beginsnewworld

TheNewWorldandtheOldByNilsRunebyAslongastheUShasexistedEuropeaninterpretershavegiventl1eiropinionsaboutit.
Criticsanddefendershavehadtheirconunitincntincommon.
TheoonfrontationbetweentheconstitutionsofEuropeandthatoftheUS,andthesocialdevelopmentofthetwocontinentshavebeenaccompaniedbyviolentideologicalconflictls.
ThefactthattheUShasperiodicallyexertedastrongartractionasacom~tryoCimmigri~tionhasSurthcrcontributedtothestrengtheningolthefronts.
Theinterpretationshavetoucheduponsuchcssentia!
themesthatthescientificliteratureaboutthemhasassumedconsidcrableproportionsinseveralcountries.
ThathasnotbeenthecaseinSweden,andtheexistingliteratureisverylimited.
'6heonlyreallycomprel~ci~sivesbuudywhichhasbeencarricdoutisHaraldElrsvson'sdeservingthesis>>AmericainSwedishliterature1750---1820)>andthisappearedasearlyas1930.
Besidesthiss1tudythereexistsonlyacoupleofshortessaysworthmentioning.
Elovsonwisheldtogiveanaccountof>)TheLiberalImageofAmericainSweden)>right011toourowndaysinalate5tiudy.
(AmericaandScandinavia1964),andKjellBondestadhasgivenasurveyofhechangeoftheimageofAmericaduringthedecadesbeforetheCivilWarinhisstudy))TheAmericanCivilWarandSwedishPublicOpiraionm.
Inmyownbook)>TheNewWorldandtheOld.
ZrnagcoJAmericaandConceptofEmigrationinSweden1820-2860.
))1havewishedtodrawattentiontoaresearchfieldwhichuntilnowhasbccnratherneglected.
ElovsonandRondestadhavegivencertaingeneralstarting-pointsintheessaysinentionedabove.
ElovsoncmphasizestheconceptofArnerlicaasapattern,as>>thecountryoffreedom,thecountryofthefuture,hemodelcountry>>aboveallasrelatedtoconstitutionallawandsocialonder.
InhisthesishesummeduptheAmeuican~civis1-m;healsoemphasizeshowtheliberalsdependontheEnlight-enmentinthisrespcct,andhegivesexamplesofseveralwriterswhorepresentthisviewoftheUS.
I-Iowever,Elovsondoesnotgofurtherthanthisgeneralstatamcnt.
Bondestad,too,emphasizespri-marilythcdiiferenccbetwceutheliberalandtheconservativeviewsofAn~erica;hoseviewsdevelopedintoregular*myths>>.
Bothwaysofvicwingarcsaidtohavebeeninodificdintheividdlcelfthe39tliccnt~ury,o~vingtoincreasedknowledgeabouttheUS,NeitherElovsonnorBondestadhashadreasontocmphasizethcdependencyoftllcimageolAmericaonthedomcsticpoliticalr-levelopme~~tintheUS,northeahangesofthepoliticalwaysofthinkinginSwedenduringtheperiodinqwstion,northediffi-cul~iesinattributingdifferentelementsoftheimageofAinericatotheliberalorconservativebloc.
Severalaspectscanbcderivedfromthclireratureofkindredsubjects.
IndoingsooneisstrickenbythcfactthattheimpulsesfromtheUShaveoftenbccnjudgedinveryfavourableterms.
Thisistrucnotleastasregardsstudiesofemigration.
AparallellhasoftenbeenmadcbetweenopinionsfavouringAmeriicaandliberalism,astrivingforreforms,progress,addemocracy.
Abriefexen~plifyii~~fromScandinavianreseamhers,orresearcherswhohavetoucheduponScandinavianconditions,cangiveanideaoftheessenceoftheprolblem.
HalvdanIGohtusessweepinggeneralizationsinhisbook>TheAmeyicanSpiritinCurope),(1349).
>>ThemorethcpeoplesofFuopebegantohaketheshasklcslaiduponthembytheirmonarchicaltyrantsthemorewistfullytheylookeduponthcfreedomprevailing,acrosstheocean*.
Kdhtcalled&osewhodidnotaccepttheUSfiantidemocrats,>and>,thespokesmenofreaction>>.
BooksoftravelsabouttheUSbeoome,anarsenalofweaponsforthebattleofideologieswhichwastakingplaceonhecontinent01Europe,,forthetwofightingphalanxes.
Anlericawasandremained>>aswrceofinspirationforalldemocraticeffortsinEurope,.
'InconnectionwiththequestionofemigrationKohtstateshismiformopinions;,,TotheupperclassesAmericaappearedasapotential,insomerespectsalreadyanactual,rival;tothelowerclassitwasapromiseandahope,.
KohtidentifieswithoutdoubtanestimationoftheUSwithef-fortsfordemocracy.
FriendsofAmericaappearasprogressivemeninthefilghtagainsttyrannyandoppression.
Thereisalsoabattlebetweentheupperclasses,whichconsidertheirhegemonythreatened,andthelowerclasseswhichregardtheUSasahope.
Koht'sopinionsarenotunique.
,,Americacametosynholizetheforcesoffahangel,SigmundSkardwritesinhisbook>)TheAmericanMythandtheEuropeanMindw(1961),>>butthese{orcesfacedasolidlyconservatriveandtraditionalistEuropethatcamebackinstrenguheachtimeitwaschallenged>>.
SeveralemigrationresearchershavethoughtitnecessarytotrytoestablishacausalconnectionbetweenemigrationandcreationofafavourablepublicopinionabouttheUS.
Thereforerhoseresearchershaveofitentriedtoestimatetheinfluenceofaspecialtypeofsourcematerial:theemigrantletters.
EvenGeorgeStephensonpointedoutrthiscausalconnectioninawelllinownessay,>WhenAmericaWastheLandofCanuanw.
(Min-nesotaE-Ii~story1929).
[HebasedhisessayonSwedishmaterial,mainlyfromthe1840'sand1850's.
TheemigrantwhoconsilderedAmericanequality,socialmobility,religiousliberty,andscnbrrietyasopposedtoconditionsinSweden,becameanevangelist>,preachingthegospelofAmericatotheheavy-ladcn.
Forhimtheyearofjubileehadcaaic~.
ForStephensonitwasalsoamaltterofunravelilngpsycholog-icalphenomena>>forthethemeofthehistorianofemigrationisthehulmansoul,,.
WhenTheodoreBlegenpublishedavolumeofNorwegianemi-grantlettersin1955,)>LandofTheirChoicew,hefurnisheditwithanintrodructionwherehepointedout&attheemigrantlettersalsotlhrowaninlterestinglightonthedebateaboutthemeritsofAmericainthenativecountriesoftheemigrants.
Theemigrants'iimageoftheUSissignificant,Blegensays,notonlyasatestimonyofwhatinformationwasavailabletopeopleinEuropeinthemiddleofthe19ohcentury,>>butalsoasapropellingforceinemigrationitself,,.
Itbecameadynamicfactor,,bringingdiscontenttoafocusandintoactiona.
PraiseoitheUS.
pointedtoacontrastn,and>>turneddiscontentintorasolution.
,,EmigrationandtheimageoiAmericaarecoupledalsobyIngridSeinminlgsen;inatnessayvEmtgrationandtheImageofAmericainEuropes(Im~n~igrationandAmericanHistory.
EssaysinhonorofTheodoreC.
Blegen.
1961.
)sheinvestigatesthei'mageoftheUS,1\createdbymassemigrationintheclassesfromwhichthismassemigrationcame,andvheimpressionexertedbythisimageonthose1whoremainedhome.
Theemigrantletterstallkedaboutecolnomicpo~si~bilities,cheapl~ai~~d,socialequallity,andlocalselfgovernment,andtheybecameastimulustoreforms.
AccordingtoSemmingsenvherewasaconnectionbetweenad~n-rirationofAmericaandradi-*oalisminNorwegiandomesticpolicy.
Theinfluenceofreturnerswasalsoimportant.
ThecontactwiththeUSocoasionednthenotionofchangeintothemindofoheEuropeanpeasant,,,andideasabouti>,socialladvancement,selfimprovement,andprogress,allprecondi-tionsofpoliticalandsocialdemocracysgrcwouitofit.
WheneversuchmovementsaroseinthenativecountryofeheemigrantitwasinfluencedbyemigrationandcontactwiththeUS.
ThebackgnoundofSwedilshemigrationhasbeendescrilbedinsim-ilarcategories.
0.
FritiofAnderwritels>>Anier~icawasvirtuallyunknowninSweden,,before1830.
DiscussionsabouttheUSwercreservedforasmallnumberofintellectuals.
AnotherstateofaffairsariseswithliberalismandreactionagainsttheMetternichsystem.
Europeisdividedintotwob10.
c~:thosewhowantedtopreservethesltatusqu~oalndthosewhowantednocarrythroughreforms;Amer-icaappearedanElDor~adovothercforrners.
Theeinignantlettersexertedaprofoundinfluence.
AccordingtoAnderitwasaboveallthesociallibertyintheUSthatseemedattractive.
(,,ReflectionsontheCausesofEmigrationfromSweden.
,,SwedishPioneer1962.
)FranklinD.
Scottwishedtopointouthumanitarian,religious,anddemocraticinfluencesastheresultoftheAmericaninfluenceinScandinavia.
(,,AunericanInfluencesinNorwayandSweden.
,,Jour-nalofModernHistory1946).
Scottpointsoutinastudyoftheeffectsofemigrationthattheemigrantlettersha~dexaggeratedthebenefitsofthenewcountryaswellastheachievementsofthewriter,himself.
(ScandinavianEcono~inicHistoryReview1960),buttheycreatedanimageofafreerandbettersociety,stimulatedmassemi-graitioinandinspiredreformersinthenlativecountriesoftheemi-grants.
Moregenericallysastimulationofthemind,awideningofoutlook,aninspiringsenseofcontactwithabiggerworld,,werebroughtabout.
Suchinfluencespresumed,however,contactswiththeemigrants,discontentwiththenativecountry,andsusceptibilitytonewiinpressions,aconsciouslyledopposition,andeconomicre-sourcesforreformactivities.
Atthispointitmaybenecessarytostatesomecriticaldistinctions.
MerleCurtiandKendallBirrhavediscussedemigrationandtheimageo~fAmericainE~xopc,1860-1314.
(MksissippiValleyHistor-ical13eview1950).
Alsotl-rese~audiorsemphasizetheinfluenceoftheiinageoftheUSwhichwherespreadviaemigrants'lettersandreturners,buttheyalsohavesomedistinctwordstosayaboutthepropagandaorganizedbysteamshiplines,railwaycompanies,andstatesintheUS,asregardstheiormingofahisiinage.
>>Itolffers>>theysay,>,anexcellentexampleofAmericanintellectualiinperi-alisin.
>>Theauthorsalsoquotesomethesesaboutthereactiontoeinigra-tionof>>thefavouredclasses>>inthenativecountriesoftheemi-grants.
Theycountupontwokindsofattitudes.
AccordingtothefirstoneemigrationshouldIrefavoured,becausethedomesticfightsbetween>>ownersandworlwwwouldbereducedthroughit.
This,>earlyilineteenthcenturyMalthusianviewc~femigrationasanec-essaryanddesirablesafetyvalve>>gaveway,howevertoanotherview,anoppositiontoemigration,influencedbyinassemigration.
Thisoppositionwasmostapparent>>amongthcstateclergy,theoificialclass,thegreatlandowners,andtheindustrialistsn.
TheiinageoftheUSremained,accordingtotheauthors,atbottomratherstalble,whi~hcanLeexplainedbythefactthatemigrationhadbecomecommercializedandtheimageofAmericaaastereotype,,.
Whensuchastereotypedimagehadbeeniormed,itchangedonlyveryslowly.
TheUSbecameintheeyesoiftherulingclasses,>>athreattotheestablishedinstit;utionsinEuropea.
Theauthorityofthefamily,thatofthestate,andthatofthechurchwerethreatenedandaboveall>,theprevailingclassstructureofsociety>>.
TheideaoftheEuropeanimageofAmericaduringthe19thcen-turywhichtheauthorsmentionedabovecallforzh,containsnotonlycertaincorninoncharacteristicsbutalsoseemtobearwitnesstoacertainfundamentalcommonattitudeoftheauthorsthemselves:anappreciativeestiinationoftheinfluencesfromtheUSandafavourableviewofemigrationanditseffects.
Theemigrantsweremadetoseeanalternativetotheirowndisatisfactoryconditionsandwereencouragedtoprotest.
Thereformerswhoseeffortsarenowcalledliberal,nowdemocratic,wereinspiredtoact.
Acontrastbetweenthe),lower)>classesandthe)>upper),,the>)established,>onesvhichstandoutastheadvocatesofthetradition-boundsocietywereemphasized.
Kohtcalledthemanti-democrats,CurtiandBirradvocatesofaprevailingclassstructure.
Thesubjectivelyconjec-turingelementsofthestatedanalyseshavetobeemphasized.
Mystudy.
TheNewWorldandtheOld.
ImageofAmericaandConceptofEmigrationinSweden1820-1860))isintendedtobeananalysisoftheimageofAmericauptothetimewhenthisimagehasdefinitelybeeninfluencedbythedebateaboutemigration.
Itisbuiltupasalnanalysisofargument,andemigrationisconsideredadomesticSwedishproblem.
MystudybeginswhereElovson'sdis-sertationstops.
Thetimeli~init,1820,wasmotivatedbyElovsonwiththewords,animportantbreaclhinthehistoryofthegeneralSwedishinterestinAmericatak'esplacearouidthisyear>>.
ThisbreachiscausedbytheXoinanticisinwliichoccasionsa,,radicalre-valuationofAlmerica,,comparedtotheEnlightenment.
Thenegativeconcep-tionofthe>,tradition-lessnUSbytheRomanticswasinitsturnattackedduringthe1820'sby>>differentrepresentativesoftheradicalmowinenam.
>,%hereisnoequivalentitothediscussionaboutthegro-wingrepu~blicon~heothersideolftheAtlanticwhicharosethroughthis,duringtheperiodbefore1820),.
Europeanliberalism*whichinmanyrespectsisintimatelydependentupontheEnlightenment,,takesoverthefavourableimageofAmericaoftheEnglightenment.
OnthewholeElovson'slimitcan[beaccepted.
However,oneimportantargumentcan(beaddedtothechoiceofthetimearound1820asastarting-point.
Nowadays,inSwedishscientificliterature,hereexistsuchplaindefinitionsofthewaysofthinkingpoliticallyinSwedenaro~md1820chat,asaconsequence,usefulclassificationsofthecoilservativeaswellasoftheliberalwayofthinkingcanbeused.
TheexistenceofthosewaysofthinkingcanbeestablishedintheSwedishdebateofthattime.
Inthiswaytheinvestigationcanstartfromcomparativelyplainpremises.
Thefinalyear,1860,markstheAmericanCivilWarwhichforcedthepeopleofchattimetoreconsidertheirattitudetowardsrhecountry.
ThewarcausedalsoanaturalbreakofSwedishemigration.
Furthemnore1860lnelansachangcoftheSwedishemigrationleg-islation.
Evenrheadministrativecoliditiolnsforemigrationbecomedifferent.
MassemigrationfromSwedentalsesplaclealsoduringthehalfcenturyaftertheCivilWar.
ThepresentstudyisaccordinglychronologicallycntirelyinsidetlhescopeofanearlySwedilshemi-gration,investigatedonlypoint\bypoint.
Theyear1860constitutesinthisrespectaninevitabledividingline.
Somef~~rthcrwordsabout~heaimoftheinvcstigationshouldbeadded.
Itmustbeemphasizedthatthematerialusedisarelativelyho~mogeneousone,sofarasitispro~ducadbyaraherlimitedgroupofpersons,journalists,olficials,specialists,andprofessionalwriters,whohavebeenabletogiveutterancetoanopinion.
Someofthemcanbefollowedduringthewholeoftheepochtreatedhere.
Ma-tcrialhasbeentakenoutsidcthisgrouponlyorioneortwoocca-sions,aboveallmaterialconrcrningpartsofthereligiousemigra-tion.
Ithasalsoprovednecessarytogiveisolatedpiecesofinforma-tionaboutspecificemigrationundertakings,butthishasonlybeendonctoidentifythecontributionsandexplaindifferentpointsofview.
Ihave,ilnthisway,madeanefforttoproduceaconnected,mutuallycomparablematerialadaptedtoananalysisofarguments.
Thcmaterialtakenoutofthepressrequiresaspecialcommentary.
Adifferencewithregardtothetimebefore1840andafter1840hasbeenmadeinthematerialinventory.
Thisisduetothestateofaffairsolfemigration.
Before1840emigrationfromSwedenwassporadic.
Notuntil1840wasachangeoflegislationcarriedoutandthiscreatedpossibilitiesofamoreorganizedemigration.
The1840'scanberegardedasthefirstdecadeofmassemigration.
Thereviewofthepresshasbeenadoptedwithregardtothesecircum-stances.
Thepressmaterialfrolm~bdore1840hasbeenusedpointbypointprincipallytoillustrateprivatewriters,essentialtothedebateaboutAmerica.
Acompleteexcerptinghasbeencarriedoutontwelvenewspaperswithlongstandingpublishingtraditionsafter1540.
Theprovincialpresshasbeenchosmwithregardtotheemi-grationfrequencyoftheprovinces.
TheearlyemigrationhitSwe-denveryunevenly,andtheprovincialnewspaperschosenwerepub-lishedindistrictswhichhavebeenespeciallyaffectedbyemigra-tionandwheretheexistenceofadetaileddiscussionofemigrationquestionshasseemedprobablc.
Certaintrialinvestigatioi~softheremainingprovincialpresshavebeen~uidcrtaken,andthosehavcprovedthatmaterialcanbeFound--evcnifverydivided--butthatitdoesnotaddanynewcharacteristicstotheestablishedar-guments.
Anumberofpapersofshortdurationhasalsobeencom-pletelyexaltnined,whiletheremainingpresshasbeenusedpointbypoint.
Allthrough,theaimhasbeantoestablishthedifferentI~indsofargumcntatinn,nottoestablishhowmanytimestheyhaveheenused.
Therestortlwmatcrial--printedorunprinted-hasconsistedmainlyofdiplomats'reports,narrativesofjourneys,diaries,trans-latedbooklctsandpamphlets,includingemigrantguides,etc.
Ihavealsopaidattentiontoofficialmeasuresandparliamentarydebate.
Amplidicationshavebeenmadewiahtheaidofprimatecorrespond-ence.
TheSwedishdiplomar,icreportsfromtheUSforthewholeperiodhavcbeenanalysed.
Narrativesoftravels,diariesetc.
,knowntomchavcbecnexaminedandconsideredtotheextentthattheyhavecontainedtheorcticdisc~tssionsimportanttothcinvestigation.
01coarse,ithasnotbeenaquestionofintroducingacompletepresentaaionbut,ontheotherhand,myinvestigationclaimstodescribetheexistingarpments.
FromwhatissaidaboveitshouldbecvidentthatfornaturalreasonstheaccountoftheperiodI82O-184Qwilldealprincipallywitih.
dheimageOFtheUS.
Thedescriptionofthefolbwingdec-adescanbeconsideredasapplicationsandvariatioixofthethemegiveninthefirstsection,andasaconfrontationbetweentheseandtheconccptionofemigration.
EmigrationgavetheUSanearnessandaconcretionthatthecountryhadnothadearlier.
Astotherepresentedkindsofarguinentsandthevariationswhichcanbeestablished,thestudyhascertaingeneralresultsincommonwithi.
e.
RedRkinond'svoluininiousandcc~mprehensivethesis,,LesEtatsUnisdevantOpinionfrancaiseu(1962).
RkmondtreatstheperiodfromthcViennacongresstotheestablishmentoftheempireofNapoleon111,andregistersverystrikingrevulsionsofthepublicieclinginco~lncctionwiththeJulyinonarchyandthetwoFrenclzrevolutions,aswellasveryeviidentchangesofopinioniathepolit-icalblocs.
Acoupleofdifferencesshouldbepointedout.
Inmydescriptiontheemigrationdebateplaysaproinitlentrole.
RCrnond'sail11isanother.
HeclaimstordlecttheentireFrenchopinion.
vC'estl'opiniontoutentikre,quinousintkresse,heemphasizesandhefurtherpointsout,I1s'agitd'unchapitred'histoiredel'opinionetnond'histoiredesidkespolitiques),.
.
.
ThisaimoausesRCmondtocometofar-reachingconclusionsandtohaveratherambitiousdis-cussionsofamethodicalkind;thevalidityofwhichmaybeques-tioned.
Inmyopinionthisiaiiunhadmadeanothermethodofprocedurenecessary.
AsfarasopinionsabouttlicUnitedStatesareconcerned,itisnotdifficultoofindinstancesofoppositionbetweenliberalandconserva-tivewritersfromtheearly1820's.
Theliberalsemphasizetherepre-~entativeconstitutionoftheUS,theabsenceofaguildsystemandinheritedprivileges.
'Theconservatives,ontheotherhand,stresstheemptyandmaterialisticAmericancommercialspirit,t;heabsenceofahistoricindividuality,andthelachofnaturalinstitutionsformedbyculturalandethnichomogeneity.
Ofcourseitisnecessarytopoilnl;outthcseevidentdiEferencesbetweenaliberalandconservativeAme$canconcept,butitisofequalitmportancetoemphasizediff-erenceswithinthegroupofUSadmirers.
Oneofth~ebestknownjournalistsofthe1820'sJohanJohansson,usedtheTJSasapretextfordefendingthedoctrineofdivisionofpowerinwhichTheFed-eralistwastheAmericanexample.
A.
L.
Klinokowstriim,atechnicalexpert,wholookedupontheUSasalegal,humanisticandfore-mosttechnoIogicaIleader,comparedwithEurope,wasveryscepticalaboutfreetradeandthelimitedscopeofcentralauthority.
Heemphasizedthelowerclasstendencytoabusetheirfreedom,andtherecapabilityofEuropeanimmigrantstosustainfreedomintheUS.
InSwedenKlinckowstrtimwasmpportedbyP.
A.
Wallmark,ajournalistverymuchinfavourwid1theKingandalsoanactiveopponenttotheconservativephalanx.
Itisevidentthatadmirationforthefreedom,lawsandhumanismoftheUSmustnotnecessarilybeequatedwithliberalism;norcanitexclusivelybeconnectedwlithoppositiontotheKing,thegov-ernmentorSwedishcolnditi~onsingeneral.
Awidespreadadmira-tionfortheUSmustnotalwaysmeailthatthesamethingswerebeingadmiredbyallpeople;andevenlessthatoneagreedtoapplicationsoftheAmericanexperience.
Onethingtheyhadincommonslio~uld,however,beemphasized.
LowerclasseinancipationintheUScausedobviousdifficulties.
InthetranslationofAmericanliteraturetherecouldbefoundtracesofanxietyforthesocialequalityintheUS.
KlinckowstroimandtheconservativevonHartnlansdorffbothagreedontheiruneasewithaiddislikeofsocialdevelopments.
ThemerchantsOlofWijkandC.
D.
ArifwcdsondivergedsharplyinopinionsabouttheUS,buttheybothreactedverynegativelytocertainmanifestationsofAmericanequalitarianism,andtheybothagreedconlpletelyontheexistenceofclassdifferencesintheUS.
Arfwedsonexpressedhisdismaythattherichandliterateclassescouldnotrestrainthelowerclasses.
InthiscontextitisnecessarytoemphasizethechangesintheUSduringthe382Q'swhichcausedchangesinSwedishpremises.
TheAmericawhichKlinckowstrijmandJohanJohanssonpraisedwasnotthatofJacksonandVanRuren.
ItwasonethingtotalkloftilyaboutWashington'spatrotism,quiteanotherthingtoacknowledgeJacksonianndemocracyx.
JohanssonpraisedtheFederalists,Arfwed-sonpraisedDanielWebster,andWijkpraisedHenryClayandtheWhigs.
TheseinenspokeinfriendlyfashionabouttheenlightenedminorityintheUS.
Attheendofthe1830'saconservativewritermaintainedchattheUShaddesertedthegoodheritageofWashing-tonandtheFederalists.
Theremightbeastrangecom~iilunityofinterestsbetweenthefriendsandenemiesoftheUSconcerningacoupleofessentialpoints.
Duringthe1830'sthesituationinSwedenwasnotonlyinfluencedbyJacksoniandemocracybutalsobyeventsinEurope,aboveallbytheFrenchrevolutionof1830whichcreatedamoremilitantatmosphere.
AsfarasSwedenisconcernedattentionmustbepaidtoboththeliberalsaromdLarsJohanHiertaandAftonbladeeandthosewhopraisedtheUSbecauseitwasarepublic,forattheendofthe1830'srepublicailsentimentsarose.
CriticismagainsttheUSwaspronouncedbytheconservativesandevenalsoin$hegov-ernmentorganFaderneslandetatthe~be~tinningodthe1830's.
Thedebatesshowatendencytobecomelockedinargument.
Tocqueville,inbeingtranslatedintoSwedish,wasthevictimofwidelydivergingconclusions.
ThepolemicsofAftonbladetshowacoupleofinterestingcom-plicationswhenthereisaneedfordefenceintwodirections.
OnemustpraisevariousformsofAmericanlibertybut,atthesametime,mustguaranteethattherewasnodesireforarepublicorarevolution,aswasmaintainedbytheopponents.
Eventuallawless-nessintheUSwasclaimedtobeduenottothesystembuttotheroisterousi~ininigrants.
OllewayOLKofthedilemmaofdemocracy,toevadethemostthreateningapprehensionslorthefearsofmmob-ocracy,,wiastoemphialsizethelocalself-governmentasthemostpositiveaspectoftheUS.
Elowever,thislattercouldbeappreciatedfordifferentreasonsbyideologicalconscrvatives,aswellasbyapleaderfortraditionalaristocracy.
Thediffiaultieswhicbarep~ulblicanUSsurnmonedupbecameobviouswhenvoiceswereraisedforaSwedishrepublic.
ButtheUScouldalsobecriticizedfornotgivingthepromisedequality,forafteralltheredidexistclassdifferences.
Inliberalideologystresswasputonthe),middleclasses),attheexpenseofthehierarchyandinstitutionsoftheoldsociety.
Criticspointedoutthatthenewsocietydesiredbytheliberalsgavemuchroomforanewtypeofaristocracy,anaristocracyofmoney,andtheyemphasizeditssuccessintheUS.
InsuchasituationAftonbladetcouldidentifyari~stocracywithslaveholdersorwithopponentstoJackson.
Aristocracycouldthenbecondemnedordefinedinsuchawayastoremoveanydif-ferencesbetweenaristocracyandthemiddleclasses(therulingofthebest).
Becauseoftheirwayofreasoningajboutthemiddleclassesandfinancialaristocracy,liberalscouldbeaccusedofalackofinterestinsocialreformsandconcernforthclowerclasses.
DiscussionsaboutSwedishpauperismwereverycommon.
Withliberalargumentlsawriterofbrochurescouldrejectallthoughtsaboutgovernmentin-terventioninthefieldofpoorreliefandalsoattacktheexistingpovertyinSweden.
IHissolutionwasemigration.
Andin1840therewasalooseningintherestrictivelegislati~~nonemigration,basedonabillintroducedbyHierta.
InfluencesofdevelopmentsinEuropeandintheUScanbenotedalsointhereportsfromSwedishdiplomatsintheUnitedStatesduringtheforty-year-periodinvestigated.
BerntRobertStackelbergtookopenlytheWhigs'partastodomesticquestions.
DavidAnkar-lootalksdisapprovinglyofJackslon'sflatteryofthelowerclasses,andhedeprecatestheAmericanpartysystem,wherethebest(Whigs)arenotcapableofassertingtl~emselves.
SeverinLorichdisapprovesofthegovernllnentalbankingpolicy,andhepointsoutthatenlight-enedandsensiblepeoplehavcanotherviewoithematterandcritizisesthepoliticalsystem.
GustavafNordinrejectsthewholeAmericansystem,theAmericanandEuropeanrepublicanpassionanddisapprovesaboveallofthcnultra-democratic>>party,andtheunhappyinfluenceofthemassesonAmericanpolitics.
AdamChris-tianLovenskiolddeclaresthathisnaturalattachmentiswiththeUSWhig-politicianswhodetesttherevolutionofthemobinEuropein1848.
GeorgSiberntalksaboutthedisastrousinfluencewhichisdirectedtowardsaviolentandsubvertingdemocracy,broughtintotheUSfromEuropewithbadradicalelementsamongtheimmigrants.
N.
E.
W.
aifWetterstedtcoinpletelyrejectstheAmericanpartysystem,andisoftheopinionthatrespectableAmericanshavenothingtodowithpolitics,andthata>>gangofcheats,thieves,andrascals),,governsthecountry.
Thereisaquitedefinite,unlmistakabletrendintheconceptionsoftheUnitedStatesofthosesevenSwedishdiplomats.
Theyex-periencethewholesystemas~epzdsiveandtheydonothesitatetotakesidesindomesticquestions.
TheEuropeaninfluencewhichassertsitselfisofanegativekind.
ForthediplonlatstheUSservedasplaceofbanishmentintheircareer.
ThestnyintheUSbecameaninflictionofapenalty.
SomewhatreluctantlytheycouldallowthattheUSofferedcertainmaterialisticpossibilibiestopoorimmi-grants,butthethoughtthatthesocialandpoliticalstructureofthecountrywouldgiverisetoadvantages,ascomparedtotheEuro-peanmonarchieswasanimpossilbility.
4.
Thedoublefrontoftheliberalsantdtheaccusationpartlyofmob-ocracyandpartlyofplutocracymustbeseenasoneofthecentralthemesintheUS-debate,anditisnotamatterofanygreatdiffi-cultiestofollowthedebateduringthe1840'sandthe1850's.
IntheshadowoftheFebruaryrevolutionof1848UtopiansocialideasspreadinSweden,wid1Proudhonastheleadingspolresman.
TothesewriterstheUSwasanoutstandingprototype,butanentirlydifferentUSthanthecountryreferredtobyearlierwriters.
InthiscasetheUSwasconsideredhecountryofsocialreforms,whereattentionwaspalidtoworkers'associationsandgreatemphasisplacedthecom~binationofpoliticallilbertywithachievementofeconomicequality.
Asacomparisononeonlyneedstorecollectthecoloniza-tionattemptsofOwenandtheIcariancommunitarians.
Ontheotherhandthestruggleofliberalismisafightforthebourgeoisie.
Inconsequcnceoftherevolutionsduringthelate1840'sandoftheintensifieddiscussiononcom~m~~nism,socialism,andorganiza-tionoflabour,itscemednecessaryforanewgenerationofliberalstomakecleardistinctionsbetweenthcmselvesandtheLeft.
Onecouldtalkofthepastgenerationas>>abstractliberals,,emphasizingmoreinterestinsupportingideasliketmtionalismandreligionandlessonFrenchencyclopaedism.
Peopleofthisnewgenerationwere,amongothers,thosewhobouglltI-Iierta'sAflonbladetandpeopleliketheAmericantravcllcrsSiljestroinandFrederikaBremer.
Silje-strom'sself-evidentstartingpointiseducation,towhichhegivesanimportantnioralsigniiicmcc.
Knowledgeimplieshonesty,reli-giousfeelings,loyaltyandreadinesstomakesacrifices.
AllthathcfindsintheUS.
Swedenneededarenewedpatriotism,amoralre-anmament.
FredrilraBrlemer,influencedbyUtopianideasofassocia-tions,developedreligiousphilanthropicvisions.
Libertyincombina-tionwithnaturalrightsisnotenolugh.
ToitIIILIS~beaddeddecencyandmoralityinaccordancewithChristiantraditions.
Thedebateaboutthereligiousliberty,oneofthelibertielsnoticedintheUSisolfinterestinthiscontext.
Theliberalfiu~undamentalprincipleisquiteevidenthere,butthepracticalapplicationcouldattimescausecertaindifficulties.
InSwedenreligiouslibertyandtheprefigurativenessoftheUSwerepointedoutbysectarianiniove-menbswhichtheliberalscohuldinterlpretasmalignantmanifesta-tionsofobscurantismandsuperstition.
WhenMethodismappearedinSwedenitsfollowerswereacc~~sedalsoofpoliticalservilityandlackofdesireforsocialreforms;thisaccusationaffectedalsothetemperancemovementwl~ichwasoftenconnectedwithchurchre-formorsectarianism.
Amutualmisunderstanding,difficulttoover-come,arose.
TheeffectsofreligiouslibertyintheUSweresubjectedtodif-ferentinterpretations,andatthebeginningofthe50'sitsopposersweresupportedfromanunexpectedquarter.
TheLutheranpriestL.
P.
Esbjorn,whoemigratedtotheUSin1849,praisingthereli-giouscoaditionsofthecountry,quicklyrevisedhisopiniononceonthespot.
GustavUnonius,Esbjorn'santagonistduringthe5OYs,whohademigratedatthebcginriingofthe40'sandhadstatedhisfavourableimpressionsofthcUSinAftonbladet.
,completelyre-visedhisopin,iondufiingthedecadewhenheworkedasanAnglicanclergymanamongSwedishemigrants.
HenowrepudiatedreligiouslibertyaswellastheUSpoliticalsystemandurgentlywarnedagainstemigration.
Attheendofthe50'swhenhewishestoreturntoSweden,hesaysthathewantstocontendfortheStatechurchandtheMonarchy.
DiscussionsonreligiouslibertyatthemeetingofclergymeninStockholmin1853,whereUnoniusappeared,(mightillustratetheSwedishdelbate.
Theargumentsagainstreligiouslibertyincludedafearofrevolution,whilereligiouslibertyandemigrationwereelementstendingtodisturbsocialorder.
T,headherentsofreligiouslibertyrepliedbygivingadescriptionoftheUSwherereligiosityplayedamostimportantrole.
Religiouslibertyneitherdisturbedcivilordernortendedtomoraldecay.
TheUSwasaChristianoountryanditwasconservativethatisitwatchedoverlawandorder.
Su'bversiveradicnlismarrivedwithEuropeanimmigrants,butwaisneutralizedbythereligiousconcio~usnessin.
theUS(Siljestriim).
AremarkablefactinthisspedproblemwasthatJ.
A.
HazeIius,editoroftheconsevativeSvenskaTidningen,wasamongthosewhodefendedtheUS.
Therepudiationofemigrationamongdifferentgroupswithinthechurchiscontrastedtoopinionshoundinseparatistcircles,forexamplethcNorrlandHedbergiansandthefollowersoftheBaptist,AndersWiberg.
Thesituationinthisconnectionisquitedifferent.
Wibergclearlyadvocatedpropagandaforemigrationwithreligiousliibertyasthemain,motive.
Andsomeofhisfriendstriedtocarryonacommercialemigrantbusinesswithshipswhichtheypurchased.
ToWibergtheUSandSwedenwereonesingleworkingfieldwhereimpulsescamefromtheUSandwhereitwasimpossibletohaveanyprofounddoubtsaboutthecountryanditsinstitutions.
ButWibergrejectedveryfir~nlyanysectarianismofamorepoliticalandrevolz~tionar~kind.
However,theopinionsofWiberg'sfollowerswerenothomo-geneous.
Inthiscontexttherecouldbedoubtswhetherheemigrla-tionwasconsistentwiththedutiesofaChristian.
Wifberg'sstate-mentsdidnotagreewiththoseofhisIcllow-believer,GustavPalm-qvist,whosenegativeexperienceofAmericanreligiouslifeonewouldnotwanttospreadinSwcden.
OnamoregeneralappreciationofUSliberties,thcywereonbettertcrmsandthereisastriklingcon-trastbetweenthesescctariansaidEsbjornandUnonius.
SwedishLutheranclergymenintheUSmereinaspecialsituation.
IfWibergandhisfollowerstriedtoAmericanizeSweden,theLu-theranshadtopreserveSwedishcultureintheUS,savetheirnmi-grantsfromAmericaninfluence,anddescribetheLutheranchurchintheUSasabranchoftheSwcdishchurch.
TheircommunicationwithSwedenconsistedofacont.
inuouscryforhelpandsupport,accompaniedbypessiinis~icreportsonthegeneralsituationintheUS.
Papcrswithwidelydifferingpoliticalviewssympathizedwiththem,forexampleGoteboi-gsNnndels-ochSjofartstidning,editednowby5.
A.
Hedlund,andtheconservativeVaktauen,whileanadherentofreligiousliberty,FS.
IS.
Hammar,expressedhilsscepti-cismoftheirviews.
AtthesametimeUSLutheransmustdefendtheemigrantsandguaranteethattheywouldnotbeseveredfromtheirnativecountry.
Thesituationcreatedadoubleviewwhichdisappearedonlyinjudgunentofthereligioussituation.
TheLutheranchurchinSwedenandintheUSfoughtthesamebattleagainstthetendencytowardssocialandreligiousdisorder.
TheobviousbondandthcpossibleconflictbetweentheimageofAmericaandemigration,pointedoutinconnectionwiththeques-tionofreligiouslibertyandreligiouspreservationinSwedenandintheTJS,canbeilluminatedfromseveralanglesandmustberegardedasbelongingtothemostessentialproblems.
Emigrationshouldallsobeobservcdfromsomeinoregeneral.
angles.
Schelmat-icallyitmaybepossibletodistiiuguisll~fourdifferentattitudestowardsemigrationduringtheperiodi~~vcsaigated.
Asthefirstd'ef-initionIstatetheworld-ll~istoricone:itwasdeclaredthatmigra-tionsfromtheEasttotheWestwassometlringlikcahistoriclaw,underwhichindividualsandstatcshadtosubmit.
Avariant,closelyakin,wastorefertotheconvictionthattheworldgovernmentmusthaveadeepmeaningwithallthesemigrations.
ThethirdvariantusedthequotationfromtheBibleaboutinankindspreadingaidfillingtl~eearth.
Opinionsofthitskindhavebeenpointedoutinpersonswithveryvariedpoliticaldomiciles.
Theevenmoregcneraltho~ightthatemigrationmusthaveitsway,thataninterventiondidnotpay,prcsentsastillmorewidespreadsupport.
Theseconddefinitioncanbesaidtoemergefromtherhoughtofanexistingortl~reateningover-populat~ionaccompaniedbypauper-ismwhereeinigratlionoffersasolutionoftheproblem.
ThisviewiscolouredbyMalthusianism.
ItwasthismeansthatPetrusLaesta-diuspointedoutinabookletwherehedepictedSwedishpovcrtyasflagrantandatthesametimecharacterizedreliefmeasuresofthecentralandlocalgoverilmentsasimpossible.
ItisalsointhiscontextthatonemustregardtheeffortstoestablishSwedishcolo-nies,emigrationtowhichcouldbcapatrioticact.
Thethoughtolcoloi~izatioi~canprimarilybetracedfromthebeginningofthe4OYs,whenC.
F.
Liljevalch,thewl~olesaledealerandshipowner,co~m-mandetdageneralattentiontohisactivities.
Accordii~gtothisopin-ionemigrationshouldberegardedasafavourablcphenomenonwhic~lishouldbeusedinthenationaleconomy.
Thesolutionhadin-ternationalpatterns.
Thethirdpossibilitycouldcomefromaboutthesamepresump-tionsastheabove,butemigrationisthenseenasasympton~whichisominousforSwoden.
Measuresaredeclaredtobenecessaryforitsremoval.
Herethereareseveraldefinitionstonote.
ThepovertyandslavelikeworkingconditionsinSwedenwcrestressedalmostlikecatch-wordsasanexplanationtoemigration.
Thisexplanationcouldbeconnectedwiththepossibilitiesofacquiringlandwiththequestionofdivisionofthefree-holdfarms.
Herewefindtheprin-cipalliberalideawhichdefendedtherightoflreedivisionasameansofreducingcmjgration.
Materialcouldearlybederivedfromt;heNorwegiandellsate.
Itcanbeestzblishedthattiheadvantagesoltherighttofreedivisionoffarmswasquestionedinthe4Q'salsointhepaper~Dagen~,editedbytherepublicans.
Againitisaques-tionofthedoublefront"oft-helilberalsmentionedabove.
DuringanumberofsessionsofSwedishparliamentthequestionreappeared,thenumberofparliamentarybillsfromthefarn~ers'sectionofpar-liamentwaslargeandtheopinionsoftheeffectsofthedivisionandtheinterpretationofforeignexperiencesanditseffectonemi-grationweredia~netricall~opposed.
Further,ifemigrationisconnectedwiththequestionofthelabourmigrationsandtheemigrationofservantstoDenmarkandNorwaytheresultisfruitful.
Thosewhoadvocatedafreelabourmarketconsidereditanaturalrightoftheindividualtodisposeofhislabourfreely.
Thepriceoflabourwasadjustedbythelawofsupplyanddemand.
Anexchangeoverthefrontierswasinaccordancewiththisviewaquitenaturaleffectofthesystemoffreecompeti-tion.
Asopposedtothisopinionitwasmaintainedthatfreeemi-grationcreatedarelationshipbetweenemployerandemployee,mas-tersandservants,whicliimperiledpublicdecencyandendangeredsociety.
Furthermoreitwassaidthatthesociety'spoorreliefwouldbeexposedtoanoverwhelmingbudenifimpoverishedemigrantsreturnedhome.
30thviewscanbefoundingovernors'reports,intheparliamentarydabate,andinnewspaperpolemics.
Personswhosaidthattheyadvocatedtherightof'freemigrationcouldfeelsomehesitationowingtothosemisgivings,anddelmandsformorestringentregulationsarose.
LocalattemptstobringpressuretobearandananimatedlocaldebatecanbeshownintheSouthanldWestofSwe-den.
Inactualcase'stheadjustmentsbetweenthedifferentviewscouldbercasonablypainful.
However,ifemigrationwasconsideredanalarmingsymptom,moree~tensiv~eexplanationscouldalsoberecuraedto.
Thereasonwasnotonlytheneed,thedifficultytoacquireland,orlowwages,itwasthepoliticalandreligiousoppression,andamongotherthingsthelackofrepresentation,whichcausedamigration.
Thisviewcould,however,forceonetoemphasizethatitwasnotoverpopulationwhichthreatened,notthepoor,thoseinwantoflandetc.
whoemigrated,butrelativelywell-to-docitizenswhohadnotthesuccessandthepoliticalinfluencethattheyhadarighttodemand.
Thcfourthdefinition,finally,meantadenialoftheexistenceofanyrealreasonsforemigration.
TherewereenoughvacantjobsinSweden,thesupplyofuncultivatedlandwasgood,noreligiousoppressionexisted;theUShadnopoliticaladvantagestooffercomparedtoSweden.
Emigrationwaseitherduetopartialnews-paperpropaganda,wherctheadvantagesoftheUSwerepraisedwithoutlimits,orithadtobeexplainedasaresultofcommercialrecruitmentsorasasignofthelooseningtendenciesofthetime.
Inthemostcriticalvariantitcouldbesaidthatthosewhoemi-gratedweregenerallyunreliableelements,whomSwedishsocietycouldwelldowithout.
However,enligrationisprimarilyregardedhere,asinthepreviouscase,withregret.
Tothiscanbeaddedsomefartlaerobservations.
Emigrationac-tualizedanumlberofapprehensions,repudiations,anddemands.
Itmustevenbeempliasizedthattherecouldariseconflictsalsobetweenthenecessitytowarnagainstemigrationundertheactualcircum-stancesandawishtomaintainafavourableestimationoftheUS.
Thisisevidentbothinthe1840'sand50's.
ItmightresultinanoppositionbetweentheviewoftheUSasatheoreticalphenolmenonofpoliticalscienceandasaninmigrantcountry.
Demandsforstateinitiativesintheemigrationquestionweretakenupbydifferentquarters.
Thosemeasureswhichweretakenhada(tendencyofreducingemigrationbut%heirscopewaslimited.
Themorestringentstatementscanbetracedtolocalauthorities.
Norigorousregulationsforthemigratinglabourwereestablished,however,andin1860thesyste~inofcompulsorypassportswasabol-ished.
Attheparliamentof1862-63theydiscussedwhetherineas-uresagainstemigrationweretobetakenandapublicationbyTJnonius)thecontentsofwhichwouldobstructemigrationwaspro-posed.
Unoniusha,dbeforehisdeparturefromtheUStriedtocarryoutaquestionnaireconcerning,amongotherthings,thewishtoreturntotheirnativecountryamongSwedishandNorwegianim-migrants.
Thequestionnairegave,however,byallappearancesnobasisformeasures.
Allpropositionswerealsorejectedbythepar-liament.
'I'heexchangeofargurncntsontheUSandemigrationduringtheperiodinvestigatrdisamazinglyrich,evenbeforethestartofmassemigrationfroin1Sweden.
Asingledivisionintoconservativesandliberalsdoesnotalwayscovertheinterestingpointsinthesearguments.
Itcanalsobeshownquiteclearlythatasearlyasinthe1840'sonehadtocountwilthattemptstoestablishanorganizedemigranttrafficandevidenteconomicinterestsbehindthepropa-gandaforemigration.
Besi'desthesimplefactthatfreadoniisanambiguousidea,theimageofthelandoffreedommustalreadyatthattimebeconsideredacommercializedslogan.
Bywayofaguessdiscussionsforthenextfiftyyearsmightturnouttobevariationsofthemesalreadylrnown,atthesametimeasprivateinitiativeandtheUSofentrepreneursbecameanidealfortheconservatives.
NordicEmigrationDuringthelastyearsemigrationresearchhasdevelopedrapidlyinScandinavia.
InFinlandandSwedenresearchgroupsareworkingondifferentproblemsconcerningemigrationfromthesecountriestoNorthAmerica.
InNorwayandDenmarkresearchinthisfieldhasbeengoingonforalongtime.
StudieshavealsobeeninitiatedonthefascinatingemigrationfromIceland.
InSeptember1969thefirstofaseriesofconferencesonNordicemigrationwasheldinUppsala,Sweden.
PlanshavenowbeenworkedouttostartanInter-Nordicresearchprojectonemigration.
AftertheconferenceinUppsalaareportwaspublished,containingthelecturesheldandsummarizingthefollowingdiscussions.
Theprogramoftheconferencewas:1.
PassengerListsandAnnualParishReportsasSourcesfortheStudyofEmigrationfromSweden.
IntroductionbyIngridEriksson2.
AmericanandNordicSourceMaterial.
IntroductionbyICristianHvidt3.
GeneralTheoryandModelsofExplanation.
IntroductionbySuneAkerman4.
TheImpactofPushandPull.
IntroductionbyCharlotteEricksonandFredNilsson5.
LabourMigration-Migration-Emigration.
IntroductionbyGoranRosander6.
SelectiveMigrationorMigratorySelectivity.
IntroductionbySuneAkerman7.
TheDistributionofInformationanditsEffects.
IntroductionbyLarsLjungmarkTheInformationoftheEmligrantAgencies.
IntroductionbyBeritBrattne8.
Re-immigrationinitsConnectionwithEmigration.
IntroductionbyLars-GoranTedebrandCopiesofthereportcanbeorderedfromAvdelniqenforAme-rikanskhistoria,S:tLarsgatan2,S-75228UppsalaSwedenatacostof$2(8Swedishkronor).