数珠zencart模板

4PrayerBeadsinJapaneseSōtōZenMichaelaMrossWhenalayparishionervisitsaBuddhisttemple,heorsheusuallycar-riesaBuddhistrosary.
1Itmarksaparishionerversustheoccasionalvisi-torandisconsideredanecessaryitemofproperattire.
FormostJapanese,notwearingarosarywhenputtingthehandsinprayerorreverenceseemstobeimproper.
2Likewise,theofficialwebpageoftheSōtōZenschoolinstructslayfollowerstonotforgetprayerbeadswhenattendingfuneralsormemorialservices.
Parishionersshouldfurtherputarosaryonthelowestshelfoftheirhomealtar,readytobeusedduringprayers.
3Also,themembersofthechoirssingingBuddhisthymnsatSōtōtem-pleswearshortrosarieswhilesingingandplayingabell.
Thus,prayerbeadsserve"assourcesofidentification,"toborrowJohnKieschnick'swords.
4Therosaryisanespeciallyinterestingobjectbecause—besidestherobeoro-kesa—"prayerbeadsarekeptclosertothepractitionerthananyotherritualobject.
Theybecomephysicalevidenceoffaith,devotion,andpractice.
"5IncontrasttoTendai,Shingon,orPureLandclerics,Sōtōclericsrarelyuseprayerbeadsinritualsettings.
Moreover,imagesofZenmastersusu-allydonotdepictmonksornunsholdingprayerbeads;instead,afly-whiskoranotherkindofstaffsignifiestheirstatusasaZencleric.
Therefore,BuddhistrosariesaretypicallynotassociatedwithZen.
Nevertheless,prayerbeadshavebeenusedforvariouspurposesintheSōtōschoolaswell.
Thischapteraimstoilluminatesomeofthefunctionsandinterpre-tationsoftherosaryinJapaneseSōtōZen.
IanalyzehowitsusesandmeaningschangedthroughouthistoryandwereadaptedtofittheagendaPrayerBeadsinSōtōZen103oftheSōtōschoolatcertaintimes.
BeforeexaminingrosariesinZenBuddhism,IwillfirstgiveageneraloverviewofBuddhistprayerbeadsinIndia,China,andJapan.
ThenIwillexamineChineseChanmonasticcodesbeforeturningtoJapaneseSōtōZenandanalyzingthehistoryoftherosarystartingwithDōgen(1200–1253)tokirigami(esoterictransmissiondocuments)fromtheearlyTokugawaperiod(1603–1868).
AfinalsectiononthefunctionsofprayerbeadssincetheMeijiera(1868–1912)concludesthestudy.
ABriefHistoryoftheBuddhistRosaryinIndiaandChinaScholarshavespeculatedthatprayerbeadsenteredBuddhismfromBrahmanism,6butasKieschnicknotes,"TheevidenceissoslimandambiguousthatthesearchfortheultimateoriginsoftheIndianrosaryisprobablyalostcause.
"7Inanycase,theearliestBuddhisttextsdonotmen-tionprayerbeadsand,therefore,itcanbeassumedthatBuddhistsadoptedtherosaryseveralhundredyearsaftertheestablishmentoftheBuddhistorder,probablyaroundthesecondorthirdcentury.
8"TheearliestdatabletextualreferencetotherosaryinanylanguageistheMuhuanzijing,averybriefscripturesaidtohavebeentranslatedintoChineseintheEasternJin(317–420CE),purportedlyfromanIndianoriginal.
"9ThistextnarratesthestoryofakingwhoaskstheBuddhaforadvicehowhe,theking,canpracticewithapeacefulminddespitehisproblemsrulingatroubledkingdom.
TheBuddhaadviseshimtostringtogether108seedsofthearitaka,andwhetherhewalks,sits,orsleeps,heshouldmindfullyrecitethewords"Buddha,dharma,sangha,"afterwhichhepassesoneofthebeads.
Ifthekingfinishes200,000rounds,hewillbefreeofconfusioninbodyandmindandbeborninthethirdheaven.
Ifthekingrecitesonemillionrounds,hewillcutoffall108formsofkarmaandachievenirvana.
10TheMuhuanzijingsuggeststhattherosarywasusedbythelaityfromtheverybeginning.
Thetextdescribesthebenefitsofrecitingthenamesofthethreetreasures,namely,theBuddha,dharma,andsangha,andclearlystateshowthenumberofrecitationsrelatestothegainedrewards.
Mostimportant,however,therosaryisdescribedasanaidtocountrecitations,whichisitsmainfunction.
Likewise,latersourcesalsoexplainhowtherosaryservestocounttherecitationsofspellsorthenamesofaBuddhaorbodhisattva.
104ZenandMaterialCultureKieschnickwritesaboutthedevelopmentoftherosary:"Inadditiontoitsfunctionasacountingdevice,therosaryisoftenassumedtohavemagicalpropertiesofitsown.
Notonlydidtherosarycountrecitations;arecitationmarkedwitharosarysomehowcountedmore.
"11Hefur-thercomments,"Therelationshipherebetweensymbolismandmagicalpowerisparticularlyimportant.
The108beadsoftherosary,symbolizingthe108afflictions,didmorethanconveyinformation—‰itwasmorethanaremindertotheadeptsoftheprecisenumberoftheirpotentialprob-lems.
Precisesymboliccriteriawerenecessaryfortheritualofrecitationtowork.
"12Overtime,therosarygainedafunctionasatalisman.
TheManshushilizhouzangzhongjiaolingshuzhugongdejing(SūtraontheEvaluationofMeritsoftheRosaryfromtheSpellTreasuryofMajurī),forexample,statesthatifoneisnotabletochantthenamesofbuddhasormantras,thenonecangainthesameamountofmeritbyjustcarryingarosary.
13AlthoughseveraltextsthatmentionrosariesweretranslatedintoChinesesincetheEasternJin,thereseemstobenoreferencestoChinesepeopleusingrosariesbeforetheTangdynasty(618–‰907).
Nonetheless,wecannotsaywithcertaintywhethertherosarygainedinpopularityintheTangorwhetheritisaquestionoftheavailablesourcesthatdonotgiveinformationaboutrosariesinpriortimes.
ThefirstChinesemonkwhopromotedtheuseoftherosarywasthePureLandadvocateDaochuo(Jp.
Dōshaku;562–‰645),whoadvisedhisfollowerstochantthenameofAmida(Skt.
Amitābha).
Sourcessuggestthattheuseoftherosaryinrecitationpracticeswaswide-spreadintheTangdynastyandtherosaryhadbecomeacommonitemusedbyclericsandlaydevotees.
14Overtimetherosaryacquiredusesbeyonditsreligiousmeanings,suchasgiftsvaluedfortheiraestheticappeal,asameanstolulloneselfintosleepbycountingbreaths,orasnecklacesfortheemperor,empress,andhighofficialsintheQingcourt.
15TheRosaryinJapaneseBuddhismTheBuddhistrosarywasintroducedtoJapanintheearlystagesofJapaneseBuddhism.
Itissaid,forexample,thatShōtokuTaishi(574–‰622)hadreceivedaBuddhistrosaryfromtheKoreankingdomofPaekche,16andaroundonehundredyearslater,theIndianmonkBodhisena(Jp.
Bodaisenna;704–‰760)andtheChinesemonkJianzhen(Jp.
Ganjin;688–‰763)broughtrosarieswiththemtoJapan.
17In756,thewidowofEmperorShōmu(701–‰756),EmpressKōmyō(701–‰760),donatedPrayerBeadsinSōtōZen105sevenrosariesofthedeceasedemperortoTōdaiji.
Someoftheserosa-rieshavebeenpreservedatShōsōin.
18Eighth-centuryinventoriesofothermajorNaratemplessuchasHōryūjiandDaianjialsolistseveralrosaries.
19IntheHeianperiod(794–1185),JapanesemonksreturningfromChinaalsocarriedrosarieswiththem.
Themostwell-knownprayerbeadsaretheonesthatKūkai,thefounderoftheJapaneseShingonschool,broughtbacktoJapan.
20AlthoughrosarieswereprobablyconsideredvaluableobjectssincetheintroductionofBuddhisminJapan,itseemstheywerenotwidelyusedinreligiouspracticesforanotherseveralcenturies.
21OnlybytheKamakuraperiod(1185–1333)doprayerbeadsseemtohavebecomecommonritualimplements.
Fromthenon,portraitsandsculp-turesofmonkswereusuallymadedepictingaclericholdingarosaryinhishands.
Zenmonks,however,werenotdepictedwithrosaries.
22Thus,inatimeduringwhichclericsofmostschoolswereportrayedwithprayerbeads,Zenmonkswerenot.
Inthisway,theveryabsenceofacommonritualimplementservedasamarkerofZenclerics,clearlydistinguishingthemfromPureLandadvocates.
TheformofthefirstprayerbeadsinJapanalreadyvaried,23butoverthecenturies,therosarywasfurthermodifiedtofittheusageanddoctrineofdifferentschools.
Asaresult,variousdistinctformsdeveloped,whichcanbeeasilydistinguishedfromeachothertoday.
24Therosariesdiffer,forexample,inthenumberoflargerbeads,tassels,orbeadsonthestringsattachedtothelargerbeads.
25Likewise,theformoftheSōtōrosarychangedovertime.
Today'sformalSōtōrosarywith108beadshasasmallmetalring.
IntheRinzaiandbakuschoolsthisringisnotpartoftherosaryand,therefore,aSōtōrosarycaneasilybedistinguishedfromrosariesoftheotherZenschools.
26WhenSōtōclericsaddedthismetalringisunclear.
ThekirigamistudiedlaterinthischaptersuggestthatthismetalringwasnotpartoftheSōtōrosaryintheTokugawaperiodandthereforemusthavebeenaddedlater.
Also,themannerofhowtoholdarosarydiffersdepend-ingontheschool.
27Consequently,theformoftherosaryanditshandlingindicatethesectarianaffiliationofthepersonusingtherosary.
TheTerminologyandFormoftheBuddhistRosaryinJapanThemostcommontermfortherosaryisjuzu数珠(Ch.
shuzhu),liter-ally"countingbeads"or"tellingbeads,"whichhintsattheritualusageofthebeadsforcountingrecitations.
Theothercommonterm,nenju念珠106ZenandMaterialCulture(Ch.
nianzhu),canbeunderstoodeitheras"recitationbeads,"describingthebeadsasanaidinchantingpractices,oras"mindfulnessbeads,"sug-gestingthat"chantingisanaidtomeditationandevenaformofit.
"28Theearliesttextonprayerbeads,theMuhuanzijing,statesthattherosaryshouldhave108beads,whichisthemostcommonnumberofbeadsinaBuddhistrosary.
Othersutrasfurthermentionrosarieswith1,080,fifty-four,forty-two,twenty-seven,twenty-one,andfourteenbeads.
Lowernumbersthan108areencouraged,ifonehasdifficultiesobtaining108beads.
29Rosarieswiththirty-sixoreighteenbeadsarealsousedinJapan.
Forthesenumbers,however,wedonotfindreferencesinsutras.
30Thenumber108hasmanysymbolicassociations.
Mostcommonlythe108beadsareassociatedwiththe108defilements,anassociationmen-tionedalreadyintheMuhuanzijing.
Thenumber108furtherrepresentsthe108deitiesofthediamondrealm(kongōkai)inesotericBuddhism,orthe108kindsofsamādhi.
31Theothernumbersarealsothoughttohavedeepermeanings;forexample,thenumberfifty-fourstandsforthefifty-fourstagesofpracticeconsistingofthetenstagesoffaith,tenabodes,tenpractices,tentransferencesofmerit,tengrounds,andthefourwhole-someroots.
Thenumberforty-twoexpressesthetenabodes,tenpractices,tentransferencesofmerit,tengrounds,plusthetwostagesof"equal"andmarvelousenlightenment(tōgakuandmyōgaku).
Twenty-sevensymbolizesthestagestowardarhatship.
Thenumbertwenty-onefurtherrepresentsthetengroundsofinherentqualities,plusthetengroundsofthequalitiesproducedbypractice,plusbuddhahood.
32Accordingly,thedifferentnum-bersofbeadsareinvestedwithelaboratedoctrinalmeanings.
Theformoftherosaryismoreorlessprescribedbutvariestoacer-taindegreedependingontheschool.
Asexplainedearlier,therosaryconsistsofafixednumberofbeads,usually108.
Ithasatleastonelargebead,whichiscalledthemotherbead(boju)orparentbead(oyadama).
Italertstheuserthathehasfinishedoneroundoftherosary.
Whenfinish-ingoneround,theusershouldnotcrossoverthemotherbead,asthiswouldbeamajoroffense;instead,heshouldreversethedirection.
TheJin'gangdingyuijanianzhujing(SūtraontheRosaryoftheVajraekharaYoga)interpretsthemotherbeadasAmida,whilethestringissupposedtorep-resentKannon(Skt.
Avalokitevara),andthesmallerbeadssymbolizethefruitsofthebodhisattva.
33ThisinterpretationwasfurtherelaboratedinShingonBuddhism,whereitissaidthatwhenonemovesthroughthebeadsoftherosary,oneistomoveupthebodhisattvastagesonthestringofKannon'scompassion.
MovingfromonemotherbeadtotheotherisPrayerBeadsinSōtōZen107toachieveenlightenment,andwhenoneturnsaround,heorshereturnsintotheworldtohelpsentientbeings.
34Aswewillseelater,however,themotherbeadcanbeinterpreteddifferently.
Sometimesarosaryhastwolargerbeads;inthiscase,thesecondlargerbeadiseithercalledmiddlebead(nakadama),asitmarksthemiddleoftherosary,oralsomotherbead.
Inearlysutraswedonotfindreferencestotwomotherbeads.
Accordingly,laterclericsmusthavedevelopedthese.
35Theotherbeadsonthemainstringarecalledretainerbeads(judama)orchildrenbeads(kodama).
Therearefourbeadsamongtheretainerbeadsthatareusuallyofsmallersizeand/ordifferentcolor.
Theyareplacedaftertheseventhandthetwenty-firstbeadsonbothsidesofthe(main)motherbeadandthereforemarktheseventhortwenty-firstrecitation.
Thesefourbeadsarecalledshiten四点beads(lit.
fourpointbeads).
Theyareofteninterpretedasthefourheavenlykings(Shitennō),Jikokuten(Skt.
Dhtarāra),Tamonten(alsocalledBishamonten,Skt.
Vairavaa),Zōjōten(Skt.
Virūhaka),andKōmokuten(Skt.
Virūpāka).
Thebeadsarethereforealsocalled"fourheavenlykings"(shiten四天),ahomophoneof"fourpoints.
"IntheShingonschool,thebeadsofthefourpointsareinterpretedasthefourbodhisattvasinthehallofthecentraldaiseightpet-alsinthewombrealm(taizōkai)mandala:Fugen(Skt.
Samantabhadra),Kannon,Monju(Skt.
Majurī),andMiroku(Skt.
Maitreya).
Yetsutrasdonotmentionthesebeads.
36Themainmotherbead,andsometimesalsothemiddlebead,hastasselsattached.
Usually,therearetwoshortstringswithsmallerbeads,knownasrecorderbeads(kishidama)ordisciplebeads(deshidama),attachedtothemainmotherbead.
Thesebeadshelptocounttheroundsofrecita-tions.
Theyarethoughttosymbolizethetenpāramitāsor,especiallyiftheyarecalleddisciplebeads,theBuddha'sdirectdisciples.
37Attheendofthestringsjustabovethetasselsaretherecorderbeadstoppers,whicharecalleddewdropbeads(tsuyudama),becausetheyareoftenshapedliketeardrops.
38Thestringbetweenthemotherbeadandtherecorderbeadshasusuallyasmallloop,andononesideofthisloopisasmallbead,whichiscalledjōmyō浄明(lit.
pureandbright).
Ahomonymisjōmyō浄名,lit-erally"purename"or"purereputation,"whichisanamethatstandsforVimalakīrti.
Therefore,thebeadissometimescalledlaymanVimalakīrti(Yuimakoji).
Thebeadisalsocalledsuccessorbodhisattva(fushobosatsu)becauseitmighttaketheplaceofanyrecorderbeadthatmightbebroken.
39ThesearethegeneralfeaturesofBuddhistrosaries.
However,asmen-tionedearlier,dependingontheschool,theformoftherosarydiffers.
108ZenandMaterialCultureToday'sformalSōtōrosaryhastwomotherbeads,onelargerone,andaslightlysmallerone.
Ithastasselsonlyonthemainmotherbead,buttherearenobeadsonthestringsattachedtothisbead.
Thecontemporaryfor-malSōtōrosaryhasalsothefourpointbeadsandadditionallyametalring(Fig.
4.
1).
40Onerosaryproducerexplainedthatthemainmotherbeadrepresentsākyamuni,whilethemiddlebeadstandsforJizō,andthemetalringattachedsymbolizesthecircleofrebirthinthesixrealms.
Itisimportanttonote,however,thatnoneoftheSōtōclericsIaskedaboutthesymbolicmeaningoftherosaryknewthisinterpretation.
TheRosaryinZenMonasticCodesAfterhavingexploredtherosaryingeneral,IwillnowturntoprayerbeadsinZenBuddhism.
MonasticcodesoftheZentraditioncontainonlyafewentriesonrosaries.
TheoldestextantmonasticcodeinChina,theChanyuanqinggui(PureRulesoftheZenGarden),compiledin1103bythemonkChangluZongze(Jp.
ChōroSōsaku;d.
1107),onlyreferstoprayerbeadsonce.
Intherulesforvisitingmonasteries,theChanyuanqingguistates,"Whenrecitingasutraormantra,itisbettertochantsilentlyandtoavoidmakingnoisewiththeprayerbeads.
"41ThisstatementsuggestsFigure4.
1ContemporaryrosaryoftheSōtōschool.
Photographbytheauthor.
PrayerBeadsinSōtōZen109thatmonksownedrosariesandthatsomemonksuseditwhilechanting.
However,sincethisistheonlyentryregardingprayerbeads,itcanbeassumedthattherosarydidnotplayanimportantroleinChanduringthetimewhentheChanyuanqingguiwascompiled.
TheRuzhongriyongqinggui(PureRulesofDailyObservancesforNovices),writtenin1209,likewisestatesthatamonkshouldnotmakeanynoisebymanipulatinghisrosaryontheraisedplatform.
42Severallatercodes,suchastheChixiuBaizhangqinggui(PureRulesofBaizhangRevisedUnderImperialEdict)compiledbyDongyanDehui(Jp.
TōyōTokki,datesunknown)afterhehadreceivedanimperialorderin1335,quotetheRuzhongriyongqingguionthismatter.
43TheChixiuBaizhangqingguifurthermentionstherosarytwice.
First,itisincludedinthenecessaryitemsforpracticealongwiththreekindsofrobes,thesittingcloth,theundergarment,theloincloth,theone-piecegarment,thealmsbowl,theshakujō,thewalkingstick,thefly-whisk,thewaterjar,thewaterfilter,andthepreceptknife.
44TheexplanationoftherosaryrefersfirstbrieflytotheMounimantuoluojing(SageMandalaSūtra)explainingthenameoftherosaryandstatingthattherosaryisa"toolthatassiststheconcentrationofthemindandthedisciplineofpractice.
"45ThentheChixiuBaizhangqingguiquotestheMuhuanzijingnarratingthestoryofthekingwhomtheBuddhaadvisedtochantthewords"Buddha,dharma,andsangha"whilecountingtherecitationswiththerosary.
46TheinclusionoftherosaryintheessentialitemssuggeststhattherosaryhadbecomeoneofthenecessarybelongingsofChanclericsbytheYuandynasty(1271–1368).
TheChixiuBaizangqingguifurtherexplainstheroleoftherosaryduringthefuneralforaresidentpractitioner.
Thetextdescribeshowthebelongingsofadeceasedclericaresupposedtobecollectedandthendisplayedforauction.
47Theclothinganditemsthatthedeceasedwillbedressedinduringthefuneral,however,aretobekeptaside.
Amongtheseitems,wefindarosary.
48Thepracticeofequippingadeceasedwitharosary,whichwassupposedtobecrematedtogetherwiththebody,seemstohavebecomecustomarybythattime,becausetwomonasticcodeswrit-tenslightlyearlieralsomentionit:theChanlinbeiyongqinggui(AuxiliaryPureRulesoftheZenForest),writtenin1311,andtheHuanchuanqinggui(PureRulesoftheHuanchuHermitage),writtenin1317.
49Thispracticesug-geststhattherosarywasconsideredanecessaryemblemofclericalstatus.
TheKeizanshingi(PureRulesofKeizan),thefirstJapaneseSōtōcode,whichwaswrittenbyKeizanJōkin(1268–1325)in1315,doesnotcontaina110ZenandMaterialCulturereferencetothispractice.
Onlyafewlatercodes,suchastheJushōshingi(PureRulesofJushō[zan])writtenbytheChineseImmigrantmonkXinyueXingchou(Jp.
ShinetsuKōchū;1639–1696)andeditedbyhisdisciplein1727,andtheTōjōsōdōshingigyōhōshō(SelectionsforRitualProceduresfromthePureRulesfortheSōtōMonks'Hall)writtenbyMenzanZuihō(1683–1769)in1753mentionarosaryinthedescriptionhowtodressadeceasedmonk.
50Moreover,arosarywasputintothecoffinduringthefuneralsofTettsūGikai(1219–1309)andMeihōSotetsu(1277–1350).
51Thus,insomecasesrosarieswereusedinfuneralsinJapaneseSōtōZen,butthisdoesnotseemtohavebeenawidespreadpractice.
DōgenandtheRosaryTostudythehistoryoftherosaryinJapaneseSōtōZen,itis,ofcourse,nec-essarytoexaminewhatDōgen,theschool'sfounder,wroteaboutprayerbeads.
Dōgenreferstotherosaryonlythreetimesinhislargeoeuvre.
TheearliestreferenceisincludedintheShōbōgenzōfascicleJūundōshiki,regu-lationsforthezazenhallathisfirsttemple,KannonDōriKōshōHōrinji,writtenin1239.
Dōgenstatestherein,"Youshouldnotholdarosaryinthehall.
"52Dōgenwrotetheseregulationspurelyforthemeditationhall,andwedonotknowwhethermonksinDōgen'searlycommunityusedarosaryinotherhalls.
Nevertheless,thisstatementindirectlyindicatesafocusonzazeninDōgen'scommunity.
InhisBendōhō,atreatiseonthedailyobservancesandproperconductinaZenmonasteryprobablywrittenbetween1244and1246athisnewtempleDaibutsuji(laterrenamedtoEiheiji)inEchizenprovince(present-dayFukuiprefecture),DōgenquotestheaforementionedRuzhongriyongqingguiandwritesthatamonkshouldnotdisturbothersbymakingasoundwiththerosaryontheraisedplatform.
53DōgenfurtherwritesinhisKichijōsanshūryōshingi(PureRulesfortheStudyHallatKichijōsan),com-posedin1249atEiheiji,"Inthestudyhall,youshouldnotdisturbthepureassemblybyreadingsutraswithloudvoicesorloudlyintoningpoems.
Donotboisterouslyraiseyourvoicewhilechantingdharani.
Itisfurtherdiscourteoustoholdarosaryfacingothers.
"54ThisinstructionmighthintatoneofthereasonswhySōtōmonkswerenotdepictedwithrosariesinportraits,forthemonkwouldfacetheviewer.
ItisnoteworthythattheKenzeiki,theprimarytraditionalbiographyofDōgen,citestheKichijōsanshuryōshingibutomits"facingothers.
"Itthusonlystates,"TheShuryōshingisays[Zenmonks]donotholdarosaryPrayerBeadsinSōtōZen111becauseitisdiscourteous.
"55TheentryintheKenzeikisuggeststhatrosa-rieswerenotimportantinDōgen'scommunityand,therefore,Kosakaetal.
assumethatthemonksofEiheijiupheldtheregulationsregardingtherosaryafterDōgen'spassing.
56ConsideringthesethreebriefstatementsinDōgen'sworks,wecanpresumethattherosaryplayednosignificantroleforDōgenandhiscommunity.
YetsomeprayerbeadsleftbyearlySōtōmonkshavebeenregardedastempletreasuresandhavebeenveneratedasacontactrelicinremembranceofthemaster.
OneexampleisarosarymadeofbeautifulrockcrystalthatKeizanusedandthatisnowpreservedatthetempleYōkōjiinIshikawaprefecture.
57Kirigami:TheRosaryasaMandalaSōtōkirigamidatingfromtheTokugawaperiodgiveafascinatingpictureofhowSōtōmonksinterpretedrosaries.
58Kirigamiareinitiationdocu-mentsthatwerehandeddownfrommastertodiscipleandthatwerewrit-tenonsinglesheetsofpaper.
Originally,theyweretransmittedonebyoneinasuccessionofmeetings,butattheendofthemedievalperiod,monksstartedtoreceiveseveralkirigamiatonce,andlaterintheTokugawaperiod,kirigamiwereputtogetherintheformofboundvolumes.
59Kirigamicoveredvarioustopics,includingfunerals,kamiworship,prayerrituals,andkōans.
Amongthelargecorpusofextantkirigami,wealsofinddocumentsrelatedtoBuddhistimplementsandobjects.
Thesekirigamiusuallycontainanexplanation,agraph,andsometimesabriefquestion-answer-dialogueandthuselucidate,forexample,themeaningoftherobe,thesittingmat,variouskindsofstaffs,thewatervessel,thebowl,andtherosary.
60Onlyafewkirigamionrosariesareextant,andwecandistinguishbetweentwodifferenttransmissionlineages.
Inonelin-eage,twokirigamihavebeenpreservedatShōryūji,amajorSōtōtempleintoday'sSaitamaprefecture.
Intheotherlineage,threekirigamihavebeenpreservedatKōrinjiinKanagawaprefecture,aswellasatDaianjiandGanshōin,bothinNaganoprefecture.
TheninthabbotofShōryūji,FumanShōdō(1601–1671),ownedtheearlierofthetwodocumentspreservedatShōryūji(Fig.
4.
2).
BecausehehadreceivedseveralotherkirigamifromhismasterTesshinGyoshū(d.
1664),whohadservedasabbotofEiheijiandRyūonji,wecanassumethatShōdōreceivedthekirigamibefore1664,theyearinwhichhismasterdied.
61Theotherkirigamiwascopiedinthesecondmonthof1682.
Onthisoccasion,theabbotFukushūKōikuofRyūonji,whoalsohadserved112ZenandMaterialCultureasabbotofEiheiji,instructedTsūgaiKōmon(d.
1715),thetwelfthabbotofShōryūji,inthesymbolicmeaningoftherosary.
62Bothkirigamidifferonlyinsmalldetails.
Thekirigamicontainsanimageoftheprayerbeadswithadeitybeingassignedtoeachbeadaswellasabriefexplanationinthemiddleoftheimage.
Thegraphshowsarosarythathastwomotherbeads,bothwithtas-selsattached.
Whilethestringsonthemainmotherbeadhavebeads,thestringsonthemiddlebeaddonot.
Therefore,itsformdiffersfromtoday'sformalSōtōrosary.
Accordingtothekirigami,themainmotherbeadrep-resentsthebodhisattvaNikkō(Skt.
Sūryaprabha)ofthediamondrealm.
Nexttothenameofthebodhisattva,itiswritteninsmallerfont,"Thisisyin,heaven,fire,andfather.
"Theothermotherbeadisthoughttorepre-sentthebodhisattvaGakkō(Skt.
Candraprabha)ofthewombrealm.
Nexttoit,itiswritteninasmallerfont,"Thisisyang,earth,water,andmother.
"InstandardesotericBuddhisticonography,however,NikkōandGakkōareassociatedwiththewombanddiamondrealmmandalas,respectively.
63Moreover,intraditionalyin-yangsymbolism,yinusuallyindicatesearth,water,andfeminineattributes,whereasyangindicatesheaven,fire,andmasculineattributes.
Thus,thekirigamiconflatethesecomplementaryopposites,orperhapsplanttheseedoftheonewithintherealmoftheotherinordertoemphasizetheirultimatenonduality.
Asaresult,thetwomotherbeadspresentoppositeyetcomplemen-taryentities:thebodhisattvasNikkōandGakkō,thediamondandwombrealms,yinandyang,heavenandearth,fireandwater,andfatherandmother.
Inthisway,therosaryrepresentsacosmologyencompassingthewholeuniverse.
Thisexplanationcannotbefoundinsutras,sopresum-ablyitwasdevelopedinJapan.
InagraphofarosaryinthearchiveoftheShingontempleIshiyamadera(Shigaprefecture),writteninthetwelfthFigure4.
2Juzukirigami.
ArchiveofShōryūji(Saitamaprefecture).
FacsimilebytheSōtōshūBunkazaiChōsaiinkai.
ReprintedwithpermissionofShōryūjiandSōtōshūBunkazaiChōsaiinkai.
PrayerBeadsinSōtōZen113century,thenames"GakkōBodhisattva"and"NikkōBodhisattva"arewrit-tennexttothestringsofthetwomotherbeads,probablyindicatingthattherecorderbeadsattachedtothetwomotherbeadsrepresentthetwobodhisattvas.
Inthiscase,thelargermotherbeadissupposedtorepre-sent"VairocanaBuddhaorākyamuniBuddha,"whilethesmallermotherbeadrepresents"VairocanaBuddhaortheBuddhaofInfiniteLight[i.
e.
,AmidaBuddha].
"64Nevertheless,thenamesofGakkōandNikkōonbothsidesremindoneoftheSōtōkirigami.
Therosaryinthekirigamihasthecommonfourpointbeads,whichareindicatedbyblackcirclesinthegraph.
Theyrepresentthefourheav-enlykingswhoarebelievedtoprotectthefourdirections:Jikokuten(east),Tamonten(north),Zōjōten(south),andKōmokuten(west).
Nexttothe108beadsoftherosary,wefindthenamesofvariousdeities:thesevenBuddhasofthepast[i.
e.
,ākyamuniandhissixpredecessors],twenty-eightlunarmansions,sixteenprotectivegods,ninevajraholdingwarriors,ninelumi-naries,fivewisdomkings,twenty-eightmanifestationsofKannon,andsevenluminaries.
Thebeadsonthestringattachedtothemotherbeadalsohaveadescription:thefirstfiveoneachstringarethetenrākasīs,andthenextsixarethetwelveheavenlygeneralsservingthemedicineBuddha.
Inthisway,therosarydescribesahighlyeclecticpantheon,show-inginfluencesofesotericBuddhism,onmyōdō("WayofYinandYang"),andsukuyōdō("WayofLunarLodgingsandLuminaries").
Inthemiddleoftheprayerbeads,thekirigamicontainsthefollowingtextthatexplainstherosaryinmoredetail:Thefourtassels:KongōkenBodhisattva65(Skt.
Vajrasaadhi),KongōsakuBodhisattva(Skt.
Vajrapāa),KongōaiBodhisattva(Skt.
Vajrarāga),KongōgoBodhisattva(Skt.
Vajrabhāa).
66Thesearethefourbodhisattvas[ofthefourdirections].
Thecolorsofthetasselsfurthersymbolizethetwoessencesofredandwhite.
67Eighteendefilementsarisefromthedefilementofsleepiness.
Eighteendefilementsarisefromthedefilementofgreed.
Eighteendefilementsarisefromthedefilementofsexualdesire.
Eighteendefilementsarisefromthedefilementofdesire.
Eighteendefilementsarisefromthedefilementofanger.
Eighteendefilementsarisefromthedefilementofstupidity.
Togetherthesearethe108defilements.
114ZenandMaterialCultureThe108defilementsaresimultaneouslyeliminatedinaveryinstant.
Therefore,strikingthebelleighteentimesquicklyandeighteentimesslowlyoneafteranotherisameanstoeliminateall108defilements.
KirigamiontherosaryDōgen'sseal(zaihan)Thetextsuggeststhatthe108beadsrepresentthe108defilements;atthesametime,however,thebeadssymbolizeahighlyeclecticpantheon,asthegraphshows.
Thus,twolayersofmeaningarecompletelyintertwined.
Thefourtasselsarefurthersupposedtorepresentfourdirectionalbod-hisattvasoftheassemblyoftheperfectedbodyinthediamondmandala.
Consequently,therosarycontainstwogroupsofdeitiesthatprotectthefourdirections:thefourheavenlykingsandthefourdirectionalbodhisat-tvas,bothprotectingtheprayerbeads'sacredpantheoninamandalicfashion.
Inaddition,thetwocoloredtasselsinredandwhitepresumablyrepresentNikkōandGakkō,whoarethecentraldeitiesinthiscosmology,astheyareassociatedwiththetwomotherbeads.
ThekirigamiclaimstooriginatewithDōgen,atypicalclaimforkiri-gamithatisnotbasedonhistoricalgrounds.
Inanycase,itindicatesthatSōtōclericsintheearlyTokugawaperioddidnotperceivethecosmologyandtheideasdescribedinkirigamiashereticorheterodox,butratherasinaccordwiththeirowntradition,evenassumingthatthesekindsofinter-pretationsoriginatedwithDōgen.
Attheendofthekirigami,wealsofindanotherstatementthatthiskirigamiwassecretlytransmittedatEiheiji,thetemplefoundedbyDōgen,purportedlysupportingtheideathatthiskirigamididoriginatewithDōgen.
Iwasfurtherabletofindthreekirigamiontherosaryofanothertrans-missionlineage.
Thesedocumentsalsocontainanimageoftherosarywitheachbeadbeingassignedtoadeityorspiritualstage.
ButthenameswefinddiffergreatlyfromthekirigamiinthearchiveofShōryūji.
TheoldestofthethreekirigamiisamanuscriptinthearchiveofthetempleKōrinji(Fig.
4.
3).
Tsūkoku,thethirteenthabbotofKaizōji,abranchtempleofKōrinji,wroteitin1609.
68Anotherkirigamiontherosary,writteninthefirsthalfoftheseventeenthcentury,isheldbyDaianjiinNaganoprefecture,69whilethethirdkirigami,preservednearbyatGanshōin,isundatedanddoesnotprovideanyinformationaboutwhoownedit.
70Accordingly,atleasttwoofthethreekirigamiareolderthantheonesinthearchiveofShōryūji.
Figure4.
3Juzudaiji.
ArchiveofKōrinji(Kanagawaprefecture).
FacsimilebytheSōtōshūBunkazaiChōsaiinkai.
ReprintedwithpermissionofKōrinjiandSōtōshūBunkazaiChōsaiinkai.
116ZenandMaterialCultureTherosariesinthesethreekirigamihavetwomotherbeadswithstringsandtasselsattached,liketherosaryintheShōryūjikirigami.
Allkirigamistatethatthemainmotherbeadrepresentsākyamuni,butonlyoneofthethreekirigamiindicatesanameforthesecondarymotherbeadandsug-geststhatitrepresentsthebodhisattvaJizō.
InallthreekirigamiwefindthebodhisattvasNikkōandGakkō,whoareassociatedwiththetwomotherbeadsintheShōryūjikirigami,butthistimetheyaresupposedtobethetearbeadsattheendofthetasselsattachedtothemainmotherbead.
Thedocu-mentsdonotindicatethatNikkōandGakkōwouldrepresentthediamondandwombrealms.
ThefirstfivebeadsonthestringsattachedtothemainmotherbeadrepresenttheBuddha'stenprincipaldisciplesandthenextfivebeadsthetenbodhisattvastages.
Thebeadsonthestringsattachedtothesecondarymotherbeadarethefourwheel-turningkings(Skt.
cakravar-tin)ontheonestring,andtheIndiangodsVarua(Jp.
Suiten)andAgni(Jp.
Katen)aswellasthetwobodhisattvasJi字andHōju宝殊ontheother.
ThelattertwobodhisattvasmightindicateesotericmanifestationsofKannon:JimayrefertoRokujiten六字天,amanifestationofKannonthatwasinvokedinexorcismsandhealingrituals,whileHōjumaybeamonikerforNyoirinKannon'swish-fulfillingjewel(nyoihōju如意宝珠).
71The108beadsrepresentagainahighlyeclecticpantheon.
Thedeitiesarestructuredsymmetricallyaroundthetwolargerbeads.
ākyamuniissurroundedonbothsidesbythefourdirectionalbodhisattvas,followedbyFugenandMonju.
Thenwefindthreeofthesixpāramitāandthreeofthesixbuddhasofthepastoneachside.
Thereafter,thesymmetricalstructureisinterrupted;ononesidewefindthetwenty-eightlunarmansionsandontheothersidevariousstagesofthefourmeditationheavensandoftherealmofenlightenment.
Afterthesebeadsthesymmetricalstructurestartsagain,andJizō,whoissaidtosavebeingsinthehells,issurroundedbyninehellsonbothsides.
Thus,thebeadsreachfromtheenlightenedrealmwithākyamuniinitscentertothehellswithJizōinthecenter.
Freelyinterpreting,itseemsasifpractitioners,whiletellingthebeads,aregoingthroughthehells,throughthemeditativeheavenstotheareaofenlightenment,andbacktohelpallsentientbeings.
Thedocuments,how-ever,donotincludeanyinformationabouthowSōtōclericsinterpretedthesymbolicassociationsofthebeads.
Thefourpointbeadsinthesekirigamidonotrepresentthefourheav-enlykings.
Instead,thebeadsaftertheseventhbeadsaresaidtorepresentthedivineboysZenzai(Skt.
Sudhana)andZenmitsu,andtheonesafterPrayerBeadsinSōtōZen117thetwenty-firstbeadsarethoughttorepresentthetwowisdomkingsFudōandAizen,whoareoftenpairedinJapaneseesotericBuddhism.
72ThekirigamiofKōrinjiadditionallycontainsthefollowingquestion-answerdialogue:Themastersays:"Takeuptherosary.
"Substitute:73"Toexplainbriefly,[itislike]thelettinggoofBodhidharma'snostrils[and]theshujō[staff]ofākyamuni.
"74Themastersays:"Sayanideaineight.
"Substitute:"Heavenandearth,yinandyang,dayandnight,leftandrighteye!
"Themastersays:"Beyondthat,expressmore.
"Substitute:"IfItakethree,thenitisBuddha,dharma,andsangha;heaven,earth,andhumans;a-ban-un;75furthermore,past,present,andfuture;father,mother,andI;Shōge-jin(GodofHindrances),Kekatsu-jin(GodofHungerandThirst),andTonyoku-jin(GodofDesire);76sun,moon,andstars;Kenrōji-jin(StandfastEarthGod),threebuddhas,andKōjinofthethreetreasures.
"Thequestion-answerdialogueconveysthemeaningoftherosaryinaZennishfashion,anditsupportstheideaexpressedinthegraphthattherosarysymbolizesametaphysicaluniversebystatingseveralgroupsofcomplementaryentities.
ThetwokirigamiofDaianjiandKōrinjifurtherstatethattheimageoftherosarycanbeproducedasahangingscroll.
Remarkably,otherschoolsusedagraphoftherosaryasahangingscrollaswell.
TheNichirenschool,forexample,usesitasarosarydaimokumandala.
77Theoriginsoftherosarydaimokumandalaareunclearand,therefore,itisimpossibletosayanythingaboutamutualinfluence.
78ThedeitiesincludedintherosarydaimokumandalaaresimilartotheSōtōkirigamijustintroduced,butbecauseitisadaimokumandala,wefindthewords"ItakerefugeinthemarvelousteachingoftheLotusSūtra"inthemiddleoftherosary.
Iwasfurtherabletofindanotherimageoftheprayerbeadsasahang-ingscroll,whichisevenmoresimilartotheSōtōkirigamiandcontainsalmostthesamedeitiesasthekirigamiatDaianji,Kōrinji,andGanshōin.
Thesehangingscrollsdonotgivecluesaboutwhichschoolproducedthem;therefore,theymayhavebeenusedacrosssectarianboundaries.
79Theimageoftherosaryisaestheticallyveryappealingandthereforemight118ZenandMaterialCulturehaveinspireditsuseasahangingscrolldisplayingBuddhistdevotion.
Therosaryasamaterialobjectthusenteredanothermediumofrepresenta-tion.
Thebeadswereclearlylabeledinordertopresentacosmology,easilyreadableforthepatientviewerwhowouldliketoreadthemorethanonehundrednames.
Interestingly,aNichirenpriesttoldmethathehasseenthisimageonashoppingbagofaBuddhistsupplystore.
Presumably,thestorethoughttheimagewasidealforaestheticallydisplayingBuddhistdevotionandforthisreasonmighthavetriedtoemployitasasophisti-catedmarketingstrategy.
The"Mandalization"ofOtherObjectsinKirigamiTounderstandtheconceptsdescribedinthekirigamionrosaries,itisimportanttobrieflyexaminekirigamionotherobjects.
80Thissectionthereforeslightlyoverlapswiththechaptersontherobeandthestaffinthisvolume.
However,itdemonstratesthatthekirigamionprayerbeadsprovideacompletesymbolicvisionoftheBuddhistpantheon.
Oneofthemostelaborateinterpretationscanbefoundinkirgamiontherobe.
IntheFukuden'ekirigami(KirigamiontheFieldofMeritsoftheRobe),thefoursquaresinthefourcornersoftherobeareinterpretedasthefourheavenlykings,inthesamewayasthefourshitenbeadsoftherosaryareofteninterpreted.
81TheKesanokirigami(KirigamaontheRobe),Kesadaiji(GreatMatteroftheRobe),andKyūjōenozu(GraphoftheNine-StripedRobe)clearlydepicttherobeasamandala.
82Themiddlestripeofthenine-striperoberepresentsthecentraldeity:IntheKesanokirigamiandKesadaiji,thestripesrepresenteitherthePureLandoftheVulturePeakofākyamuniBuddhaorMahāvairocanaBuddha,andintheKyūjōenozu,onlyākyamuniBuddha.
Theotherhorizontalpiecesareorderedaroundthecentraldeityandrepresentvariousbuddhasandbodhisattvas,aswellasthediamondandwombrealmmandalas.
Thehorizontalstripesfurthersymbolizevariousfieldsofmerit,whereasthelongverticalstripesrepresentthetenworlds.
83Thefoursquaresinthefourcornersrepre-sentagainthefourheavenlykings.
Thus,asBernardFaurewrites,therobe"becomesthesymbol(andmnemonicdevice)forthemetaphysicaluniverse.
"84TheFukuden'ekirigamifurthercontainsanexplanationabouttherobeanditssymbolicinterpretation.
Oneparagraphinparticularreferstotherosary.
TheexplanationiswrittennexttothecordbywhichthemiddleandPrayerBeadsinSōtōZen119upperendoftherobearetiedtogetherwhenoneputstherobeon.
Thekirigamisays:"Thecordoftherobeisthe[navel]stringfromthetimeonewasinsidethewomb.
Boththestrapofthesword(tetsu鉄)andthethreadoftherosaryexpressthis.
Theshoulderstrapoftheredyamabushi's[trum-pet]shell85(kai)isalsolikethis.
"86Thisexplanationsuggeststhatthecordoftherobeisthenavelstring.
Othertextsalsodescribetherobeasresem-blingthedevelopmentofthefetusinthewombaswellassuggestthattherobeistheplacenta.
87ThethirdIndianpatriarch,Sanavāsa,forexample,is"saidtohavebeenbornwrappedinarobe,whichbecameakāāyawhenhewasordained.
"88Additionally,otherkirigamiassociatetheprocessofgestationwiththerobeaswellaswithBuddhistpractice.
89Interestingly,theFukuden'ekirigamiinterpretsthethreadoftherosaryasthenavelstringandincludesitinthediscourseofgestationaswell.
Unfortunately,otherextantkirigamiontherosarydonotexplorethisideafurther.
Nonetheless,theFukuden'ekirigamiputstherosaryonthesamelevelastherobe.
AnothercentralobjectintheZentraditionisthebowl.
Itwasoftentransmittedtogetherwiththerobeasasignofcorrectdharmatransmis-sion.
Thus,notsurprisingly,itiscoveredinmanyZentexts,includingkirigamithatdescribethemonk'sbowlasamandala.
Theroundshapeissupposedtorepresentākyamuni,andthefourdirectionsareguardedbythefourheavenlykings.
90Accordingly,thegraphsinthekirigamiresem-bleaākyamunimandala,inwhichthefourheavenlykingssurroundtheBuddha,usuallyflankedbytwobodhisattvas.
91Similarly,DōgenwroteintheShōbōgenzōfascicleHatsuu(Bowl)thatthefourheavenlykingswouldprotectthebowl.
92Inotherwords,theideapresentedinkirigamiisalreadyincludedinDōgen'swork.
Anotheressentialimplementofclericsthatiscoveredinkirigamiisthewatervessel.
Inthekirigamieachpartofthevesselisidentifiedwithadeity.
ThebuddhasandbodhisattvasfromthebottomtothetopareDainichi(Skt.
Mahāvairocana),ākyamuni,Kannon,Amida,andYakushi.
Asaresult,italsoresemblesamandala.
93Thekirigamiontheshujōstaffdescribeaverydifferentpantheon,andwhileallextantkirigamiontheshujōdiffertoacertaindegree,theyalwaysincludeagraphoftheshujō.
94Inallgraphs,partsofonesideoftheshujōcorrespondtothetwenty-eightlunarmansionsandpartsoftheothersidetothethirty-sixanimalsoftheearth.
Graphsinsomekirigamiaddition-allycontainthesevenandnineluminariesaswellasthefiveagents.
Intwokirigami,thetopoftheshujōisfurthersaidtorepresentDainichi.
95Moreover,onekirigamiindicatesthattheverybottomrepresentsearthandyang,whereastheareaabovethetoprepresentsheavenandyin.
96120ZenandMaterialCultureAnotherkirigami,whichincludesthemostdetailedgraph,saysthatthebottomrepresentsthewombmandalaandthetopthediamondmandala.
Wefurtherfindthenamesofthefourheavenlykingsandthefourseasonsinthiskirigami.
97Inthisway,theshujōdescribesacomplexcosmologyspanningearthandheaven.
Thistimethepantheonconsistsmostlyofstarsanddifferentkindsofbeings,incontrasttomainlybuddhasorbod-hisattvasindicatedinthekirigamiabouttherobe,bowl,andwatervessel.
Astheseexamplesshow,Buddhistobjectsweremandalizedinkiri-gamiandbecamemanifestationsofasacredpantheon.
Theobjectsfur-therservedtovisualizecomplexcosmologiesandthereforecarrieddeepmeaningfortheinitiatedadept.
Insomecases,thesymbolicinterpreta-tionwasfurthersupportedbyaquestion-answerdialogueincludedinthekirigami.
Thecosmologiesdescribedinthekirigamidiffer:fromthesim-pleākyamunimandaladescribedinthedocumentsonthebowl,totheroberepresentingacomplexmandalanotincludinganylunardeities,tothestaffthatcentersaroundlunarconstellationsandanimals.
Therosarycombinesallthesedifferentideasinahighlycomplexpantheon,andforthisreason,itcouldbesaidthattherosaryeclipsesthesymbolicinterpre-tationsoftheotherimplements.
TheRosarySincetheMeijiEra:FromLayPropagationtoBuddhistWeddingsThemandalicinterpretationincludedinthekirigamireflectsthehighlyeclecticnatureofSōtōZeninmedievalandearlymodernJapan.
InthemiddleoftheTokugawaperiod,thesekindsofinterpretationsbecamecon-sideredheterodoxandthereforewereslowlyforgotten,butsourcesfromtheMeijieraonwardilluminateother,partlynew,functionsandusages.
WhenSōtōclericsstartedtoreachoutmoreactivelytolaypeopleintheMeijiera,therosaryalsoplayedaroleintheireffort.
Forexample,NishiariBokusan(1821–1910),thefounderofmodernShōbōgenzōstud-iesandlaterabbotoftheheadtempleSōjiji,usedrosariesinhispropa-gationofBuddhism.
IntheaftermathoftheseparationofbuddhasandkamiandthesubsequentoppressionofBuddhismintheearlyMeijiera,Nishiari"becameanoutrightstreetevangelist"98andenthusiasticallypropagatedBuddhismthroughoutJapantryingtoraisethepeople'sfaithinBuddhism.
AroundthetimewhenNishiaritookovertheabbacyoftheinfluentialtempleKasuisaiin1877,heboughtacartfullofrosariesandpresentedonetoeverypersonhemet,saying,"ThesebeadswillgiveyouPrayerBeadsinSōtōZen121faithinBuddhism,bringyouhappiness,andprotectyou.
"99ThisexampleshowsthatrosarieswereusedtopropagateBuddhism,preciselybecausetheobjectsthemselveswerethoughttobringbenefits(genzeriyaku)totheiruser,inthiscasehappinessandprotection.
Inaddition,Nishiariadvocatedthesingle-mindedrecitationofthethreerefuges,100incontradistinctiontosomeofhiscontemporarySōtōclericswhopromotedanenbutsupracticeinvokingeitherthenameofākyamuni,Amida,orKannon.
101InhisTōjōshintoanjinketsu(MeaningonSpiritualAssuranceforFollowersoftheSōtōSchool),Nishiariwritesthatoneshouldchantthethreerefugesthreetimes,tentimes,ahundredtimes,athousandtimes,ortenmilliontimesaccordingtoone'sownfeeling.
102Nishiaridoesnotmentionwhetherfollowersshouldusearosarytokeeptrackoftheirnumbers;itseemsmorelikelythateachpersonshouldchantforhowlongheorshelikes.
Nevertheless,thefactthatNishiaripromotedtherecitationofthethreerefugesmighthavebeenconnectedtohisideathattherosarywouldbeanidealimplementforlayevangelization.
TheSōtōschooloffersclericsalotoffreedomintheuseoftherosary.
PortraitsofseveralabbotsofSōjijifromtheMeijiandTaishōeras,forexample,showthemholdingrosaries,indistinctcontradistinctiontotheirKamakura-periodpredecessors.
ThecurrentabbotofSōjiji,EgawaShinzan,alwayswearsarosarywhenservingasofficiant,whiletheprevi-ousabbot,michiKōsen,didnot.
103Furthermore,unlikepriorproscriptionsagainstmakingnoisewiththebeads,someSōtōpriestsrubthebeadstogethertomakeasoundduringthefinaltransferofmerit.
AccordingtoconversationswithSōtōclerics,thisisdoneinordertomagicallyempowerthetransferofmeritaswellastoaddemphasistotheritualmessage.
Itisimportanttonotethatthereisagreatvarietyintermsofthispractice:Forexample,attheprayertempleDaiyūzanSaijōji,theofficiantpriestmakesasoundwiththerosarydur-inggo-kito(prayerrituals),buthedoesnotrubthebeadstogetherduringfuneralservicesorotherdeathrituals.
ArōshiofSaijōjiexplainedthatatthistempletheyutilizetherosaryonlyforritualsrelatedtothis-worldlymatters;forritualsconcerningother-worldlymatters,theydonotuseit.
Priestsofothertemples,however,toldmethattheydorubthebeadstogetherduringfuneralsormemorialservicesaswell.
Ontheotherhand,somepriestsdonotusearosaryinthiswayornotatall;onepriestreasonedthathismasterinstructedhimnottousearosarybecauseDōgenhadnotusedarosary.
DuringmyfieldworkattheheadtempleSōjiji,Ineverheardapriestmakingasoundwiththerosary,but122ZenandMaterialCulturesomeprieststoldmethattherehavebeenafewrōshiwhodid;buttheserepresentexceptionsattheheadtemple.
Nevertheless,thecurrentino(rec-tor),whoactuallymakesasoundwiththeprayerbeadsathishometempleduringfuneralsormemorialservices,instructsthenovicestouseprayerbeadsduringthetanagyō,thesutrareadingsforthedeceasedatindividualhouseholdsinJuly,iftheyhaveprayerbeadswiththem.
Aswesee,theSōtōschooloffersclericsalotoffreedominhandlingtherosary,andthuswefindmanyvariancesinusages.
Nevertheless,itisimportanttonotethatincontrasttotheShingonandTendaischools,makingasoundwiththeprayerbeadsisnotawidelyusedpracticeintheSōtōschool.
104DespitethefactthattherosaryplaysonlyamarginalroleforSōtōcler-icsinrituals,itisusedasamarkerofabbacy.
TobecomeheadpriestataSōtōtemple,allSōtōclericsneedtoobserveariteatthetwoheadtemplesEiheijiandSōjijiduringwhichtheyactastheheadtemple'sabbotforonenight.
AccordingtoUchiyamaKan'i,thereisaspecialtransmissionregardinghowtousetherosaryduringthistime.
Themonkwhounder-goesthisriteofpassagewouldcarryafanandarosary.
Ifthemonkwenttothebathroom,hewouldlooptherosaryintoaspecialformandplaceitonthetableinhisroom.
UchiyamawritesthatthisetiquetteisusuallyonlytaughttosomeonewhomightbecameabbotofSōjijiorEiheiji,andthespecialhandlingthereforemarksthestatusoftheabbot.
105Therosaryeventuallygainedavitalroleinanewlyinventedritual:theBuddhistwedding.
ThehandingoveroftherosariestothebrideandgroomisoneofthespecialcharacteristicsofaBuddhistwedding,clearlydistin-guishingitfromShintōandChristianweddings.
TheformerNichirenmonkTanakaChigaku(1861–1939)wasthefirsttoperformBuddhistwed-dingceremoniesin1885.
AllJapaneseBuddhistschoolsadoptedthisnewceremonyinthefollowingyears.
KurumaTakudō(1877–1964)wasthefirsttoadaptthisriteofpassagefortheSōtōschoolinthe1910s.
Followinghisexample,otherSōtōleaders,suchasIshikawaSodō(1841–1920)andNukariyaKaiten(1867–1934),wroteritualproceduresforthisritualandpresidedoverweddingceremonies.
AfterWorldWarII,theheadquartersstartedtoofficiallypromotethisnewceremony.
106DuringaBuddhistwedding,theofficiantgivesthebrideandgroomarosarywhiletheybothputtheirhandstogetheringasshō.
Alternatively,thecouplecanexchangerosaries.
107Unfortunately,theSōtōsourcesdonotgiveinformationwhyclericschosearosaryfortheweddingceremony.
WecanthereforeonlyassumewhyJapaneseclericsselectedprayerbeads:first,itisclearlyaBuddhistimplement,andsecond,itsroundshapeissimilarPrayerBeadsinSōtōZen123toaweddingring.
IntheofficialproceduresissuedbytheheadquartersoftheSōtōschool,thetermjuzuiswrittennotwiththecommoncharacters数珠,butas寿珠,literallymeaninglong-lifebeads.
108TheexplanationontheBuddhistweddingissuedbytheSōtōschoolheadquartersstates,"Thelife-longbeadsareasymbolofaBuddhist.
Itsbeadsexpressthepeaceful-nessoftheheartanditscircletheharmonybetweenpeople.
"109ThecoupleusuallybuystheirrosariesinastoreforBuddhistimple-ments.
Thecolorandmaterialarenotprescribed.
Thebrideandthegroomalsodonotneedtoselectthesamekindofbeads,andsotheyusu-allychooserosariesthataredistinctformenorwomenintermsofcolorandsize.
110Severalsutrasdiscussthematerialsusedforrosariesanddistinguishhowmuchvirtuearosaryhasbasedonitsmaterials.
Theresultingrank-ingsvary,butalltextsconsiderseedsfromthebodhitreetobethemostbeneficialbecausetheBuddhareachedenlightenmentunderthebodhitree.
111WhenIspokewithrosaryshopowners,however,theydidnottalkaboutthisidea.
Instead,itseemedthattheircustomersselectrosariesaccordingtopersonaltaste.
Inadditiontotherosariesthatshopsexhibit,rosarymakersoffercustomizedrosaries.
OnedaywhenIvisitedSōjiji,alaywomancametothesalespersonofthetempleshopandrequestedanewrosarymadeoutofredstoneswithwhitetassels.
Thesecolorswouldbeauspiciousandshehadonelikethis,butunfortunately,thethreadbrokeandshewantedtoreplaceit.
Sōjiji,asaheadtemplewithmanyparishionersvisitingthroughouttheyear,hasaratherlargeselectionofrosariesforsale.
Thetempleshopalsosellsbraceletrosariesthatcanbeusedassouvenirs,forexample,rosa-rieswithChinesezodiacsigns.
Othertemplesalsosellrosaries,mostlybraceletrosaries,whichareanicesouvenirforfriendsoroneself,beingdevotionalandfashionableatthesametime.
Additionally,asstatedearlier,rosarieswereoftenconsideredastalismans,andconsequently,braceletrosariesthataresupposedtowardoffevilorbringgoodfortuneareverypopularinJapan.
112OneofthemostinterestingrosariesthatIencounteredduringmyfieldworkwastheshimenawanenjuattheprayertempleToyokawaInariMyōgonji,famedforitsInariworshipandforprovidingthis-worldlyben-efits(Fig.
4.
4).
Remarkably,theshimenawanenjudoesnothavebeads;instead,itconsistsofathinricestrawrope,similartothelarge,thickricestrawropes(shimenawa)thatareplacedaroundsacrednaturalobjects,suchastreesorstones,andthataretodaymostlyassociatedwithShintō.
124ZenandMaterialCultureTheshimenawanenjualsohasawhitepaperstripthatremindsoneofthezigzagpaperstripsofthelargeshimenawa.
VisitorscanobtainashimenawanenjuintheInariHonden,inwhichDakiniShintenisenshrined,andwritetheintentionoftheirprayer,suchaseconomicsuccess,safetravel,orgoodhealth,onthewhitepaperstrip.
ThevisitorsthenpayrespecttoalldeitiesenshrinedatthetemplebeforefinallyvisitingOkunoin,theinnersanctuaryofthetemple,wheretheycaneitherplacetheirnenjuinaspe-cialtrayortakeithome.
Accordingtoasalespersonoftheema(woodentablets)atToyokawaInari,thepracticeoftheshimenawanenjuatToyokawaInarionlystartedaroundthreeorfouryearsagoandhencetheshimenawanenjuwascreativelyaddedtothewidearrayofwish-fulfillingtalismansandritualsthatthetempleoffers.
WhenIinterviewedSōtōclericsabouttheusesoftherosaryincontem-porarySōtōZen,onepriestofYamagataprefecturetoldmeaboutaprac-ticeathistemple:laypeoplemeetafterafuneralofaparishionerinordertoprayforthewell-beingofthedecreasedbyobservingaritualpracticeFigure4.
4ShimenawanenjuatToyokawaInariMyōgonji.
Photographbytheauthor.
PrayerBeadsinSōtōZen125calledo-‰nenbutsu.
Thelaypeoplesitinacircleandchantthenamesofthethirteenbuddhas[andbodhisattvas](jūsanbutsu)whilecountingtherecitationswithagiganticrosary.
113AnotherpriestfromNagoyarecountedthataroundthirtyyearsago,Shugendōpractitionersperformedaday-‰longrecitationoftheHeartSūtraonethousandtimes(sengankyō)infrontofhistemple'smainhall.
Duringthisritual,aroundtwentypeoplefreelymovedthebeadsofalargerosary—‰sometimesquickly,sometimesslowly—‰whilerecitingtheHeartSūtra.
ThesetwocasesremindoneofthecommunalchantingofAmida'snameonemilliontimes,whichwasaverypopularPureLandpracticeduringtheTokugawaperiod.
114Theyfurtherbringusbacktotheoriginalfunctionoftherosarytokeepcountofthenumberofrecitations.
Inthejustdescribedcases,thegroupsofdevoteesholdandmanipulateverylargerosarieswhilecommunallyintoningnamesofbud-dhasandbodhisattvasorsacredtexts.
Insodoing,theyforgeacommunityoffellowpractitionerswhoareliterallyconnectedbythebeadsandstringoftherosaryontheonehand,andbythesoundoftheirownvoicesontheother.
Thefoundationofthiscommunalpracticecanbefoundintheindi-vidualrecitationpracticefirstdescribedintheMuhuanzijing.
ConclusionThischapterhasexaminedthedevelopmentandchangingfunctionsoftherosaryovertime.
Manyofthecitedexamplesshowthatprayerbeadshaveservedassourcesofsectarianidentification,astheformanduseofrosariesdiffersdependingontheschool.
Thedevelopmentofthevariousformswasfirstinspiredbydifferentritualanddevotionaluses.
Atthesametime,however,thevariousformshelpedtobuildadistinctsectar-ianmaterialculturebecauseobjects,suchasaformalSōtōrosarywithametalringattached,makeschoolaffiliationimmediatelyapparenttotheinformedobserver.
Dōgen,however,seemstohavenotconsideredtherosaryasanimpor-tantritualimplement,andheadvisedZenmonkstonotholdarosarywhenfacingsomeone,becausethiswouldbediscourteous.
MedievalportraitsalsodonotdepictZenmonksholdingprayerbeads.
Thus,itsveryabsenceonceindicatedthestatusofaZencleric,distinguishinghimfromclericsofothertraditions.
Despitethishistoricalbackground,how-ever,thespecialwayofhandlingtherosaryduringtheone-‰night-‰abbacyataheadtemple,marksaSōtōclericasanabbotincontemporaryJapan.
NishiariBokusanfurtherusedtherosaryasatoolinlaypropagation,126ZenandMaterialCultureclaimingitwouldbringbenefits,suchashappinessandprotection.
Wecanassumethatwhenhehandedoverarosarytosomeone,hewas,atleastforabriefmoment,facingsomeoneholdingarosaryandinthiswaydidnotfollowDōgen'searlierinstruction.
SeveralportraitsofSōjijiabbotsalsoshowthemholdingrosaries.
Basedoncurrentlyavailablesources,itisunclearhowparishionersatSōtōtemplesusedtherosarybeforetheMeijiera.
SourcessincetheMeijiera,however,showdiverseusages.
Mostinterestingly,therosarygainedacentralroleinBuddhistweddingceremonies,performedforlaityandclergyalike.
ThehandingoverorexchangeofrosariesisoneofthespecialcharacteristicsthatclearlydistinguishaBuddhistweddingfromaShintōorChristianone.
AsIhaveshown,thekirigamiontherosarydescribeacomplexpan-theoninamandalicfashion.
Itisimportanttonotethatthisreadingdepartedfromtheexplanationsfoundinsutras,andpresumablyJapaneseclericsdevelopedthesenewmeanings.
Differentinterpretationsfoundinkirigamifurthersuggestthatsymbolicassociationswerefluidandthatmeaningswereflexibletoacertaindegree.
Otherobjectsdescribedinkiri-gami,suchastherobe,thewatervessel,thebowl,andthestaff,werealsousedtoexpressacosmologyandweretherebymandalized.
ThehighlysymbolicmeaningsoutlinedinthedocumentsthushintattheeclecticnatureofSōtōZeninmedievalandearlymodernJapan,showinginflu-encesofesotericBuddhism,onmyōdō,andsukuyōdō.
IncontemporarySōtōZenorthodoxy,thefocusisonDōgenandhisthought,withshikantazaasitsverycore.
Inthisview,thereisnoplaceforhighlysymbolicinterpretationsoftherosaryasamandalaorforanimplementthatiscloselyassociatedwiththecountingofrecitations,apracticethatisconsideredcontrarytoshinkantaza.
Nevertheless,rosariesarenecessaryitemsforallparishionersvisitingaSōtōtempleandplayacentralroleinBuddhistweddingceremonies,whichSōtōclericshaveactivelypromotedinrecentyears.
Moreover,contemporarySōtōclericsalsooccasionallydousetherosaryinritualsettings.
Mystudyoftherosarydemonstratesthatobjectsdonothavemean-ingsinthemselves.
Usersbringtheobjectstolifeandinvestthemwithmeanings.
Thesemeaningschangedependingontheneeds,doctrines,andapproachesoftheusers.
Whenthedoctrinesorapproacheschange,theusersadjusttheform,uses,andinterpretationsoftheimplementsaccordingly.
Asaresult,themeaningsorsymbolicassociationschange,newmeaningsareadded,andothersareforgotten.
PrayerBeadsinSōtōZen127Notes1.
Althoughtheterm"rosary"originatesintheChristiantraditionanddescribesChristianprayerbeads,WesternscholarshaveusedthetermtodescribeBuddhistprayerbeads.
Consistentwiththeexistingliterature,Ithereforeusetheterm"rosary"forBuddhistprayerbeadsinthisarticle.
2.
ItōKokan,Gasshōtonenjunohanashi:Bukkyōshinkōnyūmon,revisededition(Tokyo:Daihōrinkaku,1980),65,146–‰147;GeorgeJ.
Tanabe,"TellingBeads:TheFormsandFunctionsoftheBuddhistRosaryinJapan,"BeitrgedesArbeitskreisesJapanischeReligionen(2012):14.
3.
http://‰www.
sotozen-‰net.
or.
jp/‰ceremony/‰memorial/‰hoji(lastaccessedApril29,2016)andhttp://‰www.
sotozen-‰net.
or.
jp/‰ceremony/‰memorial/‰obutsudan(lastaccessedApril29,2016).
4.
JohnKieschnick,TheImpactofBuddhismonChineseMaterialCulture(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,2003),85.
5.
AnneBreckenridgeDorsey,"PrayerBeadsinAsianBuddhistCultures,"ArtsofAsia34,no.
4(2004):49.
Foranin-‰depthdiscussionoftherosaryinIndiaandChina,seeKieschnick,TheImpactofBuddhismonChineseMaterialCulture,andforadetailedstudyofprayerbeadsinJapaneseBuddhism,seeTanabe,"TellingBeads.
"ForanoverviewofrosariesindifferentBuddhistcultures,seeDorsey,"PrayerBeadsinAsianBuddhistCultures.
"6.
See,forexample,MochizukiShinko,ed.
,Bukkyodaijiten,10vols.
,revisededi-tion(Tokyo:SekaiSeitenKankōKyōkai,1960),2476.
7.
Kieschnick,TheImpactofBuddhismonChineseMaterialCulture,119.
8.
OkazakiJōji,ed.
,Butsugudaijiten(Tokyo:KamakuraShinsho,1982),328;AnneNishimuraMorseandSamuelCrowellMorse,ObjectasInsight:JapaneseBuddhistArtandRitual(Katonah,NY:KatonahMuseumofArt,1995),64;Kieschnick,TheImpactofBuddhismonChineseMaterialCulture,119.
9.
Kieschnick,TheImpactofBuddhismonChineseMaterialCulture,119.
10.
T17,no.
786.
ForanEnglishtranslation,seeKieschnick,TheImpactofBuddhismonChineseMaterialCulture,119–‰120.
11.
Kieschnick,TheImpactofBuddhismonChineseMaterialCulture,120.
12.
Kieschnick,TheImpactofBuddhismonChineseMaterialCulture,124.
13.
T17:726c10–‰15andFoshuōjiaoliangshuzhugongdejing,atranslationofthesamework(T17:727b5–‰8).
SeealsoKieschnick,TheImpactofBuddhismonChineseMaterialCulture,123.
14.
Kieschnick,TheImpactofBuddhismonChineseMaterialCulture,124–‰129.
15.
Kieschnick,TheImpactofBuddhismonChineseMaterialCulture,129–‰138.
16.
Itō,Gasshōtonenjunohanashi,83–‰84;KawaguchiKōfū,ed.
,ShinpenSōtōshūjis-sensōsho1(Tokyo:Dōhōsha,2010),294.
17.
NishimuraMinori,"Juzunikansurudanshō,"SankōBunkaKenkyūjoNenpō41(2010):36;Kawaguchi,ed.
,ShinpenSōtōshūjissensōsho1,294.
128ZenandMaterialCulture18.
HanayamaShinsho,TheStoryoftheJuzu(SanFrancisco:BuddhistChurchesofAmerica,1962),7.
19.
HanayamaShinsho,TheStoryoftheJuzu,7;Okazaki,ed.
,Butsugudaijiten,330.
20.
Tanabe,"TellingBeads,"2.
21.
Tanabe,"TellingBeads,"2.
SeealsoHanayama,TheStoryoftheJuzu,7.
22.
Hanayama,TheStoryoftheJuzu,10;Okazaki,ed.
,Butsugudaijiten,328.
23.
Foranoverviewoftheformoftheseearlyrosaries,seeItō,Gasshōtonenjunohanashi,frontmatter.
24.
Foranexplanationofthevariousformsofcontemporaryrosariesinthedif-ferentschools,seeItō,Gasshōtonenjunohanashi,149–162,andOkazaki,ed.
,Butsugudaijiten,334–351.
ForadiscussionoftheuseofrosariesintheJapaneseBuddhistschools,seeTanabe,"TellingBeads,"9–12.
25.
Foranoverviewofthevariousforms,see,forexample,Okazaki,ed.
,Butsugudaijiten,334–351.
26.
See,forexample,Okazaki,ed.
,Butsugudaijiten,334;andKawaguchi,ed.
,ShinpenSōtōshūjissensōsho1,294.
27.
See,forexample,http://www.
juzuya.
jp/jyuzu2.
phporhttps://ssl.
yasuda-nenju.
com/choice/hold.
php(lastaccessedJune5,2016).
28.
Tanabe,"TellingBeads,"4.
SeealsoKieschnick,TheImpactofBuddhismonChineseMaterialCulture,118.
29.
SeeManshushilizhouzangzhongjiaoliangshuzhugongdejing,T17:726c16–17;Foshuōjiaoliangshuzhugongdejing,T17:727b9–10;Jin'gangdingyuijanianzhujing,T17:727c27–28;Tuoluonijijing,T18:802c05–6.
30.
AlthoughtheRinzaischolarmonkMujakuDōchū(1653–1744)writesthatPureLandadherentsusedrosarieswiththirty-sixbeadsandZenadherentsrosarieswitheighteenbeads(Zenrinshōkisen[Tokyo:SeishinShobō,1963],786),theSōtōscholarmonkMenzanZuihō(1683–1769)statesthatZenfollowerswouldwearrosarieswiththirty-sixoreighteenbeads(EifukuMenzanoshōkōroku,inSōtōshūZenshoKankōkai,ed.
,SōtōshūzenshoGoroku3[Tokyo:SōtōshūShūmuchō,1973],689).
31.
See,forexample,Mikkyōdaijiten,6vols.
(Kyoto:Hōzōkan,1969–1970),1782;Itō,Gasshōtonenjunohanashi,88,105;andOkazaki,ed.
,Butsugudaijiten,332.
32.
Mikkyōdaijiten,1782;Itō,Gasshōtonenjunohanashi,90–91,112–114;andTanabe,"TellingBeads,"5.
33.
T17:727c15–16.
34.
Tanabe,"TellingBeads,"16.
35.
Itō,Gasshōtonenjunohanashi,91.
36.
Itō,Gasshōtonenjunohanashi,93–94;andTanabe,"TellingBeads,"4.
37.
Itō,Gasshōtonenjunohanashi,91–92.
38.
Tanabe,"TellingBeads,"4.
39.
Mochizuki,ed.
,Bukkyodaijiten,2475;andTanabe,"TellingBeads,"4.
PrayerBeadsinSōtōZen12940.
Liketheoriginsofthismetalring,itsmeaningisalsoobscure.
Apriestandasalespersonbothtoldmethatonetheoryaboutitsmeaningisthattheringmightresembletheringoftherakusu,abib-likegarmentthatclericsandlaydevoteeswhohavetakenthepreceptsweararoundtheneck.
41.
Yifa,TheOriginsofBuddhistMonasticCodesinChina:AnAnnotatedTranslationandStudyoftheChanyuanqinggui(Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,2002),139.
Fortheoriginal,seeX63:528a7–8.
42.
X63:558b10.
43.
T48:1146a04.
ForanEnglishtranslationoftheChixiuBaizhangqinggui,seeShoheiIchimura,TheBaizhangZenMonasticRegulations:Taishōvolume48,Number2025(Berkeley:NumataCenterforBuddhistTranslationandResearch,2006).
ThepassagequotingtheRuzhongriyongqingguicanbefoundinIchimura,TheBaizhangZenMonasticRegulations,316.
44.
T48:1139a01–1140a12.
ForanEnglishtranslation,seeIchimura,TheBaizhangZenMonasticRegulations,248–257.
45.
Ichimura,TheBaizhangZenMonasticRegulations,254.
Fortheoriginal,seeT48:1139c05.
TheChixiuBaizhangqingguireferstotheMoulimantuoluozhoujing(T19,no.
1007).
Butonlythefirstpartofthequoteisincludedinthesutra(T19:667b09).
46.
T48:1139c05–12.
ForanEnglishtranslation,seeIchimura,TheBaizhangZenMonasticRegulations,254–255.
47.
AuctionswereoneofthemanycommercialactivitiesChinesemonasterieswereengagedin.
Othersactivitieswere,forexample,operatingmillsandoilpresses,pawnbroking,moneylending,andholdinglotteries.
Onmonasticauc-tionsinChina,seeLien-ShengYang,StudiesinChineseInstitutionalHistory(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1963),206–211,andMichaelJ.
Walsh,SacredEconomies:BuddhistMonasticismandTerritorialityinMedievalChina(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2010),59,62–63.
48.
T48:1147c9–10.
ForanEnglishtranslation,seeIchimura,TheBaizhangZenMonasticRegulations,334.
49.
X63:657a6;X63:585c21.
50.
Jushōshingi,inSōtōshūZenshoKankōkai,ed.
,inZokuSōtōshūzenshoshingi,kōshiki(Tokyo:SōtōshūShūmuchō,1976),297;andTōjōsōdōshingigyōhōshō,inSōtōshūZenshoKankōkai,ed.
,Sōtōshūzenshoshingi(Tokyo:SōtōshūShūmuchō,1972),184,187.
51.
TettsūGikaizenjisōki,inSōtōshūZenshoKankōkai,ed.
,ZokuSōtōshūzenshoshingi,kōshiki,2;andMeihōSotetsuzenjisōki,inSōtōshūZenshoKankōkai,ed.
,ZokuSōtōshūzenshoshingi,kōshiki,11.
52.
T82:27c5.
53.
T82:324a25–26.
54.
T82:330a08–10.
130ZenandMaterialCulture55.
MytranslationisbasedontheMeishū明州manuscriptfrom1538.
Allotherextantmanuscriptsincludeasimilarstatement.
SeeKawamuraKōdō(ed.
),ShohontaikōEiheikaizanDōgenzenjigyōjōKenzeiki(Tokyo:TaishūkanShoten,1975),101.
56.
KosakaKiyū,HareyamaShuneietal.
,DōgenZenjizenshū15:Genbuntaishōgen-daigoyaku,shingi,kaihō,shisho(Tokyo:Shunjūsha,2013),258.
57.
Yōkōjinomeihō(Kanazawa:Ishikawa-kenRekishiHakubutsukan,2000),59.
58.
Kirigamibelongtoshōmono,averybroadcategoryoftransmissionrecords.
Regardingthedifferentgenresofshōmono,andforadetailedstudyofkirigami,seeIshikawaRikizan,Zenshūsōdenshiryōnokenkyū,2vols.
(Kyoto:Hōzōkan,2001),25–31.
Themostin-depthstudyonkirigamiinEnglishisKigensanLicha'sdissertation(KigensanStephanLicha,"TheImperfectibleBody:EsotericTransmissioninMedievalSōtōZenBuddhism,"PhDdiss.
,UniversityofLondon,2011).
Lichahasalsostudiedconceptsofembryologyexplainedinkiri-gami(KigensanLicha,"EmbryologyinEarlyModernSōtōZenBuddhism,"inAnnaAndreevaandDominicSteavu,ed.
,TransformingtheVoid:EmbryologicalDiscourseandReproductiveImageryinEastAsianReligions[Leiden/Boston:Brill,2016],480–521).
BernardFaurehasexaminedkirigamiontherobeandafewritualimplements(BernardFaure,"Quandl'habitfaitlemoine:TheSymbolismofthekāāyainSōtōZen,"Cahiersd'Extrême-Asie8[1995]:335–369;andBernardFaure,VisionsofPower:ImaginingMedievalJapaneseBuddhism[Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1996],chapter9).
WilliamBodifordhasofferedastudyofkōanlanguageinshōmonoincludingkirigami(WilliamM.
Bodiford,SōtōZeninMedievalJapan[Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,1993],chapter12).
Hefurtheranalyzedsecrettransmissiondocumentsinotherarticles;see,forexample,WilliamBodiford,"EmptinessandDust:ZenDharmaTransmissionRituals,"inDavidGordonWhite,ed.
,TantrainPractice(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,2000),299–307;andWilliamBodiford,"ZenandJapaneseSwordsmanshipReconsidered,"inAlexanderBennett,ed.
,BudoPerspectives(Auckland:KendoWorldPublications,2005),69–103.
59.
Ishikawa,Zenshūsōdenshiryōnokenkyū,30,231.
Theoriginsofkirigamiaredif-ficulttoreconstruct.
TheoldestextantkirigamioftheSōtōschoolwerewrittenbetween1481and1534(Ishikawa,Zenshūsōdenshiryōnokenkyū,228).
Mostextantkirigami,however,datefromthesixteenthtoseventeenthcentury,buttheymightreflectearlierpractices.
ManykirigamiclaimtooriginatewithRujing(Jp.
Nyojō,1163–1228),Dōgen,Ejō(1198–1280),orKeizan;butthesearelaterattributions(Ishikawa,Zenshūsōdenshiryōnokenkyū,233,240).
AfterMenzanexcoriatedkirigamiinthemid-Tokugawaperiod,manylineagesstoppedtrans-mittingthem,butafewlineagesstillhandthemdowntoday.
Inthesecases,thedocumentsaretransmittedintheformofacollectionofpreviouslywrittenkiri-gamiaspartofthedharmatransmission,andthereforetheirmerepossession,nottheircontent,isimportanttotheclerics.
Onepriest,forexample,toldmehecannotreadmostofhiskirigami,astheyarewritteninaverycursivescript.
PrayerBeadsinSōtōZen13160.
Ishikawa,Zenshūsōdenshiryōnokenkyū,237–238,311–389.
61.
Juzukirigami.
ItislistedinSōtōshūShūhōChōsaIinkai,Sōtōshūshūhōchōsamokurokukaidaishū2(Tokyo:SōtōshūShūmuchō,1994),280.
62.
Foratypographicalreprint,seeIshikawa,Zenshūsōdenshiryōnokenkyū,374–375.
63.
ForadetailedanalysisofthealtararrangementsofGakkōandNikkōflankingthemedicineBuddha,seePamelaD.
Winfield,"EsotericImagesofLightandLifeatOsakaKokubunji,Japan,"SoutheastReviewofAsianStudies34(2012):128–152.
64.
Juzuzu,inTakakusuJunjiroandOnoGenmyōetal.
,ed.
,TaishōshinshūdaizōkyōzuzōVol.
10(Tokyo:TaishōIssaikyōKankōkai,1934),besshi2,andinNaraKokuritsuHakubutsukan,ed.
,KannonnomiteraIshiyamadera(Nara:NaraKokuritsuHakubutsukan,2002),68.
Foranexplanationofthedocument,seeNaraKokuritsuHakubutsukan,ed.
,KannonnomiteraIshiyamadera,130–131.
65.
IinterpretedthefirstnamehereasKongōken金剛拳.
However,thecharac-tersinthemanuscriptownedbyShōdōare金剛肩,andthemanuscriptthatIshikawapublishedasatypographicalreprintgivesthecharacters金剛眷,butIshikawasuspectedthatKongōkenwasmeanthere(Ishikawa,Zenshūsōdenshiryōnokenkyū,374).
IfollowedIshikawa'ssuggestionbecausethegroupofthefourbodhisattvasthenincludesabodhisattvaoftheperfectedbodyassembly(Jp.
jōjin'e)ofthediamondmandalawhorepresentsthenorthandinthiswaycomplementstheotherthreebodhisattvas.
66.
Thesefourbodhisattvasbelongtothethirty-sevendeitiesoftheperfectedbodyassemblyinthediamondmandala.
Thisassemblyliesinthecenterofthedia-mondmandalaandrepresentsMahāvairocana'sperfectuniversalbody.
Threeofthefourbodhisattvasmentionedinthekirigami—Kongōken,Kongōai,andKongōgo—belongtotheSixteenGreatBodhisattvas,whosurroundthefourbuddhasinfourmooncirclesinthefourdirections:KongōkentheBuddhainthenorth,KongōaitheBuddhaintheeast,andKongōgotheBuddhainthewest.
Kongōsakuisthebodhisattvainthesouthernouterborderoftheassemblyoftheperfectedbody.
67.
Therosaryhasatwo-coloredthreadinredandwhite.
Thereisonetasselinredandoneinwhiteoneachmotherbead.
Thecolorsredandwhitehaveseveralassociations.
HeretheyprobablyrepresentthebodhisattvasNikkōandGakkō.
Nikkō(lit.
SunRadiance)isoftendepictedwitharedsolardisk,whereasGakkō(lit.
MoonRadiance)isdepictedwithawhitelunardisk.
Furthermore,NikkōisoftenpaintedwitharedbodyandGakkōwithawhitebody(Mochizuki,ed.
,Bukkyodaijiten,759,4065;http://www.
onmarkproductions.
com/html/nikko-gakko.
shtml,lastaccessedJune6,2016).
Inthisway,thetwocolorsofthetas-selscarrytheassociationofthetwomotherbeadswithNikkōandGakkōontothetassels.
Anothercommoninterpretationisthatwhiteandredrepresentfatherandmother,inotherwords,maleandfemale(see,forexample,Nyūtaishusseikirigami,inLicha,"EmbryologyinEarlyModernSōtōZenBuddhism,"495–496).
132ZenandMaterialCulture68.
Juzudaiji.
ItislistedinSōtōshūBunkazaiChōsaIinkai,Sōtōshūbunkazaichōsamokurokukaidaishū6(Tokyo:SōtōshūShūmuchō,2003),123.
69.
Juzunokirigami.
ItislistedinSōtōshūBunkazaiChōsaIinkai,Sōtōshūbunkazaichōsamokurokukaidaishū7(Tokyo:SōtōshūShūmuchō,2006),7.
70.
Juzunokirigami.
ItislistedinSōtōshūBunkazaiChōsaIinkai,Sōtōshūbunkazaichōsamokurokukaidaishū7,109.
71.
ForRokujiten,seeBendettaLomi,"Dharanis,Talismans,andStrawDolls:RitualChoreographiesandHealingStrategiesofthe'Rokujikyōhō'inMedievalJapan,"JapaneseJournalofReligiousStudies41,no.
2(2014):255–304,andforNyoirinKannon,seeBernardFaure,TheFluidPantheon:GodsofMedievalJapan,Volume1(Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,2016),285–314.
Forahelpfulcompila-tionofsourcesonNyoirinKannonandthewish-fulfillingjewel,seehttp://www.
onmarkproductions.
com/html/kannon.
shtml#sixkannononmarkproductions(lastaccessedAugust5,2016).
72.
Zenmitsuseemstobeanobscuredivineboy.
Iwasnotabletofindanyinforma-tiononhim.
OnthepairingofFudōandAizen,seeBernardFaure,TheFluidPantheon:GodsofMedievalJapan,Volume1,chapter5.
Interestingly,thepairisalsoincludedinakirigamionthefly-whiskinthearchiveofShōbōji(undated).
Whereasthebottomofthefly-whiskissaidtorepresentFudō,thetopisthoughttorepresentAizen.
ThismanuscriptislistedinSōtōshūShūhōChōsaIinkai,Sōtōshūshūhōchōsamokurokukaidaishū2,167.
Foratypographicalreprint,seeIizukaHironobuandTsuchiyaKeiko,"RinkaSōtōshūniokerusōdenshiryōkenkyūjosetsu6:Yōkōjikankeishiryōhen,"Komazawadaigakubukkyōgakuburonshū43(2012):173.
73.
Substitute(dai)indicatesherethattheteachergivestheanswerinplaceofadisciple.
74.
Themeaningofthephrase"Darumanobikūhōgeshitafu達磨之鼻孔放下シタワ"isnotclear,andIwasnotabletofindanothertextthatusesasimilarphrase.
However,importanttonoteisthatintheZencontextnostrilsoftenstandforsomeone'soriginalface(honrainomenmoku)(see,forexample,Komazawadaigakunaizengakudaijitenhensanjo,ed.
Zengakudaijiten,shin-han[Tokyo:Taishūkan,1985],1042).
75.
A-ban-uniswritteninSiddhascript.
Aisthefirstletterandun(atranslitera-tionoftheSanskritsyllablehū)thelastletteroftheSanskritalphabet.
BanisatransliterationoftheSanskritsyllableva.
Allthreesyllableshavemanyasso-ciations.
Aissometimesinterpretedasthebeginningortheaspirationtoseekenlightenmentandunastheendortherealizationofnirvana.
Banindicateswis-dom(seeNakamuraHajime,Bukkyōgojiten[Tokyo:TōkyōShoseki,1985],2,94,1118).
Theinclusionofbaninthecommonpaira-unmightsuggestthatwisdom(ban)isneededonthepathfromtheaspirationtoseekenlightenmenttofinallyobtainingawakening.
However,itwouldbenecessarytostudyothershōmonothatexplaina-ban-uninordertounderstandhowSōtōmonksinterpretedthesePrayerBeadsinSōtōZen133Sanskritsyllables.
ThemonkTsūkokumadeanoteattheendofthelineindicat-inganalternativewritingoftheSiddhaletterban(seeFig.
4.
3).
76.
Thetextgivesthecharacters生碍(lit.
creatingobstructions)forShōge,butIusedthehomophone障礙(lit.
hindrances)forthetranslationofthename,becauseIfoundthesethreenamesinothersources.
TheoralsayingsofNichiren,forexample,state,"Sanbōkōjinisthetenrākasīs.
[He]isfurtherKekatsu-jin,Tonyoku-jin,andShōge-jin障礙神"(Ongikuden,T84:335a19–21).
Inkagura,thethreefacesofKōjinarealsointerpretedasKekatsu-jin,Tonyoku-jin,andShōge-jin(http://daijo-kagura.
jimdo.
com/大乗神楽とは/,lastaccessedMay13,2016).
77.
Thedaimokumandala(lit.
titlemandala)isamandalainscriptthathasthewords"Namumyōhōrengekyō(ItakerefugeinthemarvelousteachingoftheLotusSūtra)"initscenter.
ItservesasacentralobjectofworshipintheNichirenschool.
78.
OneexampleoftherosarydaimokumandalaisincludedinthePetzoldCollectionatHarvard(http://hollis.
harvard.
edu/primo_library/libweb/action/dlDisplay.
dovid=HVD&search_scope=default_scope&docId=HVD_ALEPH012708372&fn=permalinkandhttp://ids.
lib.
harvard.
edu/ids/view/24624743buttons=y,lastaccessedApril29,2016).
SeealsothefrontispieceinItō,GasshōtonenjunohanashiorthesecondvolumeofUkitaRenyō,Hokekyōmikujireikan-sen,3vols.
(Kyoto:MurakamiKanbē,1861;intheMitsuiCollectionatUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley),36verso–37recto.
79.
http://www.
kawasaki-beads.
com/blog/p=5082(lastaccessedApril29,2016)andhttp://tobifudo.
jp/newmon/butugu/zyuzu.
html(lastaccessedApril29,2016).
ThelattersourceisthewebpageofthetempleShōbōininTokyo,whichacquiredthisscrollafterWorldWarII.
TheheadpriestassumedthatthescrollwasprintedsometimebetweentheendoftheMeijieraandthebeginningoftheShōwaera(e-mailconversationwithShōbōin).
80.
Forastudyofkirigamionobjects,seealsoFaure,"Quandl'habitfaitlemoine,"andFaure,VisionsofPower,chapter9.
81.
Fukuden'ekirigami(undated,seventeenthcentury,archiveofShōryūji).
ItislistedinSōtōshūShūhōChōsaIinkai,Sōtōshūshūhōchōsamokurokukaidaishū2,280.
Foratypographicalreprint,seeIshikawa,Zenshūsōdenshiryōnokenkyū,318–320orIizukaHironobu,"RinkaSōtōshūniokerusōdenshiryōkenkyūjosetsu2:Eiheijishozōshiryō(ge),"inKomazawaDaigakuBukkyōgakubuRonshū39(2008),166–167.
82.
Kesanokirigami(undated,archiveofEiheiji).
Foratypographicalreprint,seeIizuka,"RinkaSōtōshūniokerusōdenshiryōkenkyūjosetsu2,"261–262.
Kesadaiji(undated,seventeenthcentury,archiveofShōryūji).
ItislistedinSōtōshūShūhōChōsaIinkai,Sōtōshūshūhōchōsamokurokukaidaishū2,279.
Foratypo-graphicalreprint,seeIshikawa,Zenshūsōdenshiryōnokenkyū,321orIizuka,"RinkaSōtōshūniokerusōdenshiryōkenkyūjosetsu2,"168.
Kyūjōenozu134ZenandMaterialCulture(undated,archiveofGanshōin).
ItislistedinSōtōshūBunkazaiChōsaIinkai,Sōtōshūbunkazaichōsamokurokukaidaishū7,111.
83.
ForanEnglishtranslationofthediagramincludedintheKesadaiji,seeBernardFaure,"Quandl'habitfaitlemoine,"369.
84.
BernardFaure,VisionsofPower,233.
85.
Kaiindicatesthehoragai,atrumpetshellplayedmainlybyShugendōpractitioners.
86.
Ishikawa,Zenshūsōdenshiryōnokenkyū,318;Iizuka,"RinkaSōtōshūniokerusōdenshiryōkenkyūjosetsu2,"267.
87.
Onthegestationandtherobe,seeFaure,"Quandl'habitfaitlemoine.
"OngestationinearlymodernSōtōZen,seeKigensanLicha,"EmbryologyinEarlyModernSōtōZenBuddhism.
"88.
Faure,"Quandl'habitfaitlemoine,"363.
89.
SeeFaure,"Quandl'habitfaitlemoine,"361–364andKigensanLicha,"EmbryologyinEarlyModernSōtōZenBuddhism,"506–512.
90.
See,forexample,Hatsuukirigami(undated,firsthalfoftheseventeenthcentury,archiveofYōkōji,listedinSōtōshūBunkazaiChōsaIinkai,Sōtōshūbunkazaichōsamokurokukaidaishū7,598);Hatsuunokirigami(undated,archiveofYōkōji,listedaskizuinSōtōshūBunkazaiChōsaIinkai,Sōtōshūbunkazaichōsamoku-rokukaidaishū7,598);orHatsuukirigami(undated,archiveofShōbōji,listedinSōtōshūShūhōChōsaIinkai,Sōtōshūshūhōchōsamokurokukaidaishū2,166).
Foratypographicalreprintofthefirsttwokirigami,seeIshikawa,Zenshūsōdenshiryōnokenkyū,332–334andforatypographicalreprintofthelastone,seeIizukaandTsuchiya:"RinkaSōtōshūniokerusōdenshiryōkenkyūjosetsu6,"169–170.
91.
See,forexample,ToganooShōun,Mandaranokenkyū(Kōyama-chō:KōyasanDaigakuShuppanbu,1932),graphs106,108,126,128.
92.
T82:260b3.
93.
Hōbinnozu(1611;archiveofYōkōji,listedinSōtōshūBunkazaiChōsaIinkai,Sōtōshūbunkazaichōsamokurokukaidaishū7,598).
Foratypographicalreprint,seeIshikawa,Zenshūsōdenshiryōnokenkyū,336.
94.
ThreekirigamiontheshujōarepreservedatYōkōji:Shujōnozu(1620),Shujōkirigami(undated),andShujōnozu(1636).
TheyarelistedinSōtōshūBunkazaiChōsaIinkai,Sōtōshūbunkazaichōsamokurokukaidaishū7,598.
Foratypo-graphicalreprint,seeIshikawa,Zenshūsōdenshiryōnokenkyū,339–343.
OnekirigamiontheshujōispreservedatShōbōji:Shumonshujōshi(undated,listedinSōtōshūShūhōChōsaIinkai,Sōtōshūshūhōchōsamokurokukaidaishū2,167).
Foratypographicalreprint,seeIizukaandTsuchiya,"RinkaSōtōshūniokerusōdenshiryōkenkyūjosetsu6,"170–171.
95.
Shujōnozu(1620,archiveofYōkōji)andShujōkirigami(undated,archiveofYōkōji).
96.
Shujōnozu(1620,archiveofYōkōji).
PrayerBeadsinSōtōZen13597.
Shujōnozu(1636,archiveofYōkōji).
98.
JiryuMarkRutschman-Byler,"SōtōZeninMeijiJapan:TheLifeandTimesofNishiariBokusan,"MAthesis,UCBerkeley,2014,79.
99.
Rutschman-Byler,"SōtōZeninMeijiJapan,"70.
SeealsoUedaShetsu:"NishiariBokusantohaibutsukishaku,"inNishiariBokusanZenji:Botsugohyakunenwomukaete(Hachinohe:NishiariBokusanZenjiKenshūkai,2009),50–54.
100.
Thethreerefugesare"ItakerefugeintheBuddha.
Itakerefugeinthedharma.
Itakerefugeinthesangha.
"101.
ThepropagationofnenbutsupracticewasconnectedtothediscussionaboutwhichdeityshouldbethemainobjectofworkshopintheSōtōschool:ākyamuni,Amida,orKannon.
TheopposinggroupsinstructeddevoteestorecitethenameoftherespectiveBuddhaorbodhisattva(JohnLoBreglio,"Orthodox,Heterodox,Heretical:DefiningDoctrinalBoundariesinMeiji-periodSōtōZen,"BochumerJahrbuchzurOstasienforschung33[2009]:77–103).
OnNishiariandhispromotionofrecitationpractice,seealsoDominickJohnScarangello,"EmbodyingtheDeities:AStudyoftheFormationofaModernJapaneseDeityCult,"Ph.
D.
diss.
,UniversityofVirginia,2012,315–316.
102.
NishiariBokusan,Tōjōshintōanshinketsu,inSōtōshūSenshoKankōkai(ed.
),Sōtōshūsensho5(Kyoto:Dōhōsha,1981),201–202.
103.
OwnfieldworkatSōjijifrom2007to2013and2015to2016.
104.
Ownfieldworkfrom2007to2013and2015to2016.
105.
UchiyamaKan'i,"Shitchūkuden,"inKawaguchiKōfū(ed.
),ShinpenSōtōshūjissensōsho9(Tokyo:Dōhōsha,2010),371–376.
Nevertheless,monksattheheadtempleSōjijitoldmethattheyrarelyseesomeoneusingarosaryinthiswayduringtoday'sone-nightabbacy.
106.
http://seesaawiki.
jp/w/turatura/d/%CA%A9%C1%B0%B7%EB%BA%A7%BC%B0(lastaccessedApril13,2016).
ForKuruma'sritualformoftheBuddhistweddings,seeKurumaTakudō,Zenmonhōkan,revisededition(Tokyo:Kōmeisha,1956),953–960.
NukariyaandIshikawawrotebriefexpla-nationsoftheproceduresforBuddhistweddings(NukariyaKaiten,"Busshikikekkonnitsuite,"inSōtōshūfukyōsensho14[Kyoto:DohoshaShuppan,1984],334–340;originallywrittenin1923,andIshikawaSodō,"Sōtōshūkon'inshikisahō,"inIshikawaSodō:DaienGenchiZenjigoroku,bekkan[Nagoya:DaienGenchiZenjiGorokuKankōkai,1932],44–46).
107.
MiyazakiBunki,ed.
,Sōtōshūgyōjikijun(Tokyo:SōtōshūShūmuchō,1966),146,148.
108.
See,forexample,Butsuzenkekkonshiki:Gaidonōto(Tokyo:SōtōshūShūmuchō,1981),18;Miyazaki,ed.
,Sōtōshūgyōjikijun,146,148.
109.
Butsuzenkekkonshiki:Gaidonōto,18.
ForadetaileddescriptionoftheritualformusedintheSōtōschool,seeButsuzenkekkonshiki:GaidonōtoorMiyazaki,ed.
,Sōtōshūgyōjikijun,143–157.
ForadescriptionofaBuddhistwedding,see136ZenandMaterialCulturealsohttp://www.
teishoin.
net/wed/wed.
htmlorhttp://www.
sizusosei.
com/cer-emony/kekkonshiki.
html(lastaccessedApril13,2016).
110.
ConversationswithsalespersonnelofBuddhistimplementstoresandSōtōclericsinOctober2015andFebruary2016.
111.
See,forexample,Manshushilizhouzangzhongjiaolingshuzhugongdejing(T17:726b29-c15),Foshuōjiaoliangshuzhugongdejing(T17:727a22-b8),andJin'gangdingyuijanianzhujing(T17:727c18–22).
Foradiscussionoftherank-ings,seealsoTanabe,"TellingBeads,"6–7;andKieschnick,TheImpactofBuddhismonChineseMaterialCulture,121–122.
Tanabewritesthattheseedsofthebodhitreearetoosmalltobepiercedandstrungtogether.
Theseedsthatareusedforthebodhitreeseedrosaryareactually"theseedsoftheBodhicitreethatgrowsintheHimalayanmountainregion"(Tanabe,"TellingBeads,"6).
112.
Ownfieldworkfrom2007to2013and2015to2016.
SeealsoTanabe,"TellingBeads,"13.
113.
The"thirteenbuddhas"includethefollowingbuddhasandbodhisattvas:Fudō,ākyamuni,Monju,Fugen,Jizō,Miroku,Yakushi,Kannon,Seishi,Amida,Ashuku,Dainichi,andKokūzō.
Thesedeitiesarethoughttohelpthedeceasedatacertaintimeafterhispassingandthusapaintingoftheappropriatedeityishungupontherespectiveday.
114.
OntheonemilliontimesrecitationofAmida'sname,see,forexample,Tanabe,"TellingBeads,"12;andNishimuraMinori,"Bukkyōtojuzu,"SankōBunkaKenkyūjoNenpō40(2009),25–28.
Interestingly,thisritualpracticewasalsostagedinkyōgenplays(seeKitashiroNobuko,"JuzugurinoshūzokutoEdogesaku,"SetsuwaDenshōgaku8[2000]:113–129).