspeciesandecosystems.
Outcomesshouldbedefinedinmeasurable,time-boundtermssothattheefficacyofadaptationactivitiescanbeevaluated.
b.
Monitor,measureandevaluatetheeffectivenessofadaptationactivities.
Monitoringpracticesshouldbedesignedto:verifythattheintendedobjectivesofadaptationactivitiesareachieved;addressuncertaintyregardingthetimingandmagnitudeofclimatechangeimpacts;andavoidmaladaptation.
Indicatorsshouldbematchedtotheintendedobjectivesandoutcomesofadaptationactivities.
Indicatorsshouldbewell-defined,practicalandmeasurablesothattheyprovidetimelyandrelevantinformation.
Thespecificchoiceofindicatorsisflexibleandshouldbetailoredtothesituationbeingevaluated.
c.
Informdecisionmakingbyintegratingtraditionalknowledge,scientificinformationandevidenceaboutclimatechangeimpactsandtheeffectivenessofadaptationactivities.
Aresearchagendashouldbeelaboratedtoaddressquestionsabouttheecological,socialandeconomicimpactsofclimatechange.
Climatechangeandimpactmodelsareneededtoimprovethepredictivecapacityatspatialandtemporalscalesthatarerelevanttodecision-makersanddesignersofadaptationactivities.
Mechanismsforbringingtogetherlessonslearnedandforfacilitatingknowledgetransfer(e.
g.
,theEcosystemsandLivelihoodAdaptationNetwork;NairobiWorkProgrammedatabasesandFocalPointforum)shouldbeencouraged.
d.
Buildandstrengthenmanagementandtechnicalcapacityforbiodiversityprotectionandsustainableuseofnaturalresourcebyinvolvinglocalandindigenouscommunities.
Allrelevantstakeholders,especiallylocalandindigenouscommunitieswhomaybemostdependentonadaptationactivities,shouldbeinvolvedinmanagementdecisions.
Thisrequiresrobustmanagementinstitutionsthatfacilitateknowledgetransfer(e.
g.
,lessonslearned,bestpractices)amongcommunities,economicsectors,andthegeneralpublictoensureinformeddecisionmaking.
Appropriatetrainingandcapacity-developmentneedstobeensured.
2.
Principlesregardingadaptationactivityobjectivesandoutcomesa.
Maintainintactandinterconnectedecosystemstoallowforbiodiversityandpeopletoadjusttochangingenvironmentalconditions.
Thiscanbeaccomplishedby:(i)representinginprotectedareasandotherconservationstrategiesgenetic,species,communityandecosystemdiversity,andecologicalredundancyofoccurrences;(ii)identifyingandprotectingrefugiawhereclimatechangeimpactsareexpectedtobeless;(iii)maintainingconnectivity;and(iv)maintainingkeyecologicalattributeswithinnaturalrangesofvariation.
Ecosystemintegritycanalsobeenhancedbyabatingotherthreats(e.
g.
,habitatloss,invasivespecies).
Acomprehensiveandadequateprotectedareasystemshouldbethebackboneofland-andseascapewideapproachtoconservationmanagement.
b.
Fragmentedordegradedecosystemsshouldberestoredorrehabilitated,andcriticalprocessesshouldbereestablished,tomaintainecosystemservices[note:harmonizewithrestorationsection].
Keyecologicalprocessessuchashabitatconnectivity,hydrologicalflows,fireregimes,andpollinationdynamicsshouldberestoredorrehabilitatedinlinewithalteredconditions.
c.
Preserveandenhanceprotectiveecosystemservicevaluesthathelpbufferhumancommunitiesfromfloods,storms,erosionandotherclimatechangehazards.
Thepotentialfornaturalecosystemstoprovidephysicalprotectionfromclimatechangehazardsshouldbeassessedandconsidered.
Thesocial,environmentalandeconomiccostsandbenefitsofmaintainingtheseecosystemservicesshouldbecomparedtothoseofotherkindsofadaptationactivities.
d.
Ensurethatanyuseofrenewablenaturalresourcesissustainablegivenclimatechangeimpacts.
Thesustainableuseofecosystemsmaybeeffectedbyclimatechangeif,amongotherthings,thebiologicalproductivitydeclines.
Managementplansshouldbeupdatedandharvestoruseratesmodifiedonthebasisofsuchassessmentstoensuresustainability.
3.
Principlesregardingadaptationstrategiesa.
Strengthenandenhanceprotectedareanetworks.
Gapsintherepresentativeness,ecologicalintegrity&viabilityofspecies,communities,andecosystemsshouldbefilled;takingintoaccountfutureclimaticconditions.
Theeffectivenessofmanagementshouldbemonitoringandresultsincorporatedintomanagementcycleplanning.
Long-termfinancialmechanismsforPAdesign,managementandexpansionareneeded.
b.
Recognize,maintainandrestorebiodiversityvaluesacrosslandusesandtenures.
Newapproachestoconservationareneededforbiodiversityandassociatedecosystemassetsoutsideprotectedareas.
Examplesincludebiologicalcorridorsthatspancontinentalscalesandinvolvelocalcommunitiesandtraditionalowners,andintegratedwatershedmanagement.
A.
Casestudiesforbestpracticesonaddressingclimatechangerelatedrisktobiodiversity1.
GondwanaLink,AustraliaPrinciple:2bObjectives:Theaimoftheprojectisachieve"Reconnectedcountryacrosssouth-westernAustralia…inwhichecosystemfunctionandbiodiversityarerestoredandmaintained".
Thisregionisarecognizedglobalbiodiversityhotspot,havingbeentobroadscaleclearingforintensiveagriculture.
Theregionisexperiencingongoingecologicaldegradationandthreatsfromfragmentation,salinityandclimatechange.
Activities:Protectingandre-plantingbushlandovermorethan1,000km;purchasingbushlandtoprotectandmanageit;re-vegetatinglargeareasofclearedlandadvocacyforstrongerprotectionofpublicland;providingincentivesforbetterlandmanagement;developingecologicallysupportiveindustriessuchascommercialplantingsoflocalspecies.
Participants:Aconsortiumoflocalandnationalnon-governmentorganizations,universities,localcouncils,universityresearchcentres,governmentmediatednetworksandagencies,andbusinessenterprises;includingBushHeritageAustralia,FitzgeraldBiosphereGroup,FriendsofFitzgeraldRiverNationalPark,GreeningAustralia,GreenSkillsInk,TheNatureConservancy,andTheWildernessSocietyInc.
Adaptationoutcomes:GondwanaLinkwillprovidesomeprotectionagainsttheworstecologicalimpactsofclimatechangebyenablinggradualgeneticandspeciesinterchangeonabroadfront.
Inprevious(slower)periodsofclimatechange,speciesandsystemshavepredominantly"moved"alongasouth-west/north-eastpathway;thedirectionGondwanaLinkisspanning.
Theprojectisalsoconsolidatingnorth-southlinkages,whichmayalsobecriticalpathwaysforspeciesimpactedbyclimatechange.
There-vegetationactivitieswillalsoassistinstabilizinglandscapeswhereclearinghasledtolargescalesalinity,winderosionandotherdegradation.
Reference:www.
gondwanalink.
org2.
CostaRicaBiologicalCorridorProgramme(partoftheMesoamericanConservationCorridor)Principle2bObjectives:UpdateaproposalforimprovingstructuralconnectivityfortheNationalSystemofProtectedAreas.
Activities:(a)Designedanecologicalconservationnetworkinordertoimprovetheconnectivitybetweenprotectedareasandkeyhabitatremnants;(b)Designedlatitudinalandaltitudinalconnectivitynetworks;(c)TheNationalBiologicalCorridorsProgramme,whichaimistoprovidetechnicalandmulti-sectorcoordinationsupporttolocalmanagementcommittees,andanationaltechnicalcommitteeforadvisingbiologicalcorridordesignandmanagementwereestablished.
Participants:NationalSystemofConservationAreas(SINAC),TheNatureConservancy(TNC),TropicalAgronomicResearchandHigherEducationCenter(CATIE),ConservationInternational,NationalInstituteofBiodiversity(INBio).
Outcomes:(a)AnecologicalnetworkthatenhanceecosystemresiliencetoCChasbeenestablished;(b)localcommunitycommitteesformanagementthemainbiologicalcorridorshavebeenestablished;(c)Monitoringandsystematicplanningtoolsthatincludeadaptationissueshasbeendevelopedandimplementedinordertoprovideinputandfeedbackontheirmanagement.
Source:Arias,E;Chacón,O;Herrera,B;Induni,G;Acevedo,H;Coto,M;Barborak;JR.
2008.
Lasredesdeconectividadcomobaseparalaplanificacióndelaconservacióndelabiodiversidad:propuestaparaCostaRica.
RecursosNaturalesyAmbienteno.
54:37-43.
3.
NarivaWetlandRestorationProject-TrinidadandTobago;WorldBankProjectPrinciple2bObjectives:TheNarivawetland(7,000ha)isabiodiversity-richenvironmentwithamosaicofvegetationcommunities(tropicalrainforest,palmforests,mangroves,andgrasssavannah/marshes).
However,itwassubjecttohydrologicchangesandlandclearingbyillegalricefarmers.
TheobjectiveoftheprojectisthereforestationandrestorationoftheNarivawetlandsecosystem.
Activities:(a)Restorationofhydrology-Watermanagementplanto:(i)reviewthewaterbudgetofNariva;(ii)identifylandformcompositionofwetlandarea;(iii)developcriteriatoselecthighpriorityrestorationareas;and(iv)designandimplementnaturalandengineereddrainageoptions;(b)Reforestationprogramme.
1,000-1,500hectaresbeingreforested;onlynativespeciesused;(c)FireManagementProgramme-trainingforfireresponders,fireresponseplanning,andcommunityenvironmentaleducation;(d)Monitoring-Responseofreforestationactivitiesandbiodiversitythroughkeyspecies.
Participants:Government,WorldBank,NGOs,communitiesOutcomes:Strengtheningofbufferserviceforinlandareasagainstanticipatedchangesclimateandclimatevariability.
Thecarbonsequesteredandemissionreductionseffectedwillbesoldandtheproceedsfromthesalewillsupportcommunitydevelopmentandfurtheradaptationactionsasrequired.
Reference:www.
worldbank.
org4.
ConservationMeasuresPartnership(CMP)Principles1a,1bObjectives:Establishstandards,bestpracticesandtoolstosupportthedesign,managementandmonitoringofconservationprojectsatmultiplescales.
Activities:TheConservationMeasuresPartnershipcompiledconsistent,openstandardguidelinesfordesigning,managing,andmeasuringimpactsoftheirconservationactions.
Theyalsodevelopedasoftwaretoolbasedonthesestandardsthathelpsuserstoprioritizethreats,developobjectivesandactionsandselectmonitoringindicatorstoassesstheeffectivenessofstrategies.
Thissoftwareisavailableathttps://miradi.
org.
Thesoftwarealsosupportsdevelopmentofwork-plans,budgetsandotherprojectmanagementtools.
Participants:MembersoftheConservationMeasuresPartnershipinclude:AfricanWildlifeFoundation,TheNatureConservancy,WildlifeConservationSocietyandWorldWideFundforNature/WorldWildlifeFund.
Collaboratorinclude:TheCambridgeConservationForum,ConservationInternational,EnterpriseWorksWorldwide,FoundationsofSuccess,TheNationalFishandWildlifeFoundation,RareandtheWorldCommissiononProtectedAreas/IUCN.
Outcomes:Consistentopenstandardshavebeenestablished,andcontinuetobeimprovedonthebasisofexperiencebyusers.
Reference:www.
conservationmeasures.
org5.
MarineProtectedAreasinKimbeBay,PNGPrinciple2aObjectives:Establishanetworkofmarineprotectedareasthatwillconservegloballysignificantcoralreefsandassociatedbiodiversity,andsustainfisheriesthatlocalcommunitiesdependonforfoodandincome.
Activities:WarmingseasthreatentoincreasethefrequencyandextentofcoralbleachingeventsinKimbeBay.
Whencoralsbleach,fishhabitatandfisheriesproductivityarediminished.
Systematicconservationplanningmethodswereusedtodesignanetworkofmarineprotectedareasthat(i)includesreplicatedexamplesofallcoralandothercoastalecosystemtypesfoundinthebay;(ii)protectscriticalareasforfishspawningandreefsectionsthataremoreresistanttobleaching;and(iii)ensuresconnectivityacrossMPAssothatareasthatmightbecomedepletedordegradedbycoralbleachingcanberepopulated.
Localcommunitiesmanagetheirownprotectedareasinthenetworksothattheycanbestprotecttheirfisheriesandbenefitfromadditionallivelihoodopportunitiessuchaseco-tourismandsportfishing.
Participants:TheKimbeBayMPAnetworkwasdesignedandimplementedthroughapartnershipbetweenlocalcommunitiesandTheNatureConservancy.
Outcomes:TheKimbeBayMPAnetworkisexpectedtomaintaintheecologicalintegrityofthecoralreefsandmakethemmoreresilienttobleaching.
Sources:Green,A.
,Lokani,P.
,Sheppard,S.
,Almany,J.
,Keu,S.
,Aitsi,J.
,WarkuKarvon,J.
,Hamilton,R.
and.
Lipsett-Moore.
2007.
ScientificDesignofaResilientNetworkofMarineProtectedAreas.
KimbeBay,WestNewBritain,PapuaNewGuinea.
TNCPacificIslandCountriesReport2/07.
6.
MangroverestorationinVietNamPrinciple2cObjectives:RestorecoastalmangroveforestsalongthecoastsofVietNamtoprovidecoastalprotection.
Activities:Wavesandstormsurgescanerodeshorelines,damagedykes,andfloodcommunities,ricepaddies,andaquaculturefacilities.
Suchhazardsareexpectedtoincreasebecauseofsealevelriseandchangesinstormfrequencyandintensityassociatedwithclimatechange.
MangroveshavebeenreplantedalongcoastofVietNaminordertoimproveprotectionofcommunitiesandcoasts.
Restoredmangroveshavebeendemonstratedtoattenuatetheheightofwaveshittingtheshore,andtoprotecthomesandpeoplefromdamagingcyclones.
Participants:MangroverestorationhasbeenledbyVietNamnationalandprovincialgovernments,withsupportfromtheWorldBankandvarioushumanitarianNGOssuchastheRedCross.
Outcomes:Since1975,morethan120,000hectaresofmangroveshavebeenrestored.
Theyhaveprovidedcommunityandleveeprotectionduringseverestormeventsin2005and2006,andongoingsupportforlivelihoodsassociatedwithmangrovehabitatssuchasreplantingandtourism.
Source:http://www.
expo-cosmos.
or.
jp/album/2008/2008_slide_e.
pdfMangrovesandCoastalDwellersinVietNam–Thelongandhardjourneybacktoharmony.
CommemorativelectureatKyotoUniversity,November2nd,20087.
RestoringfloodplainsalongtheDanubeRiver,inEasternEuropePrinciple2cObjective:Restore2,236km2offloodplaintoforma9,000km2"LowerDanubeGreenCorridor".
Activities:MorefrequentfloodingisexpectedalongtheDanubeRiverbecauseofclimatechange.
Floodsin2005killed34people,displaced2,000peoplefromtheirhomes,andcaused$625Mindamages.
DykesalongtheLowerDanubeRiverarebeingremovedtoreconnecthistoricfloodplainareastoriverchannel.
Theseareasareofonlymarginalvalueforotherindustrialactivities.
However,oncerestored,theyareestimatedtoprovidefloodcontrolandotherecosystemservicesvaluedat500Eurosperhectareperyear.
Participants:ThisrestorationisbeingdonebytheWorldWildlifeFund,workinginconjunctionwiththeGovernmentsofBulgaria,Romania,MoldovaandUkraine.
Outcomes:Restoredfloodplainsservetoretainandmoreslowlyreleasefloodwatersthatmightotherwisethreatentoovertoporbreachdykes.
Source:OrietaHulea,SEbert,DStrobel.
2009.
FloodplainrestorationalongtheLowerDanube:aclimatechangeadaptationcase-study.
IOPConf.
Series:EarthandEnvironmentalScience6(2009)doi:10.
1088/1755-1307/6/0/402002II.
IdentifyingwaysthatcomponentsofbiodiversitycanreduceriskanddamageassociatedwithclimatechangeimpactsEcosystem-basedadaptationmaybedescribedastheuseofecosystemmanagementactivitiestosupportsocietaladaptation.
Ecosystem-basedadaptationidentifiesandimplementsarangeofstrategiesforthemanagement,conservation,andrestorationofecosystemstoprovideservicesthatenablepeopletoadapttotheimpactsofclimatechange.
Itaimstoincreasetheresilienceandreducethevulnerabilityofecosystemsandpeopleinthefaceofclimatechange.
Ecosystem-basedadaptationismostappropriatelyintegratedintobroaderadaptationanddevelopmentstrategies.
Ecosystem-basedadaptationcanbeappliedatnationalregionalandlocallevel,atbothprojectandprogrammaticlevels,andovershortorlongtimescales.
Meansofimplementingecosystem-basedadaptationinclude:sustainablewatermanagementwhereriverbasins,aquifers,coastsandtheirassociatedvegetationprovidewaterstorage,floodregulationandcoastaldefencesdisasterriskreductionwhererestorationofcoastalhabitatssuchasmangrovescanbeaparticularlycost-effectivemeasureagainststorm-surgessustainableagriculturewhereusingindigenousknowledgeofspecificcropandlivestockvarieties,andconservingmosaicagriculturallandscapessecuresfoodprovisioninchanginglocalclimaticconditionsprotectedareasexample.
Adaptationapproachesthatincludeecosystem-basedadaptationmayoftenbecost-effective,andcanprovidesignificantsocial,economicandenvironmentalco-benefits.
Inadditiontothedirectbenefitsforadaptation,ecosystem-basedadaptationactivitiescanalsohaveindirectbenefitsforpeople,forbiodiversity,andformitigation.
Forexample,therestorationofmangrovesystemscanprovideshorelineprotectionfromstormsurges,butalsoprovideincreasedfisheryopportunities,andcarbonsequestration.
Ecosystem-basedareoftenmoreaccessibletotheruralpoorthanactionsbasedoninfrastructureandengineering.
ThepoorareoftenthemostdirectlydependentonESandthusbenefitfromadaptationstrategiesthatmaintainthoseservices.
Ecosystem-basedadaptationcanbeconsistentwithcommunity-basedapproachestoadaptation;mosteffectivelybuildsonlocalknowledgeandneeds;andcanprovideparticularconsiderationtothemostvulnerablegroupsofpeople,includingwomen,andtothemostvulnerableecosystems.
III.
Identifyingpotentialbiodiversity-relatedimpactsandbenefitsofadaptationactivities,especiallyintheregionsidentifiedasbeingparticularlyvulnerableundertheNairobiworkprogrammeonimpacts,vulnerabilityandadaptationtoclimatechange(developingcountries,especiallyleastdevelopedcountriesandsmallislanddevelopingStates)asadoptedbytheConferenceofthePartiestotheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChangeatitseleventhmeetingManystrategiesadoptedforsocietaladaptationmayhavenegativeimpactsonbiodiversitywhilesomestrategiesmayhavepositiveimpacts.
Theimpactsofadaptationstrategiesonbiodiversitywillvaryacrosssectorsandwilldependonthewayinwhichsuchstrategiesareimplemented.
Inmostcasesthereisthepotentialtominimizenegativeimpactsandmaximizepositiveeffectsthrough,forexample,theapplicationoftheecosystemapproachandtheadoptionofstrategicenvironmentalassessments.
Assuch,whendecidingonmeasurestoaddressagivenclimatechangeimpact,e.
g.
thatofdroughtonagricultureinacertainarea,thereisusuallyarangeofavailableoptions.
Thesuitabilityoftheseoptions(takingintoaccountenvironmental,socialandeconomicimplications)willdependonthesite-specificenvironmentalandsocio-economicsetting.
Often,aspatiallydifferentiatedcombinationofmeasuresmaybeappropriate.
IdentifyingandminimizingpotentialnegativeimpactsonbiodiversityisespeciallyimportantforsmallislanddevelopingStatesandLeastDevelopedCountries.
Islandstendtobecharacterizedbyhighendemicbiodiversity,whilebothislandsandleastdevelopedcountriesarealsosociallyandecologicallyhighlyvulnerabletoclimatechange.
Alladaptationactivitiesidentifiedfortheotherthematicareasmightalsoberelevantforislandsandleastdevelopedcountriesbuttheirimplementationmayneedspecialconsiderationsduetotheirlimitedsize,whichdonotpermitgreatretreatand/orhighrelianceonbiodiversityresourcesforlivelihoods.
Risksformal-adaptationmaybehigherespeciallyonsmallislandswithcatastrophicresults(extinction).
Toguideadaptationdecisionswhichmaximizepositiveimpactsandminimizenegativeimpactsonbiodiversity,thefollowingprinciplesarerecommended:Thepotentialofecosystem-basedadaptationoptionsascontrastedwithtechnicalsolutionsshouldbefullyconsidered(referencetosectionsofthereportandcasestudiesonadvantagesofecosystem-basedadaptation).
StrategicEnvironmentalAssessmentandEnvironmentalImpactAssessmentshouldbeappliedinordertoincludeafullconsiderationofallavailablealternatives,i.
e.
notberestrictedtodifferentvariantsofthesametechnicaloption(asoftenhappens).
Monitoringandadaptivemanagementapproachesareaprerequisiteforadaptationtosucceed,particularlybecauseofthehighdegreeofuncertaintyinprojectionsaboutthefutureonwhichadaptationdecisionsarebased.
Thebaseofmonitoringdatawithregardtobiodiversityespeciallyindevelopingcountriesneedstobeconsiderablystrengthened.
Furtherspecificrecommendationsonhowtomaximizepositiveandminimizenegativeimpactsofindividualtypesofadaptationoptionsaregiveninthetable.
IV.
Proposingwaysandmeanstoimprovetheintegrationofbiodiversityconsiderationsandtraditionalandlocalknowledgerelatedtobiodiversitywithinclimate-changeadaptation,withparticularreferencetocommunitiesandsectorsvulnerabletoclimatechangeA.
Attheplanningstage(i)Identifystakeholdersandensuretheiractiveparticipation;(ii)Definethesizeoftheecosystemarea(takingintoaccounttheconceptoflandscape,seascape;eco-regionetc.
,alsobearinginmindthedefinitionofecosysteminarticle2oftheConventiononBiologicalDiversity);(iii)Characterizethestructure,function(ecosystemservices)andmanagementoftheecosystem.
Whatecosystemsgoodsandservices(andtheirvalues)Istheecosystem(anditsservices)underthreatorusedbeyonditscapacity(Principle5andPrinciple6)DefinethetypeofmanagementneededWhatkindofmanagementshouldbeappliedWhatservicesaremaintainedorlostthroughthismanagementAnynewserviceacquiredIsthemanagementdecentralizedtothelowestappropriatelevelsoastoensureactiveparticipation/involvementofthosecommunitiesdirectlydependingontheresources,andattherightlevel(governance)Isconservationbalancedwithuse(Principle10)Istraditionalknowledge,know-howandpracticestakenintoaccount(v)Considereconomicissuesthatwillaffecttheecosystemanditsinhabitants(principle4)Aretherenegativeincentives,marketdistortionsetc.
leadingtounsustainableuseofecosystemsgoodsandservicesCostsandbenefitsneedtobeinternalized(vi)Defineshortandlong-termgoals(principles7to9)B.
AtthemanagementlevelAssess/monitorimpactofmanagementandtheireffectivenessinspaceandtime,andadjustment(adaptivemanagement)NeedformonitoringmethodologiesincludingindicatorsAddresscapacityneedsatalllevelsV.
IdentifyingwaysandmeansfortheintegrationoftheecosystemapproachinvulnerabilityassessmentandclimatechangeadaptationstrategiesAtitsfifthmeetingoftheConferenceoftheParties,inNairobiin2000,theConventiononBiologicalDiversityadoptedtheecosystemapproachastheprimaryframeworkforactionstohelpreachabalanceofthethreeobjectivesoftheConvention;viz.
(i)theconservationofbiologicaldiversity;(ii)thesustainableuseofitscomponents;and(iii)thefairandequitablesharingofthebenefitsarisingoutoftheutilizationofgeneticresources,includingbyappropriateaccesstogeneticresourcesandbyappropriatetransferofrelevanttechnologies,takingintoaccountallrightsoverthoseresourcesandtotechnologies,andbyappropriatefunding.
Theecosystemapproachisastrategyfortheintegratedmanagementofland,waterandlivingresourcesthatpromotesconservationandsustainableuseinanequitableway.
Itisbasedontheapplicationofappropriatescientificmethodologiesfocusedonlevelsofbiologicalorganizationwhichencompasstheessentialprocesses,functionsandinteractionsamongorganismsandtheirenvironment.
Itrecognizesthathumans,withtheirculturaldiversity,areanintegralcomponentofecosystems.
Theecosystemapproachisdescribedby12principles:Theobjectivesofmanagementofland,waterandlivingresourcesareamatterofsocietalchoice.
Managementshouldbedecentralizedtothelowestappropriatelevel.
Ecosystemmanagersshouldconsidertheeffects(actualorpotential)oftheiractivitiesonadjacentandotherecosystems.
Recognizingpotentialgainsfrommanagement,thereisusuallyaneedtounderstandandmanagetheecosysteminaneconomiccontext.
Anysuchecosystem-managementprogrammeshould:reducethosemarketdistortionsthatadverselyaffectbiologicaldiversity;alignincentivestopromotebiodiversityconservationandsustainableuse;andinternalizecostsandbenefitsinthegivenecosystemtotheextentfeasible.
Conservationofecosystemstructureandfunctioning,tomaintainecosystemservices,shouldbeaprioritytargetoftheecosystemapproach.
Ecosystemsmustbemanagedwithinthelimitsoftheirfunctioning.
Theecosystemapproachshouldbeundertakenattheappropriatespatialandtemporalscales.
Recognizingthevaryingtemporalscalesandlag-effectsthatcharacterizeecosystemprocesses,objectivesforecosystemmanagementshouldbesetforthelongterm.
Managementmustrecognizethatchangeisinevitable.
Theecosystemapproachshouldseektheappropriatebalancebetween,andintegrationof,conservationanduseofbiologicaldiversity.
Theecosystemapproachshouldconsiderallformsofrelevantinformation,includingscientificandindigenousandlocalknowledge,innovationsandpractices.
Theecosystemapproachshouldinvolveallrelevantsectorsofsocietyandscientificdisciplines.
TheCBDwebsiteprovidescomprehensiveguidanceandexamplesoftheapplicationoftheprinciples.
TherearesimilarsetsofguidancesuchasRamsar's"wiseuse"andtheprinciplesofSustainableForestManagement(Wit2004).
AtitsseventhmeetingoftheConferenceoftheParties,theConventiononBiologicalDiversityrecognized"thereisnosinglecorrectwaytoachieveanecosystemapproachtomanagementofland,water,andlivingresources".
Theunderlyingprinciplescanbetranslatedflexiblytoaddressmanagementissuesindifferentsocialcontexts.
Already,therearesectorsandGovernmentsthathavedevelopedsetsofguidelinesthatarepartiallyconsistent,complementaryorevenequivalenttotheecosystemapproach(CBDdecisionVII/11).
Therehasbeenavigorousdebateinthetechnicalandpolicyrelatedcommunities.
Manyseetheecosystemapproachasa"promiseunfulfilled"andasprovidinglittlepragmaticguidancewhileothersseethemasarevolutionaryattempttoreassemblethepolicyformulationprocessandinstitutions(Murawski2007).
IUCN(Shepherd2004)hassuggestedapracticalwaytoimplementtheecosystemapproach,usingafive-stepmethod:StepADeterminingthemainstakeholders,definingtheecosystemarea,anddevelopingtherelationshipbetweenthem.
(Principles1,7,11,12)StepBCharacterizingthestructureandfunctionoftheecosystem,andsettinginplacemechanismstomanageandmonitorit.
(Principles2,5,6,10)StepCIdentifyingtheimportanteconomicissuesthatwillaffecttheecosystemanditsinhabitants.
(Principles4)StepDDeterminingthelikelyimpactoftheecosystemonadjacentecosystems.
(Principles3,7)StepEDecidingonlong-termgoals,andflexiblewaysofreachingthem.
(Principles7,8,9)StepFResearch,monitoringandadaptivemanagementVI.
IdentifyingmeasuresthatenableecosystemrestorationfromtheadverseimpactsofclimatechangewhichcanbeeffectivelyconsideredinvulnerabilityandclimatechangeadaptationstrategiesTherestorationofecosystemscandecreasetheirvulnerabilitytoclimatechange,andprovideecosystemservicesthatsupportsocietaladaptation.
Therestorationofecosystemscanremoveorlimitstressesonecosystemsthatpreventadaptationtoclimatechange.
Restorationactivitiesmayincludelimitinghumanactivitiessuchasgrazingorloggingandallowingecosystemstorecover,orrestoringecologicalcomponentssuchasconnectivity,hydrologicalregimes,throughactivitiessuchasrefloodingwetlands.
Restorationofecosystemscanbeacost-effectiveecosystem-basedadaptationstrategy.
Restorationofecosystemscanincreasetheircapacitytoserveprotectivefunctions.
Restorationactivitiesincludelimitinghumanactivitiessuchasgrazingorloggingtoallowecosystemstorecover,orrestoringecologicalcomponentssuchasconnectivity,hydrologicalregimes,throughactivitiessuchasre-floodingwetlands.
Forexample,analternativetoconstructingadditionaldamsorreservoirsforincreasedfloodwaterstoragecouldbeflood-plainrestoration,whichwouldalsoimproveriparianhabitat.
Restorationofecosystemscanbeofeconomicimportancewherethosesystemsprotectproperty,butalsocriticallyimportanttobiodiversityandtothosepeoplewhoselivelihoodsaredrawnfromtheecosystem.
However,itisoftencheapertoconserveecosystemsratherthanrestorethem,socarefulcost-effectiveanalysisarerequiredtoensurethemostappropriateapproachisadopted.
Justasgeneralstrategiesofconservationneedtoadjusttotakeintoaccountfuturerapidclimatechange,sotoowillrestorationeffortsneedtotakeplaceinthecontextofachangingenvironment.
Ecosystemrestorationisaimedatre-establishingfunctioningecologicalcommunitiesinlocationsthathavesufferedenvironmentaldegradation.
Strategiesinthefuturewillneedtoconsider:Roleofextremeevents:Climatechangewillnotonlyaltermeanclimate(e.
g.
meanannualtemperatureandrainfall)butwillalsoaltertheintensityandfrequencyofextremeeventssuchasdroughts,floods,cyclonesandfire.
Understandingandanticipatingthepotentialchangesindisturbanceregimesthatinfluencesuccessionalprocesseswillbeakeytorestorationoffunctioningecosystems.
Restorationoffunctionnotspeciescomposition:Astheclimatechanges,manyspecieswillbecomeincreasinglyunsuitedtoconditionswithintheirpresentdaygeographicrange.
Successfulrestorationofecosystemswillthereforeneedtofocusonrestoringfunctionalityandecosystemservices,ratherthanre-creatingthespeciescompositionthatpreviouslyexistedatalocation.
Forexample,agivenareamaycontinuetobepredominatedbyoaks(Quercusspp.
)oreucalyptusunderafutureclimatebuttheparticularspeciesmaydiffer.
Geneticprovenancesusedinre-establishment:Along-heldparadigmofrestorationecologyisthedesirabilityofre-establishingindividualsoflocalprovenancei.
e.
propagationmaterialcollectedwithinanarrowradiusoftherestorationsitethatisthoughttobebest-adaptedtolocalconditions.
Astheclimate,andthereforelocalconditionschangeinthefuture,thisstrategymayreducethepotentialfortherestoredcommunitytobesustainableinthemedium-tolong-term.
Theuseofamixtureofgeneticprovenancescollectedoverabroadrangeofsitesandthereforeclimates,willincreasetheprobabilityofrestorationsuccessandmaybeaneffectiveformofrisk-spreading.
VII.
Highlightingcase-studiesandidentifyingmethodologiesforanalysingthevalueofbiodiversityinsupportingadaptationincommunitiesandsectorsvulnerabletoclimatechangeValuationtechniquesareimportanttoensurethatthetruevalueofecosystemsandtheirservicesprovidedaretakenintoaccountwhenestimatingtheimpactofhuman-inducedclimatechangeonecosystems.
Informeddecisionsshouldevaluatetheimplicationsofanydecisiononallecosystemservicesandestimatethevalueofchangesintheservicesthatresult.
Economictechniquesforvaluingecosystemservicesaretypicallyappliedawithincost-benefitanalysisoracost-effectivenessanalysis,whoseresultswouldotherwisebeincompletewheneverrelevantexternalcostsand/orbenefitsarepresent.
Cost-benefitanalysisestimatesthedifferencebetweenthecostsandbenefitsofaparticulardecision,e.
g.
,thecostsofaparticularadaptationactioncomparedtothebenefitsthatwouldaccruefortheaction,where-ascosteffectivenessanalysisassessesthecostsofdifferentactionstoachieveaparticularoutcome,e.
g.
,toprotectaparticularcoastalregion.
Theseeconomicanalysesshouldinturnbeappliedwithinbroaderdecision-makingframeworkswhichgobeyondmereeconomiclogic,suchasenvironmentalimpactassessments(EIA),strategicenvironmentassessments(SEA),life-cycleanalysis(LCA),riskassessment,andmulti-criteriaanalysis.
Cost-benefitanalysesthatfactorinuncertainty,inertiaandtheimportanceofbiodiversitytofuturegenerationssupportanaggressiveapproachtoconservingbiodiversityandecosystemservices.
Oneissuethathasengenderedendlessdebateisthechoiceofdiscountrate.
Differentchoicesofdiscountrateleadtoverydifferentestimatesofthedamagecostsofclimatechangeonbiodiversityandecosystems,andtherelativecostsandbenefitsofdifferentstrategies.
Sternarguedonethicalgroundsthatalowdiscountrateshouldbechosentoassessthedamagecostsofclimatechange.
Heconsideredhowtheapplicationofappropriatediscountrates,assumptionsabouttheequityweightingattachedtothevaluationofimpactsinpoorcountries,andestimatesoftheimpactsonmortalityandtheenvironment(includingonbiodiversity)wouldincreasetheestimatedeconomiccostsofclimatechange.
ThisledSterntoconcludethatthecostsofinactionsignificantlyexceededthecostsofstabilizingat450and550ppmCO2.
Otheranalysesthatusesocialdiscountratesbetween2-4percentsignificantlydecreasetheestimateddamagecostsofclimatechange.
Therearemanymethodologiesavailableforestimatingtheeconomicvaluationofecosystemservices.
Theappropriatenessofvariousmethodologiesisdeterminedbythebiodiversitybeneficiary(localversusglobal,privatesectorversusnon-profit,etc)andthetypesofbiodiversitybenefitsrealized(directversusindirectusevalues;useversusnon-usevalues).
Acommonfeatureofallmethodsofeconomicvaluationofecosystemservicesisthattheyarefoundedinthetheoreticalaxiomsandprinciplesofwelfareeconomics.
Thesemeasuresofchangeinwell-beingarereflectedinpeople'swillingnesstopayforchangesintheirlevelofuseofaparticularserviceorbundleofservices.
Methodsforelicitingvaluesshoulduseacombinationofeconomicandnon-economicvaluationmethodsasappropriatetothecontextofthedecision.
Economicvaluationtechniquesinclude:(i)so-calledrevealedpreferencetechniques,whicharebasedonactualobservedbehaviouraldata(conventionalandsurrogatemarkets,basedonforexamplemarketprices,hedonicpricing,travelcostmethod);and(ii)so-calledstatedpreferencetechniques,whicharebasedonhypotheticalratherthanactualbehaviourdata,wherepeople'sresponsestoquestionsdescribinghypotheticalmarketsorsituationsareusedtoinfervalue(hypotheticalmarketsbasedonforexamplecontingentvaluationandchoicemodeling).
Non-economicvaluationcanbeaddressedthroughdeliberativeorparticipatoryapproaches.
Theseapproachesexplorehowopinionsareformedorpreferencesexpressedinunitsotherthanmoney.
Regardlessofthemethodologyemployed,theinterimreportofTEEBoutlinedninekeyprinciplesofbestpracticesforecosystemvaluationincluding:Thefocusofvaluationshouldbeonmarginalchangesratherthanthe"total"valueofanecosystem;Valuationofecosystemservicesmustbecontextspecific,ecosystem-specificandrelevanttotheinitialstateoftheecosystem;Goodpracticesin"benefittransfers"needtobeadaptedtobiodiversityvaluation,whilemoreworkisneededonhowtoaggregatethevaluesofmarginalchanges;Valuesshouldbeguidedbytheperceptionofthebeneficiaries;Participatoryapproachesandwaysofembeddingthepreferencesoflocalcommunitiesmaybeusedtohelpmakevaluationmoreaccepted;Issuesofirreversibilityandresiliencemustbekeptinmind;Substantiatingbio-physicallinkageshelpsthevaluationexerciseandcontributestoitscredibility;Thereareinevitableuncertaintiesinthevaluationofecosystemservices,soasensitivityanalysisshouldbeprovidedfordecisionmakers;and;Valuationhasthepotentialtoshedlightonconflictinggoalsandtrade-offsbutitshouldbepresentedincombinationwithotherqualitativeandquantitativeinformationandmaynotbethelastword.
Giventhattheapplicationofmanyvaluationtechniquesiscostlyandtime-consuming,andrequireconsiderableexpertise,acost/benefitcriterionshouldbeapplied,asappropriate,tothevaluationstudyitself:inprinciple,theyshouldbeappliedwhentheanticipatedincremental(includinglong-term)improvementsinthedecisionarecommensuratewiththecostofundertakingthevaluationstudy.
Thereforethekeystepsinestimatingtheimpactofdifferentclimatechangeadaptationormitigationdecisionsare:Establishtheecosystembaseline;Identifyandprovidequalitativeassessmentoftheimpactsofdifferentdecisionsonecosystemservices;Quantifytheimpactsofdifferentdecisionsonspecificecosystemservices;Assesstheeffectsonhumanwelfare;andValuethechangesinecosystemservices.
Figure:Overviewoftheimpactpathwayofaclimate-changedecisionDecisionImpactonecosystemChangesinecosystemservicesImpactsonhumanwelfareEconomicvalueofchangesinecosystemservicesFollowingthesestepscanhelptoensureamoresystematicapproachtoaccountingfortheimpactsofdifferentdecisionsonecosystems.
Evenaninitialscreeningofwhatecosystemservicesareaffected,howpotentiallysignificanttheseimpactscouldbeanddevelopinganunderstandingofthekeyuncertaintiesandgapsinevidencecanbeusefulfirststepstowardsintegratingtheseconsiderationsintodecision-making.
Thereisconsiderablecomplexityinunderstandingandassessingthecausallinksbetweenadecision,itseffectsonecosystemsandrelatedservicesandthenvaluingtheeffectsineconomicterms.
Integratedworkingwiththescienceandeconomicsdisciplineswillbeessentialinimplementingthisapproachinpractice.
Thecriticalimportanceofthelinkstoscientificanalysis,whichformthebasisforvaluingecosystemservices,needstoberecognized.
Asnoted,arangeofmethodologiesareavailabletovaluechangesinecosystemservices.
ThesevaluescanbeconsideredinaTotalEconomicValueframeworkthattakesintoaccountboththeuseandnon-usevaluesindividualsandsocietygainorlosefrommarginalchangesinecosystemservices.
Asmanyecosystemservicesarenottradedinmarkets,itisnecessarytoassesstherelativeeconomicworthofthesegoodsorservicesusingnon-marketvaluationtechniques.
Figure:TotalEconomicValue(TEV)TotalEconomicValueUseValueNon-UseValueActual/PlannedUseOptionValueForOthersExistenceDirectandIndirectUseAltruismandBequestTEVreferstothetotalchangeinwell-beingfromadecisionmeasuredbythenetsumofthewillingnesstopay(WTP)orwillingnesstoaccept(WTA).
Thevaluethatwearetryingtocaptureisthetotalvalueofamarginalchangeintheunderlyingecosystemservices.
Usevaluesincludedirectuse,indirectuseandoptionvalue.
Examplesofdirectusecanbeintheformofconsumptiveuse,e.
g.
,useofextractedresourcessuchasfoodandtimber(activitiesthatcanbetradedinthemarket),ornon-consumptiveuse,e.
g.
,recreation(anon-marketableactivity).
Examplesofindirectuse,whicharenotnormallytradedinthemarket,arethosewheresocietybenefitsfromservicessuchasclimateregulation,pollination,andsoilmaintenance.
Optionvalueisthevaluesocietyplacesontheoptiontousearesourceinthefuture,e.
g.
,anindividualmaywellbewillingtopayforanationalparkeveniftheyhavenointentionofusingitinthenearfuture,butwanttokeeptheoptionopentovisitinthefuture.
Non-usevaluesincludebequest,altruisticandexistencevalues:bequestvaluewheresocietyattachesvaluetopassingontheecosystemservicestofuturegenerations;altruisticvaluewhereindividualsattachvaluetotheavailabilityofecosystemservicestootherswithinthecurrentgeneration;andexistencevaluewhereanindividualhasnoplannedoractualuseofanecosystemservicebutiswillingtopayforittobemaintained.
Typically,provisioningserviceshavedirectuseandoptionvalues;regulatingserviceshaveindirectuseandoptionvalues;andculturalserviceshavedirectuse,optionandnon-usevalues.
Thetypeofvaluationtechniquechosenwilldependonthetypeofecosystemservicetobevalued,aswellasthequantityandqualityofdataavailable.
Somevaluationmethodsmaybemoresuitedtocapturingthevaluesofparticularecosystemservicesthanothers.
Benefitstransfer,whichapplieseconomicvaluesthathavebeengeneratedinonecontexttoanothercontextforwhichvaluesarerequired,isalsodiscussed.
Theuseofsuchtransfersisseenasbeingessentialtothemorepracticaluseofenvironmentalvaluesindecision-making.
Thevaluationmethodologiesdiscussedarenotnewinthemselves.
Thechallengeisintheirappropriateapplicationtoecosystemservices.
Theecosystemservicesframeworkemphasisestheneedtoconsidertheecosystemasawholeandstressesthatchangesorimpactsononepartofanecosystemhaveconsequencesforthewholesystem.
Therefore,consideringthescaleandscopeoftheservicestobevaluedisvitalifwearetoarriveatanymeaningfulvalues.
Table:ValuationmethodsfordifferentecosystemservicesValuationmethodElementoftotaleconomicvalue(TEV)capturedEcosystemservice(s)valuedBenefitsofapproachLimitationsoftheapproachMarketpricesDirectandindirectuseThosethatcontributetomarketedproductse.
g.
crops,timber,fishMarketdatareadilyavailableandrobustLimitedtothoseecosystemservicesforwhichamarketexistsCost-basedapproachesDirectandindirectuseDependsontheexistenceofrelevantmarketsfortheecosystemserviceinquestion.
Examplesincludeman-madedefencesbeingusedasproxyforwetlandsstormprotection;expenditureonwaterfiltrationasproxyforvalueofwaterpollutiondamages.
MarketdatareadilyavailableandrobustCanpotentiallyoverestimateactualvalueProductionfunctionapproachIndirectuseEnvironmentalservicesthatserveasinputtomarketproductse.
g.
effectsofairorwaterqualityonagriculturalproductionandforestryoutputMarketdatareadilyavailableandrobustData-intensiveanddataonchangesinservicesandtheimpactonproductionoftenmissingHedonicpricingDirectandindirectuseEcosystemservicesthatcontributetoairquality,visualamenity,landscape,quiet,i.
e.
attributesthatcanbeappreciatedbypotentialbuyersBasedonmarketdata,sorelativelyrobustfiguresVerydata-intensiveandlimitedmainlytoservicesrelatedtopropertyTravelcostDirectandindirectuseAllecosystemsservicesthatcontributetorecreationalactivitiesBasedonobservedbehaviourGenerallylimitedtorecreationalbenefits.
Difficultiesarisewhentripsaremadetomultipledestinations.
RandomutilityDirectandindirectuseAllecosystemsservicesthatcontributetorecreationalactivitiesBasedonobservedbehaviourLimitedtousevaluesContingentvaluationUseandnon-useAllecosystemservicesAbletocaptureuseandnon-usevaluesBiasinresponses,resource-intensivemethod,hypotheticalnatureofthemarketChoicemodellingUseandnon-useAllecosystemservicesAbletocaptureuseandnon-usevaluesSimilartocontingentvaluationaboveKeychallengesinthevaluationofecosystemservicesrelatetohowecosystemsprovideservicesandtodealingwithissuesofirreversibilityandhighlevelsofuncertaintyinhowecosystemsfunction.
Thus,whilevaluationisanimportantandvaluabletoolforgooddecision-making,itshouldbeseenasonlyoneoftheinputs.
Methodologiestodealwiththesechallengesthataccountsystematicallyforalltheimpactsonecosystemsandtheirservicesareverymuchindevelopment.
A.
Casestudiesofvaluederivedfromlinkingbiodiversityconservationandsustainableuseandclimatechangeadaptation1.
CosteffectiveprotectionfromnaturaldisastersProtectingandrestoringecosystemscanbeacost-effectiveandaffordablelong-termstrategytohelphumancommunitiesdefendagainsttheeffectsofclimatechangeinducednaturaldisasters.
Protectionagainststormsurgesorhighwindsassociatedwithmoreintensecyclonescaninclude:(i)hardinfrastructuresincludingseawallsandlevees,whichcanbeexpensive,requireongoingmaintenance,andcanfailcatastrophicallyunderseverestormconditions,e.
g.
,NewOrleans,USA;or(ii)theprotectionandrestorationof"greeninfrastructure"suchashealthycoastalwetlands(includingmangroveforests)andcoralreefs,whichcanbemorecost-effectivemeansforprotectinglargecoastalareas,requirelessmaintenance,andprovideadditionalcommunitybenefitsintermsoffood,rawmaterialsandlivelihoodsaswellasbenefitingbiodiversity.
Examplesinclude:RedCrossofVietNambeganplantingmangrovesin1994.
By2002,12,000hectareshadcostUS$1.
1million,butsavedannualleveemaintenancecostsofUS$7.
3million,shieldedinlandareasfromtyphoonWukongin2000,andrestoredlivelihoodsinplantingandharvestingshellfish.
InMalaysia,thevalueofexistingmangrovesforcoastalprotectionisestimatedatUS$300,000perkmofcoastbasedonthecostofinstallingartificialstructuresthatwouldprovidethesamecoastalprotection.
IntheMaldives,thedegradationofprotectivecoralreefsaroundMalérequiredconstructionofartificialbreakwatersatacostofUS$10millionperkilometre.
2.
SustaininglocallivelihoodsFromfarming,ranching,timberandfishing,towater,fuel-wood,andsubsistenceresources,humanwelfareisinextricablytiedtonaturalresourcesandthebenefitsthatecosystemsprovide.
TheWorldBank'sStrategicFrameworkforDevelopmentandClimateChangewarnsthatthedisproportionateimpactsofclimatechangeonthepoorestandmostvulnerablecommunitiescouldsetbackmuchofthedevelopmentprogressofthepastdecadesandplungecommunitiesbackintopoverty.
Byprotectingandrestoringhealthyecosystemsthataremoreresilienttoclimatechangeimpacts,ecosystem-basedadaptationstrategiescanhelptoensurecontinuedavailabilityandaccesstoessentialnaturalresourcessothatcommunitiescanweathertheconditionsthatareprojectedinachangingclimate.
Strategiesthatinvolvelocalgovernanceandparticipationwillalsobenefitfromcommunityexperiencewithadaptingtochangingconditions,andmaycreategreatercommitmentamongcommunitiesforimplementation.
Examplesinclude:InKimbeBay,PapuaNewGuinea,coralreefresilienceprincipleswereappliedtodesignanetworkofmarineprotectedareasthatcanwithstandtheimpactsofawarmingoceanandcontinuetoprovidefoodandothermarineresourcestolocalcommunities.
ThisapproachisalreadybeingimplementedatseveralmoresitesinIndonesiaandfortheMeso-Americanreef.
InSouthernAfrica,thetourismindustryhasbeenvaluedatUS$3.
6billionin2000,however,theIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChangeprojectsthatbetween25and40percentofmammalsinnationalparkswillbecomeendangeredasaresultofclimatechange.
Assuch,theNationalClimateChangeResponseStrategyoftheGovernmentofSouthAfricaincludesinterventionstoprotectplant,animalandmarinebiodiversityinordertohelpalleviatesomeofthisprojectedlostincome.
3.
EcosystemservicesprovidedbyforestryWellmanagedforestsandwoodlandsdeliverarangeofecosystemserviceswithsocialandenvironmentalbenefits,including:Providingopportunitiesforopenaccessoutdoorrecreation.
Supportingandenhancingbiodiversity.
Contributingtothevisualqualityofthelandscape.
Carbonsequestration.
AreportbytheForestryCommissionin2003estimatedthetotalvalueofannualbenefitstopeopleinBritaintobearound1billion.
Annualbenefits(million)include:(i)recreation393m;(ii)biodiversity386m;(iii)landscape150m;and(iv)carbonsequestration94m,foratotalbenefitof1023m.
However,thisanalysisisonlypartialanddidnottakeintoaccountothersocialandenvironmentalbenefits,suchasimprovingairqualityandregulatingwatersupplyandwaterquality.
Forexample,forestsandwoodlands'clean'theairastreestrapharmfuldustparticlesandabsorbgasessuchassulphurdioxideandozone,thustheimprovedairqualitycanbevaluedthroughtheresultingimprovementstohumanhealth.
Inaddition,forestsandwoodlandscanreducesoilerosion,stabilizeriverbanksandreducepollutioninrun-off.
4.
TheeconomicvalueofprotectedareascanbeveryhighThevalueoftheOkavangoDeltaintheeconomyofBotswana–aRamsarsiteTheOkavangoDeltageneratesanestimated1.
03billionpula(P)intermsofgrossoutput,P380millionintermsofdirectvalueaddedtogrossnationalproduct(GNP)andP180millioninresourcerent.
ThedirectusevaluesoftheOkavangoDeltaareoverwhelminglydominatedbytheuseofnaturalwetlandassetsfortourismactivitiesinthecentralzone.
HouseholdsinandaroundthedeltaearnatotalofP225millionperyearfromnaturalresourceuse,sales,salariesandwagesinthetourismindustry,andrentsandroyaltiesincommunity-basednatural-resourcemanagement(CBNRM)arrangements.
ThetotalimpactofthedirectuseoftheresourcesoftheRamsarsiteisestimatedtobeP1.
18millionintermsofcontributiontoGNP,ofwhichP0.
96millionisderivedfromuseofthewetlanditself.
ThustheRamsarsitecontributes2.
6percentofthecountry'sGNP,withthewetlandcontributingmostofthis(2.
1percent).
Themultipliereffectisgreaterfortheformalsectorthanforthepoorercomponentsinsociety,becausetheformeractivitieshavegreaterbackwardlinkagesandhouseholdsareprimarilyengagedinsubsistenceactivities.
ThenaturalcapitalassetvalueoftheRamsarsiteisestimatedtobeaboutP3.
9billion,ofwhichtheOkavangoDeltaisworthP3.
4billion.
TheeconomicvalueoftheGreatBarrierReeftotheAustralianEconomyThisanalysisispartialanddoesnotusetheTEVbutfocusesonthevalueoftourism,commercialfishingandrecreationalactivities,netoftourism.
ThevaluesareAUS$5107million,AUS$149million,andAUS$610million,respectively,foratotalofAUS$5,866million.
Clearlythetrueeconomicvalue,whenconsideringalltheothernon-usevalues,isconsiderablyhigher.
B.
CasestudiesofestimatesoflostvalueassociatedwiththeimpactsofclimatechangeonbiodiversityAnumberofstudieshaveestimatedthecostsofclimatechangeunderdifferentscenarios.
Fora2°Cincreaseinglobalmeantemperatures,forexample,annualeconomicdamagescouldreachUS$8trillionby2100(expressedinU.
S.
dollarsat2002prices).
Therearefewstudiesavailable,however,onthelostvalueassociatedwiththeimpactsofclimatechangespecificallyonbiodiversityinlargepartbecauseofthedifficultyinseparatingclimatechangeimpactsfromotherdriversofbiodiversityloss.
Somecasestudiesinclude:TheWorldBankestimatedthatcoralreefdegradationinFijiattributabletoclimatechangeisexpectedtocostbetweenUS$5millionandUS$14millionayearby2050duetothelossofvaluefromfisheries,tourismandhabitat.
Thelossinwelfareassociatedwithclimatechangeinamesic-MediterraneanlandscapeinIsraelisestimatedatUS$51.
5millionifconditionschangetoMediterraneanclimate,US$85.
5millionifconditionschangetoasemi-aridlandscapeandUS$107.
6millionforconversiontoanaridlandscapebasedonlossgrazingandwillingnesstopay.
ThelostvalueforprotectedareasassociatedwiththeprojectedimpactsofclimatechangeinAfrica,basedonwillingnesstopay,isestimatedatUS$74.
5millionby2100.
ThepredictednegativeimpactsofclimatechangeoncoralreefsintheBonaireNationalMarineParkintheNetherlandAntilles,basedonwillingnesstopayestimatesbydiverswasUS$45perpersonperyearifcoralcoverdropsbyfrom35percentto30percentandfishdiversitydropsfrom300speciesto225speciesandUS$192perpersonifcoralcoverdropsfrom35percentto5percentandfishdiversitydropsfrom300speciesto50species.
VIII.
Analysingthesocial,culturalandeconomicbenefitsofusingecosystemservicesforclimatechangeadaptationandofmaintainingecosystemservicesbyminimizingadverseimpactsofclimatechangeonbiodiversityEcosystem-basedadaptationcangeneratesignificantsocial,culturalandeconomicco-benefitsforlocalcommunities.
Communitiesthataremanagingecosystemsspecificallytoadapttoclimatechangeimpactscanalsobenefitfromtheseinterventionsinotherways,iftheyaredesignedandmanagedappropriately(Table1).
Forexample,conservingandrestoringmangrovesnotonlyreducesthevulnerabilityofcoastalcommunitiestoflooding,butalsohelpstomaintainfishpopulationsthatlocalcommunitiesdependon.
Appropriatelydesignedandmanagedagriculturalsystemscanenhancetheirresiliencetoclimatechange,whilealsocontinuingtoprovidearangeofotherecosystemservices(suchaswaterregulationandpollination)thatareimportantforruralpoorcommunities,thatareoftendirectlydependentonecosystemservices.
Similarly,in-situconservationofagriculturalbiodiversitycanhelpaddressfuturechallengesfromclimatechangeandvariabilitybyprovidingthegeneticstockneededforcropadaptation,whilealsomaintainingtraditionalknowledgeandculturalpractices.
Ecosystem-basedadaptation,ifdesignedandimplementedappropriately,canalsocontributetobiodiversityconservation.
Conserving,restoringandsustainablymanagingecosystems,aspartofanadaptationstrategytodecreasehumanvulnerabilitytoclimatechange,canalsohelpconservebiodiversitybyprovidingimportanthabitatsandbiologicalresources,andmaintaininglandscapeconnectivity.
Forexample,theconservationorrestorationofwetlandstoensurecontinuedwaterflowinperiodsofdroughtalsoconservesplantandanimalspeciesthatliveorbreedinthesesystems.
Theestablishmentofdiverseagroforestrysystemswithnativeplantspeciesasanadaptationmeasurecansimilarlyhelpconservebiodiversity(Schrothetal.
2004).
Thecreationorexpansionofcommunityconservedareasindrylandregionscannotonlyprovideadditionalfodderresourcesforpastoralists,butalsoconservedrylandbiodiversity.
Similarly,theestablishmentorcreationofnetworksofmarineprotectedareascanensurethecontinuedprovisionofecosystemservicesforadaptation,aswellasbiodiversityconservation.
Ecosystem-basedadaptationcanalsocontributetoclimatechangemitigation,byconservingcarbonstocks,reducingemissionsfromecosystemdegradationandloss,andenhancingcarbonstocks.
Theconservation,restorationandsustainablemanagementofterrestrialecosystemsisanintegralpartofbothadaptationandmitigationefforts.
Ecosystem-basedadaptationmeasuresthatconservenaturalforestalsoprovidesignificantclimatechangemitigationbenefitsbymaintainingexistingcarbonstocksandsequestrationcapacity,andpreventingfutureemissionsfromdeforestationanddegradation.
Adaptationprojectsthatpreventfiresorrestorewetlandsontropicalforestpeatlandswillbeparticularlyimportantformitigationefforts,astheseecosystemshaveveryhighcarbonstocksandreleasesignificantquantitiesofGHGemissionswhendegraded.
Restorationofdegradedforestecosystemsincreasessequestrationandenhancescarbonstocks.
Similarly,theconservationandrestorationofothernaturalecosystems(suchassavannahs,grasslandsandwetlands)canresultinbothadaptationandmitigationbenefits.
Inordertoensureecosystem-basedadaptationmeasuresdeliversignificantadditionalsocial,cultural,economicandbiodiversitybenefits,itisimportantthattheseco-benefitsbespecificallyconsideredintheplanning,design,implementationandmonitoringandevaluationofthesemeasures.
Adaptationmeasuresaremorelikelytodeliversignificantco-benefitsifsocial,economicandculturalaspectsareexplicitlyconsideredinallphasesofprojectdevelopmentandimplementation,ifalltradeoffsandsynergiesarecarefullyidentifiedandexplored,andifallstakeholdersaregivenavoiceindecidinghowadaptationmeasuresareimplemented.
Inaddition,systemstomonitorandevaluatethecobenefitsofadaptationmeasurescanbeestablishedtoensuretheequitabledistributionofco-benefitsamongstakeholders.
Guidelinesalreadyexistforensuringthedeliveryofco-benefitsinclimatemitigationprojects(e.
g.
,Climate,CommunityandBiodiversityStandards;CCBA)andthesecouldpotentiallybeadaptedtoguideecosystem-basedadaptationmeasures.
Table1.
Examplesofecosystem-basedadaptationmeasuresthatprovideco-benefitsCo-benefitsAdaptationmeasureAdaptivefunctionSocialandculturalEconomicBiodiversityMitigationMangroveconservationProtectionagainststormsurges,sea-levelriseandcoastalinundationProvisionofemploymentoptions(fisheriesandprawncultivation)andcontributiontofoodsecurityGenerationofincometolocalcommunitiesthroughmarketingofmangroveproducts(fish,dyes,medicines)ConservationofspeciesthatliveorbreedinmangrovesConservationofcarbonstocks,bothaboveandbelow-groundForestconservationMaintenanceofwaterflowandpreventionoflandslidesRecreationalandculturalopportunitiesPotentialgenerationofincomethroughecotourismandrecreationalactivitiesConservationofhabitatforforestplantandanimalspeciesConservationofcarbonstocksandreductionofemissionsfromdeforestationanddegradationRestorationofdegradedwetlandsMaintenanceofwaterflowandqualityandprotectionagainststorminundationProvisionofrecreationalandemploymentopportunitiesPotentialrevenuefromrecreationalactivitiesConservationofwetlandfloraandfaunaandmaintenanceofbreedinggroundsformigratoryspeciesReducedemissionsfromwetlanddrainingEstablishmentofdiverseagroforestrysystemsinagriculturallandDiversificationofagriculturalproductiontocopewithchangedclimaticconditionsContributiontofoodandfuelwoodsecurity.
Generationofincomefromsaleoftimber,firewoodandotherproductsConservationofbiodiversityinagriculturallandscapeCarbonstorageinbothaboveandbelow-groundbiomassandsoilsConservationofagrobiodiversityProvisionofspecificgenepoolsforcropadaptationtoclimaticvariabilityEnhancedfoodsecurity,diversificationoffoodproducts,andconservationoflocalandtraditionalknowledgeandpracticesPossibilityofcropsindifficultenvironments.
ConservationofgeneticplantdiversityN/AConservationofmedicinalplantsusedbylocalandindigenouscommunitiesLocalmedicinesavailableforkeydiseasessuchasmalaria,dengueresultingfromhabitatdestructionanddegradationLocalcommunitieshaveabetterandsustainablesourceofmedicinesMaintenanceoflocalknowledgeandtraditionsLocalmarkets,ifassessedandtapped,couldbeareasonablesourceofincomeforlocalpeopleMedicinalplantconservationeffortsenhanced;localandtraditionalknowledgeinputsrecognizedandprotected.
N/AIdentifyingmeanstoincentivizetheimplementationofadaptationactionsthatpromotetheconservationandsustainableuseofbiodiversityChangesintheeconomicbackgroundtodecision-makingandnon-financialincentivesareessentialtoimplementecosystem-basedadaptationactivitiestoclimatechangethatcanbenefitbiodiversityandecosystemservicesandhumanwell-being.
Incentivesforecosystem-basedadaptationshouldbecarefullydesignednottonegativelyaffectecosystemservicesincludingtheconservationofbiologicaldiversity.
Changetheeconomicbasistodecision-making:(i)ensurethevalueofallecosystemservices,notjustthoseboughtandsoldinthemarket,aretakenintoaccountwhenmakingdecisions;(ii)removesubsidiesto,forexample,agriculture,fisheries,andenergythatcauseharmtopeopleandtheenvironment;(iii)introducepaymentstolandownersinreturnformanagingtheirlandsinwaysthatprotectecosystemservices,suchaswaterqualityandcarbonstorage,thatareofvaluetosociety;(iv)implementappropriatepricingpoliciesfornaturalresources,e.
g.
,forfreshwater;(v)establishmarketmechanismstoreducenutrientreleasesandpromotecarbonuptakeinthemostcost-effectiveway;and(vi)applyfees,taxes,levees,andtariffstodiscourageactivitiesthatdegradebiodiversityandecosystemservices.
Non-financialincentivesandactivitiesinclude:(i)lawsandregulations;(ii)newgovernancestructuresnationallyandinternationallythatfacilitatetheintegrationofdecision-makingbetweendifferentdepartmentsandsectors,(iii)promoteindividualandcommunitypropertyorlandrights;(iv)improveaccessrightsandrestrictions;(iv)improveaccesstoinformationandeducationtoraiseawarenessaboutecosystem-basedadaptation;(v)improvepolicy,planning,andmanagementofecosystemsby:includingsoundmanagementofecosystemservicesinallplanningdecisions;(vi)developanduseenvironment-friendlytechnologies;and(vii)influenceindividualbehavior.
Financialincentives,suchasthepaymentforecosystemservicesandenvironmentalfunds,couldprovidealternativesourcesofincome/livelihoodsforthepoorthatareheavilydependentonbiodiversityanditscomponents.
Forexample,aforestecosystemprovidesarangeofregulatoryservicesbesidestheirroleasmitigationagainstclimatechange.
Itistheseservicesthatneedtobemaintainedhenceappropriateincentivessuchasthepaymentforecosystemservicesandtheuseofenvironmentalfundsserviceswillensurecommunitiesarebetterabletomaintainabalancebetweenecosystemandtheiruseoftheresources.
TheWorldBanktogetherwithothermultilateralfinancialinstitutionsandconservationNGOsprovideaplethoraoffinancialfunds.
Internalizingthevalueofbiodiversityandecosystemservices,otherthancarbon,inclimatechange-relatedactivitiescanprovideastrongeconomicincentiveforconservingbiodiversity.
Arangeoffinancialinstrumentsareavailableandcanbeeffectiveinaspecificmannerinaccordancewithecosystemtype,projectscaleandprojectedperiod(seetablebelow).
Propercriteriaandindicatorsneedtobedevelopedtoassurethattheecosystemservicesusedastheincentivesarenotdegradedovertime.
Forinstance,verificationsystemsbasedonbiological/ecosystemcriteriaandindicatorscanprovideprojects/countrieswithafinancialincentivethatensuresecosystem-basedadaptationforthelong-termbenefitsofUNFCCCandtheConventiononBiologicalDiversity.
Propercriteriaandindicatorscanbecomeasurrogateoftheintactnessofecosystemsandadaptability,whichcanhelpinachievingtheobjectivesofUNFCCCandtheConventiononBiologicalDiversity.
Non-financialmechanismscanbecomeindirectincentivestoachievemultiplebenefitsofadaptationsandcanhelpbuildsocietalcapacitytoacceptecosystembasedadaptationtoclimatechange.
Non-financialmechanismsmaybetheuseoflawsandregulations,propertyorlandrights,accessrightsandrestrictions,andvaluationandeducationtoraiseawarenessaboutecosystem-basedadaptation.
Enhancingfoodsecurityandotherancillarybenefitscanbeincentivetoadoptecosystem-basedapproachforthepeoplewhorelyonsuchbenefitsfortheirlivelihood.
Onalocalscale,traditionalcodeshavebeenasocietalregulationtoavoidtheoveruseofcommonecosystemservices.
Incentivestakingaccountforsuchsocietalcodescanensurethesocietaladaptabilityforclimatechangeaswellasbiologicalconservation.
Whilethereareawiderangeofincentivesavailable,choosingoneorcombinationofthoseincentivemeasureoneneedtoconsiderseveralfactorsofconditionsandscales.
Forexamples,characteristics(physical,biological,socialandeconomic)ofthechallenge,currentandfuturefinancialandinstitutionalarrangements,humanresourceandinstitutionalcapacities,gapsandobstacles,possibilityofcreatingadverseimpactsonothersystemsandsectors,opportunityforlong-termsustainabilityandlinkageswithotherprograms.
Theincentivemeasuresadoptedshouldalsoaddressissuesontransparency,equityandshouldberegularlymonitoredandevaluated.
TheConventiononBiologicalDiversitydocumentssuchastheProposalsfortheDesignandImplementationofIncentiveMeasures(http://www.
cbd.
int/doc/publications/inc-brochure-01-en.
pdf)maybeconsultedforcriteriaandapproachesforselectionofincentives.
Table.
Toolsandincentivesforimplementingecosystem-basedadaptationToolsandincentivesApplicationtoecosystem-basedadaptationFinancialPaymentforecosystemservices(nottradable)Paymenttorewardtheecosystemservicestothosewhomaintaintheservice(e.
g.
,paymentsforwatershedmanagement)CarbonfinancePaymentforcarbonstorage(e.
g.
,CleanDevelopmentMechanism,Voluntarycarbonmarket)IncentivesrelatedtoREDDPositiveincentiveonissuesrelatingtoreducingemissionsfromdeforestationandforestdegradationindevelopingcountries.
Biodiversitybasedmechanism,suchasbiodiversitybanking,biodiversityoffsetPaymentbasedonindicatorsorsurrogateofbiodiversity(e.
g,areaofintactforest)DebtforNatureSwapsCancellationofdebtinexchangefortheconservationofnaturalecosystems(e.
g.
,creationofprotectedareasinCostaRicainreturnfordebtrelief)ConservationTrustFundsFundsforimprovingthemanagementof/andensuringconservationofprotectedareas(e.
g;ConservationCovenant)CertificationandlabelingCertificationofproductsandserviceswhichareproducedwithminimalimpactsonecosystems,verifiedusingrigorousstandardsandindicatorse.
g.
ecotourism,foreststewardshipcouncil.
Access/PricePremiumtoGreenMarketsAddingvalueandincreasingmarketaccessforsustainableproductsandservices.
e.
g.
nichemarketfororganicproducts,organiccoffeeMarketdevelopmentCreationofnewmarketsandexpansionofexistingmarketsforproductsandservicesthatareenvironmentallyfriendly.
Agri–EnvironmentalprogrammeSubsidiestoorganicfarming,preservationofrarebreed,eg;landsetasideschemes,stewardshippayments,ruralcredit/loansEnvironmentalPrize/AwardPublicrecognitionforgoodenvironmentalstewardship.
EliminatePerverseSubsidies(eg;Fishing;Agriculture)Eliminatesubsidiesthatdestroy,degradeorleadtotheunsustainableuseofecosystems.
Ecosystems.
TaxationTaxationofactivitiesthatdestroy,degradeormismanagenaturalresources(e.
g.
,taxationofpesticideuse,unsustainabletimberharvesting…)QuotasandChargesEstablishmentofquotasfortheextractionofgoods(suchasfirewood,timber,fishharvest,harvestofwildspecies)fromnaturalecosystems,toensuretheirsustainablemanagementNon-financialDefinitionoflandtenure,anduseplanningandownershipandlanduseandmanagementrightsClarificationoflandtenureandrights,toenhanceconservation,restorationandsustainablemanagementofecosystemsPublicawarenessandcapacity-buildingonecosystem-basedadaptationIncreasedrecognitionofthevalueofecosystem-basedadaptationanditsroleinadaptationstrategies,leadingtoincreasedimplementationDevelopment,refinementandenforcementoflegislationLegislationthatpromotestheimplementationofecosystem-basedadaptationandtoolstoensurecompliance;Legislationthatpromotessustainableuseofecosystemsordiscouragesmismanagement(e.
g.
,protectedarealegislation,pesticideuseregulations,waterpollutionlaws)ToolsandincentivesApplicationtoecosystem-basedadaptationInstitutionalstrengtheningandcreationofpartnershipsProvisionoffinancialandhumanresourcestorelevantinstitutionsandestablishmentofnetworksinvolvingdiversestakeholdersDevelopment,transfer,diffusionanddeploymentofenvironmentallysoundtechnologyDevelopsoftandhardtechnologiesandmethodologiesthatcouldhelpintheimplementationofecosystem-basedadaptation(e.
g.
,softwaredevelopment,earlywarningsystems,artificialreefs)-----