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REVIEWOpenAccessFoodsecurityforAfrica:anurgentglobalchallengeAlbertSassonAbstractIn2012,foodinsecurityisstillamajorglobalconcernas1billionpeoplearesufferingfromstarvation,under-,andmalnutrition,andtheFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO)hasconcludedthatwearestillfarfromreachingmillenniumdevelopmentgoal(MDG)number1:tohalveextremepovertyandhungerby2015.
Insub-SaharanAfrica,thenumberofpeoplesufferingfromhungerisestimatedat239million,andthisfigurecouldincreaseinthenearfuture.
Therearemanyexamplesoffoodinsecurityinsub-SaharanAfrica,someofthemhavingreachedcatastrophicdimensions,forexample,intheHornofAfricaorsouthernMadagascar.
Foodinsecurityisnotjustaboutinsufficientfoodproduction,availability,andintake,itisalsoaboutthepoorqualityornutritionalvalueofthefood.
Thedetrimentalsituationofwomenandchildrenisparticularlyserious,aswellasthesituationamongfemaleteenagers,whoreceivelessfoodthantheirmalecounterpartsinthesamehouseholds.
Soaringfoodpricesandfoodriotsareamongthemanysymptomsoftheprevailingfoodcrisisandinsecurity.
Climatechangeandweathervagaries,presentandforecast,aregenerallycompoundingfoodinsecurityanddrasticallychangingfarmingactivities,asdiagnosedbytheConsultativeGrouponInternationalAgriculturalResearch(CGIAR)inJune2011.
Thekeycauseoffoodinsecurityisinadequatefoodproduction.
Sincetheglobalfoodcrisisof2007–2008,therehasbeenanincreasingawarenessthroughouttheworldthatwemustproducemoreandbetterfood;andweshouldnotbederailedfromthisgoal,despitesomereliefbroughtbythegoodcerealharvestsin2011–2012.
Thisisparticularlytrueinsub-SaharanAfrica,whichneedsandwantstomakeitsowngreenrevolution.
TheAfricanchallengeindeediskeytomitigatingfoodinsecurityintheworld.
CommitmentsweremadebytheheadsofstatesandgovernmentsoftheAfricanUniontodoublethepartoftheirdomesticbudgetsdevotedtoagriculturein2010–2011,soastoreach10%.
Technicalsolutionsexistandthereareindeed,throughoutAfrica,goodexamplesofhigher-yieldingandsustainableagriculture.
Butgoodpracticeshavetospreadthroughoutthecontinent,whileatthesametimesocialandeconomicmeasures,aswellaspoliticalwill,areindispensableingredientsofAfrica'sgreenrevolution.
ItisalsonecessarythatinternationaldonorsfulfiltheircommitmenttohelpAfricanfarmersandruralcommunitiesandprotectthemagainstunfairtrade,competition,anddumpingofcheapagrifoodproductsfromoverseas.
Keywords:Millenniumdevelopmentoals(MDGs),foodinsecurity,foodquality,foodriots,volatilityoffoodprices,climatechange,inadequatefoodsupply,greenrevolution,AllianceforaGreenRevolutioninAfrica(AGRA),fairtrade,tradebarriers,AfricanfarmersHunger:AglobalshameFarfromreachingmillenniumdevelopmentgoalnumber1:tohalveextremepovertyandhungerby2015OnSeptember14,2010,theFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO)publisheditsestimatesconcerningthenumberofpeoplesufferingfromhungerin2010:925million.
Thisfigurewasbelowthe1,020billionin2009,butitwashigherthanthenumberreachedbeforethe2008globalfoodcrisis.
The2010figurecorrespondedto13.
5%oftheworldpopula-tion,whilethe2015objective(millenniumdevelopmentgoal(MDG)number1)was8%.
TheFAOconcludedthatwewerestillfarfromachievingMDG1,thatis,halvingthenumberofhungrypeopleworldwideby2015[1].
In2010,theregionaldistributionofpeoplesufferingfromhungerwasthefollowing:578millionintheAsiaCorrespondence:pralbert.
sasson@gmail.
comHassanIIAcademyofScienceandTechnology(Rabat,Morocco),Bio-Euro-Latina(Paris,Madrid),FormerAssistantDirector-GeneralofUNESCO(Paris),51Rued'Alleray,Paris,75015,France2012Sasson;licenseeBioMedCentralLtdThisisanOpenAccessarticledistributedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttributionLicense(http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/2.
0),whichpermitsunrestricteduse,distribution,andreproductioninanymedium,providedtheoriginalworkisproperlycited.
SassonAgriculture&FoodSecurity2012,1:2http://www.
agricultureandfoodsecurity.
com/content/1/1/2Pacificregion;239millioninsub-SaharanAfrica;53mil-lioninLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean;37millioninNorthAfrica;and19millionindevelopedcountries[1].
Thesefigureswereexpectedtoincreaseduetoanotherglobalfoodcrisisin2011,spurredbyanimportantriseincommodityandfoodprices.
AccordingtotheWorldBank,another44millionpeoplelivingonlessthanUS$1.
25perdayhadfallenintoextremepovertybetweenJuneandDecember2010becauseoftheincreaseinfoodprices.
Consequently,byearly2011,1.
2billionpeoplewereinthatsituation.
AndonFebruary4,2011,theFAO'sDirector-General,JacquesDiouf,andtheFrenchagricultureminister,BrunoLeMaire,warnedduringapressconferenceagainst'arealriskofaglobalfoodcri-sis'.
TheFAO'sDirector-Generalstressedthat'notonlywastherearisk,butfoodriotshadalreadyoccurredinsomeregionsoftheworldbecauseoffoodpriceincreasesandgovernmentshadfoundthemselvesinadifficultsituation,'alludingtoTunisiaandEgypt.
TheFAO'smonthlyindexofglobalfoodprices,whichwaspublishedontheeveofthepressconference,hadreachedanotherhistoricalpeak([2];seealso[3]).
OlivierdeSchutter,specialrapporteuroftheUnitedNationsontherighttofood,stated:'Ifmostpoorcoun-triesarestillveryvulnerable,itisbecausetheirfoodse-curitydependstoomuchonfoodimportswhosepricesareincreasinglyhighandvolatile'.
Sincethe2008foodcrisis,itisindeedtruethatvolatilityoffoodpriceshasbecomeanimportantfeatureoftheglobalsituation.
Thatiswhy,accordingtoOlivierdeSchutter,theinter-nationalcommunityshouldrespondrapidly'byadoptingregulationmeasuresandbydesigningaglobalgovern-anceofcommodityandfoodstocks,basedonamoretransparentmanagementofthestockseverycountrykeeps'.
ThiscrucialissueofmarketstabilitywasthefocusofameetingorganizedbytheFAOon24Septem-ber2010.
TheregulationofthemarketsofagriculturalcommoditieswasalsoakeysubjectoftheG20meetingorganizedbyFranceinParisinFebruary2011[1].
Unfortunately,moreactionisneededratherthangen-eralstatements,andinternationalcooperationandsoli-daritymustprevailoverselfishnationalinterestsifwereallywanttoeradicatesuchaglobalshameasthestar-vationandundernutritionofbillionsofpeople.
Forin-stance,thepledgesmadeinL'Aquila(Italy)in2008arefarfrombecomingareality.
DuringthatG8meeting,headsofstatesandgovernmentsmadethecommitmenttogatherUS$22billion(16.
8billion)over3yearsinordertostruggleagainstfoodinsecurity.
Alsoatthattime,allthecountriespresentstressedtheneedtoin-creasetheproportionofagriculture-orientedinvestmentsinpublicaidfordevelopment,whichfellfrom17%in1980downto3.
8%in2006,andthereafterrosetoaround5%.
Allofthesecommitmentsarefarfrombecomingareality.
AUS$900million'globalprogramforfoodsecurity'wasannouncedonlyonApril22,2010.
ItisfundedbytheUnitedStates,Canada,Spain,andSouthKorea,andtheBillandMelindaGatesFoundationalsojoinedtheprogram.
OnJune23,2010,anamountofUS$224millionwasallocatedtothefirstfivebeneficiaries:Bangladesh,Haiti,Rwanda,SierraLeone,andTogo[1].
TheBillandMelindaGatesFoundationisbringingitsexpertisemorethanfunds(US$30million).
AsstressedbyBillGates,theFoundationhasaccumulateduniqueexperiencewhiledisbursingUS$1.
5billionover4years(2006–2009)foractivitiesaimedatimprovingfoodse-curity.
Thisareaofactionhasbecome,accordingtoBillGates,theotherglobalpriorityurgency,'justafterhealth'.
Headdedthatthesolutionwastoassistsmallfarmers'toincreasetheirproductivity,tofindoutletsandtoadoptnewagriculturaltechniques'.
BillGatesiscon-vincedthatfoodsecurityismorecomplexthanaidtohealthcare,becauseinthatcase,oneneedsthecooper-ationoflocalgovernments.
Foodinsecurityoftenprevailswherepublicinfrastructuresarecorruptedandverybackward.
BillGatesrecognizedthattheendeavourishuge:outofthe1billionpeoplewholivewithUS$1orevenlessperday,75%areinruralareas;andtheUS$900milliondevotedtothe'globalprogramforfoodsecurity'representtheequivalentof1or2daysofsubsistenceforeverypersonamongtheextremelypoor[4].
Insub-SaharanAfrica,foodinsecurityisamajorcon-cern,asshownbythefollowingverydisturbingexamples.
Foodinsecurityinsub-SaharanAfrica:ExamplesMadagascarUnderthethreatofstarvation,thepopulationslivinginthedeepsouthofMadagascar(Malagasy)areadoptingsurvivalstrategies,suchaseatingseedstobesownforthefollowingharvestsandthereforereducingthelikeli-hoodofanymeaningfulcrops.
Inthisremotepartofthecountry,whichhasbeenneglectedbypublicauthoritiesaswellasbydevelopmentinstitutionsandthathasbeenhitbyaseveredroughtsince2008,some720,000inhabi-tants(about40%ofthepopulationofthethreeregionsofAtsimo-Andrefana,Androy,andAnosy)weresuffer-ingfromstarvation,accordingtotheWorldFoodProgramme(WFP).
Thenumberofdistrictsclassifiedas'infooddifficulty'roseto53in2010,comparedwith31in2008and45in2009.
'Eventhosedistrictswhichwereconsideredgranariesarenowhitbyfoodinsecurity,'asstressedbytherepresentativeoftheWFPinMadagascar,KrystynaBednarska[5].
In2010,andforthesecondyearinsequence,rainfallwasbelow350mm,andtherainyperiodthatgenerallystartsatthebeginningofNovemberhadnotyetstartedbytheendofDecember.
In2009and2010,80%ofthemaizeharvesthadbeendestroyed.
Inaddition,theSassonAgriculture&FoodSecurity2012,1:2Page2of16http://www.
agricultureandfoodsecurity.
com/content/1/1/2provisionofdrinkingwaterwasevenmoredifficultbe-causeriversweredry.
IntheregionofAndroy,only7%ofthepopulationhadaccesstodrinkingwater[5].
Foodpricesrose:theywere50%higherinthesouthofMadagascarthanintherestofthecountry.
Householdsweresellingtheirlivestock,consideredastheirasset,butwhichhadnovalueinthecaseofextremedrought.
Leavingbehindwomenandchildren,menweremigrat-ingtothenorthofthecountry,wheretheyhopedtoearnmoremoney.
InApril2011,atthepeakoftheinter-cropseason,itwasforecastthatsome6,700childrenwouldsufferfromseveremalnutritionandwouldeven-tuallydie,accordingtotheUnitedNationsChildren'sFund's(UNICEF)representative,BrunoMaes[5].
Whiletherisksofseveremalnutritionwereincreasinginthatregion,thenumberofcasesoftuberculosiswasrising,aswellaswomen'smortalityduringdelivery,andthehealthcaresystemwasbecomingincreasinglyinef-fective.
Thevaccinationratewas41%inthesouthofthecountry,comparedwith88%(average)intherestofthecountry.
BrunoMaesstatedthat'87%ofhealthcenterswerelackingbasicmedicinesand55%hadnofueltoop-eratetheirrefrigerators'[5].
Thenon-governmentalasso-ciationMédecinssansFrontières(MedicalDoctorswithoutFrontiers),whichhadleftthecountryin2005after18yearsofpresence,decidedtobringbackaper-manentteambecauseofthegravityofthehealthsitu-ation.
Thevariousdonorscouldnotcopewithsuchadesperatesituation.
TheWFP,whichwishedtoraisethenumberofreceiversofurgentassistancefrom80,000to200,000,wasseekingfunds.
Ofthe90healthcenters,52thatUNICEFhadsupportedover18monthsinthesouthofthecountrycouldclosedownbytheendof2010be-causeoflackoffunds[5].
TheHornofAfricaAround12millionpeopleweresufferingfromstarvationintheHornofAfrica(Somalia,Ethiopia,northeasternKenya),strickenbytheworstdroughtinthepast60years,announcedtheFAOonJuly12,2011.
Afewdaysbefore,theWFPhadestimatedthat,inthisregion,10millionpeopleneededfoodassistance.
TheSecretary-GeneraloftheUnitedNationscalledanemergencymeetingwithalldirectorsoftheUnitedNationsagenciesandrequestedmemberstatesforamoregenerousatti-tuderegardingtheirhelptothecountriessufferingfromstarvation.
Infact,lessthanhalfoftheUS$1.
6million(1.
14billion)neededfortheassistanceprogrammetobecarriedoutinthatregionhadbeencollected.
InnortheasternKenya,aroundWajir,capitalofthatprovince,neartheborderwithEthiopiaandSomalia,droughthasbeenparticularlysevere.
Trucksfilledwithwaterwerebroughtthereonceaweekfromaneighbour-ingcommunityinordertomeetminimumneedsfordrinkingwater.
FiftykilometresfromWajir,inthecityofGriftu,rainfallvolumehasbeenabout60%to70%lowerthantheaveragefor1.
5years.
WhileinOctober2010,50childrenhadbeentreatedduetomalnutrition,thisincreasedto700inJuly2011[6].
DroughtisnotexceptionalintheHornofAfrica,but2011wasdifferent:recurrentdroughtsweremorefre-quentsincethe2009episodeandplantregrowthwasal-mostimpossible.
Nomadiccattleherdershadtoseekforfartherpastures,sometimesseveralhundredkilometersaway.
Theyoftenlefttheirfamiliesbehindthemwithoutanyresources.
Forotherlivestockherders,itwasalreadytoolate:animalsdiedfromstarvation,andtheirownerstriedtosellthemataverylowpricebeforedeathoc-curred[6].
Anotherconsequenceoftheveryseveredroughtwasthespikeinfoodprices.
InWajir,thepriceofrice(thestaplefoodofthelocalpopulation)rosefrom60to80shillings(0.
64)perkilogramin3months,whilethepriceofsugardoubled.
Thepurchasingpowerofpeoplehasalmostbecomenil[6].
DevelopmentassociationsstatedthattheyhadwarnedlocalauthoritiessinceJune2010abouttheriskofamajorreductioninrainfall.
Theysaidthatnothinghadbeendone,thinkingthatthesituationwouldimprove.
Manywerethosewhounderlinedthelackofinvestmentandlong-termplanningbytheKenyangovernmentforthenortheastofthecountry.
Theyhad,nevertheless,solutionsinmind:limitationoftheinstallationofseden-tarypeopleonlandtraditionallyusedbyherders;con-vincelivestockherderstoselltheiranimalsearlier,toreducethesizeoftheirherdsandflockssoastomakethemmoreeconomicallyviable;andadvocateforadiver-sificationoftheiractivities.
Butthecentralgovernmentseemedtofocusonshort-termsolutions[6].
AlthoughnotasdramaticasinnortheasternKenya,thelackofrainfallormuchscarcerrainshaveaffectedtheregionsoutheastofNairobi.
Maizeharvestshavebeendrasticallyreducedandabout400farmershavegrowncassavainsteadoftheusualcrop;theyweretoreaptheirfirstharvestin2011.
Cassavaneedslesswaterthanmaize,aswellasfewerpesticides.
Inordertoavoidpoisoningbycyanide(inthetubers),selectedharmlessvarietiesaredistributedtofarmersbytheKenyaAgricul-turalResearchInstitute(KARI);theprojectisfundedbytheEuropeanUnion.
Anothergroupof560farmersinthevillageofMbuvo,southofNairobi,wereharvestingtheirfirstcropofcassavabytheendofJuly2011.
Theyformedacooperativeinchargeofcollecting,weighing,washing,andpeelingthetubersofcassava,beforetrans-formingthemintoawhitepowderthatisdriedonlargewoodenmats.
Thederivedproductsarecassavaflour,chips,animalfeed,andmealsmadewithcassavaleaves.
Thecooperative'sobjectivewastocultivate300hectaresSassonAgriculture&FoodSecurity2012,1:2Page3of16http://www.
agricultureandfoodsecurity.
com/content/1/1/2in2012thankstotheuseofmachinery,andlateron,toexporttheproductstosouthernSudan,Germany,andtheUnitedKingdom[7].
Inadditiontocassava,KARIhasbeensupportingthecultivationofanothertraditionalcrop,sorghum,whichisalsotoleranttodrought.
In2011,about3,000farmersweresellingtheirproductiontolocalbrewers.
Foodse-curityhasbecomeatoppriorityandKARI'sresearchandextensionworkaimedatfindingappropriatesolu-tionsinclosecollaborationwiththefarmers,particularlythoseworkinginadrought-proneenvironment.
OnJuly20,2011,'TheUnitedNationsdeclaredthatfamineexistedintworegionsofsouthernSomalia:southernBakoolandLowerShabelle,'asstatedbytheUnitedNationsOfficefortheCoordinationofHumani-tarianAffairsforSomalia.
BothareasarecontrolledbyShebabinsurgents.
Famineisdeclaredwhenover30%ofchildrensufferacutemalnutrition,themortalityratereachestwoadultsorfourchildrenperdayper10,000peopleandthepopulationhasaccesstomuchlessthan2,100kcaloffoodperday.
'AcrossSomalia,nearlyhalfofthepopulation,3.
7millionpeople,wereincrisis,ofwhomanestimated2.
8millionpeoplewereinthesouth,'theUnitedNations'statementread.
'Consecutivedroughtshaveaffectedthecountryinthelastfewyears,whiletheongoingconflicthasmadeitextremelydifficultforagenciestooperateandaccesscommunitiesinthesouthofthecountry,'itadded.
ThereliefagencyOxfamhasbeenurgingdonorstoprovidetheUS$800milliondesperatelyneededtohelp10millionhungrypeopleintheHornofAfrica.
OftheestimatedUS$1billionneededtostaveoffamajorhu-manitariancatastrophe,OxfamstatedthatonlyaroundUS$200millioninnewmoneyhadsofarbeenprovided.
Overthe2weeksbeforetheUnitedNations'statement,theUnitedKingdomhadpledgedanestimatedUS$145million(almost15%ofwhatwasneeded),theEuropeanUnionaroundUS$8million,SpainnearlyUS$10million,andGermanyaroundUS$8.
5million.
UnitedNations'officialswarnedthatunlessurgentac-tionweretaken,theareasafflictedbyfaminewouldex-pand,thatistoalleightregionsofsouthernSomalia,within2months,duetopoorharvestsandinfectiousdiseaseoutbreaks.
Famineimpliedthatatleast20%ofhouseholdsfacedextremefoodshortages,withlimitedabilitytocope.
MalnutritionratesinSomaliawerethehighestintheworld,withpeaksof50%incertainareasofsouthernSomalia.
Consequently,'everydayofdelayinassistancewasliterallyamatteroflifeanddeathforchil-drenandtheirfamiliesinthefamine-affectedareas,'saidMarkBowden,theUnitedNationshumanitariancoord-inatorforSomalia.
ThousandsofSomalishavefledtoseekrefugeinneighbouringEthiopiaandKenya.
Inthelattercountry,theywerestreamingintoovercrowdedcampshostingsome380,000people,morethanfourtimestheiroriginalcapacity.
OnJuly19,2011,theUnitedNationsrefugeeagencystatedthatdeathratesamongrefugeesarrivinginEthiopia'sDoloAdoareahadreached7.
4deathsper10,000inJune2011,15timesmorethanthebaselinerateinsub-SaharanAfrica.
Soaringworldfoodpriceshadmademattersworse.
InSomalia,thecostofsorghum,thelocalstaple,hadrisen240%sinceOctober2010.
InKenya,thepriceofmaizehadtripled.
Foodhoardinghadbeenreportedlyaggravat-ingshortages,evenwhenrainhadbeenplentiful.
PartsofKenyahadabumperharvest,leavingnon-governmentalorganizations(NGOs)towonderwhythegovernment'sstrategicgrainreservesweresolow.
Anestimated3.
5millionKenyanswereinurgentneedoffood.
Sowere533,000refugeesintheovercrowdedDadaabcampneartheborderwithSomalia(asofJuly14,2011).
WhoistoblameAnoscillationintheclimateintheformofLaNia,acoolingofthesurfacetemperaturesacrosstheequatorialeastern-centralPacific,causingbigchangesinairflowandweatherpatterns,islikelytohavecontributedtothedroughts.
ButJaneCocking,Oxfam'shumanitariandirector,statedthat'thisisapreventabledisasterandsolutionsarepossible'.
Theworst-affectedareaswerealsothepoorestintheregion.
Long-termin-vestmentcouldhavemadevillagesandtownsmoreresilient.
FoodqualityandgenderinequalityInsub-SaharanAfrica(andSouthAsia),ahighpropor-tionoffemaleteenagersagedbetween15and19yearsaresufferingfromanaemia(thehighestrateof68%isregisteredinMali)andweightinsufficiency(47%inIndia),whilemaleteenagersofthesameagearesufferinglessfromtheseailments.
ThisisoneofthenumerousdisparitiesbetweenthesexesrevealedbyUNICEF,pub-lishedonFebruary25,2011anddevotedtoteenagers[8].
Toelucidatethereasonsforthesedisparitiesintheareaofnutrition,aninternationalgroupofresearchersandnutritionistshasdecidedtostudytheeatinghabitsofmorethan2,000teenagersagedbetween13and17yearsinthesouthofEthiopia,andthisindependentlyfromUNICEF.
Ethiopiaisoneofthepoorestcountriesintheworld,wheremorethan50%ofthepopulationwaslessthan18yearsoldin2009andwhere85%ofteenagerswerelivinginruralareas.
Over5years,TeferaBelachew(UniversityofJimma,Ethiopia)andcolleagueshaveinterviewedfamiliesabouttheirfoodhabitsandtheirhealth.
Theirstudy,publishedinJanuary2011,hasshownthatthehealthofboysandgirlswassimilarinnormalsituations,butdifferedwhenaccesstohealthyfoodbecomesdifficult[8].
SassonAgriculture&FoodSecurity2012,1:2Page4of16http://www.
agricultureandfoodsecurity.
com/content/1/1/2Amongtheteenagersinterviewed,about25%ofthefemaleshavebeenconfrontedwithfoodinsecurity,com-paredwith16%ofthemales.
Asadirectconsequence,girlssuffermorefromgeneralweaknessandpathologies.
Boysweregenerallyfedfirstandreceivedfoodofbetterquality.
PietrVanDoorenoftheInstituteofTropicalMedicineinAntwerp,Belgium,statedthat'inanEthiopianfamily,theboyisoftenperceivedashavingamoreimport-anteconomicandreligiousroletoplay;peopletendtobe-lievethathewillbemoreproductiveandmoreabletomanagethehouseholdincaseofcrisis'.
RolandKupka,anutritionistworkingforUNICEFinWestAfrica,alsosta-ted:'Inacontextoffoodinsecurity,thesocialstatusofwomenraisesmanyproblems.
Menshouldreceivethebestfood,whilewomeneatleftovers,andgenerallyfoodoflesserquality'.
Thesestatementsunderlinethedetrimentalsituationofwomenwhoplayakeyroleinthecountry'seconomy,especiallyinruralareas:45%ofEthiopia'swork-erswhocultivatelandarewomen[8].
ImpactofsoaringfoodpricesIn2007–2008,rocketingfoodpriceswerethemostobvi-oussymptomsoftheglobalfoodcrisis.
Theyhavesparkedriotsinmanycountries,which,accordingtoanexecutiveofanimportantinternationalbodyattendingtheWorldEconomicForum(2008)inDavos,Switzer-land,generatedmoreconcernamonggovernmentsthantheriseinoilandpetrolprices.
Atthebeginningof2011,worldfoodpriceshadrisenabovethepeaktheyreachedin2008,drivenbyrisingde-mandindevelopingcountriesandweathervagaries,in-cludingdroughtinRussiaandUkraine,andadryspellinNorthChina.
Thatwasatimewhenhundredsofmillionsofpeoplefellintopoverty,foodriotswereshakinggov-ernmentsinmanydevelopingcountries,exporterswerebanninggrainsalesabroad,andagriculturallandswerepurchasedorrentedbyrichgrain-importingnationsinpooragriculturalones[9].
Thistime,too,therehavebeenexportbans,foodriots,panicbuying,andemergencypricecontrols,justasin2007–2008.
FearsthatdroughtmightcausehavocinthewheatharvestinChina,theworld'slargest,havebeensendingshockwavesthroughworldmarkets.
Angeroverrisingbreadpriceshasplayedapartinthepopularup-risingthroughouttheMiddleEast.
Therearedifferencesbetweenthetwoperiods,butthefactthatagriculturehasexperiencedtwobigpricespikesinlessthan4yearssuggeststhatsomethingseriousisrattlingtheglobalfoodchain[9].
TheWorldBankhasstatedthatthespikeinfoodpriceshadpushed44millionpeopleintoextremepovertysinceJune2010.
TheFAOwarnedthatMozambique,Uganda,Mali,Niger,andSomaliawereextremelyvulnerabletoin-stabilitybecauseofrisingprices,alongwithKyrgyzstanandTajikistaninAsia,andHaiti,Guatemala,Bolivia,andHondurasinLatinAmerica.
Misguidedgovernmentpoliciescouldmakemattersworse,suchasstockpilingoffoodbysomecountries,oragriculturalexportbans,whichdiscourageinvestmentinproduction.
FoodriotsInWestAfrica,inBurkinaFaso(Bobo-Dioulasso),onFebruary20,2008,rioterswhoprotestedagainsta65%riseinthepriceofsomefoodstuffsinJanuaryburntgov-ernmentbuildingsandlootedstores.
Dayslater,inCam-eroon,ataxidrivers'strikeoverfuelpricesbecameamassiveprotestagainstsoaringfoodprices,leavingaround20peopledead,whilehundredswerearrested.
InSenegal,inMarch2008,policeinriotgearusedteargasandbeatpeopleprotestingagainsthighfoodpricesandlaterraidedatelevisionstationthatbroadcastimagesoftheevent[10,11].
InCairo,themilitarywasputtoworkbakingbreadasbreadlinesatbakeriesthatdistributestate-subsidizedbreadbecamethesceneoffights.
Thegovernmentfearedthatthesefightscouldbecomethesparkthatignitedwiderangeratarepressivegovernment.
InYemen,foodriotsturneddeadly,takingatleastadozenlives[10,12].
InMorocco,whiletradeunionswarnedagainstthedegradationofconsumers'purchasingpoweranditsimplicationsforsocialpeace,andanewspaperrequestedtheauthoritiestoensurethatfoodpriceswouldnotex-ceedsome'redlines',peopletooktothestreetsattheendofSeptember2007andclashedwiththepoliceinthecityofSefrou,locatedinthecenterofthecountry.
Some50peoplewerewoundedanddozensoffoodrio-terswerearrested.
Inordertopreventacountry-widemassiveprotest,theincreaseinbreadpricewascancelledandthestatehadtobearthebruntofthe25%riseinthepriceofaloafofbread(1.
50dirhams,or0.
14).
Furthertoapoorcerealharvestin2006–2007duetoaseveredroughtduringthespring(insteadofthe90millionquintalsharvestedin2005–2006,only20millionquin-talswereharvestedin2006–2007),Moroccohadtoim-portlargequantitiesofsoftwheat[13].
AstrikingexampleoffoodriotsandpopularuprisingsduetotheincreaseinfoodpricesisthatofMozambique.
InMaputo,thecapital,andothercitiesofthissouthernAfricancountry,onSeptember1,2010,peopletooktothestreetsafterthegovernmentannounceda25%to30%increaseinthepriceofbreadforthefollowingweek.
Shopsandbankswerelooted,carsstoned,androadsbarricadedwithrocksandburningtyresduring3daysofriotingthatparalyzedthecapitalandshutdownthemainairport.
Theriotsleftatleastadozendeadandmorethan400injured.
Policesaidtheyhadtoresorttoliveammunitionagainstprotestersafterrun-ningoutofrubberbullets.
Nearly300demonstratorsSassonAgriculture&FoodSecurity2012,1:2Page5of16http://www.
agricultureandfoodsecurity.
com/content/1/1/2werearrested,includingnineaccusedof'incitement'forsendingoutmobile-phonetext-messagesurgingpeopletojointheprotestsagainstrisingutility,transport,andfoodprices[14].
Afterhavingdeclaredthattheincreaseinbreadpricewas'irreversible'duringanextraordinarymeeting,thegovernmentcalledofftheincreaseandapologized,say-ingithadneverauthorizedtheuseoflethalforce.
In2008,foodriotsoccurredinCameroonandSomalia,andspreadthroughMozambique.
Inflationwasendangeringthelifeofthepoorestsectionsofthecountry'spopula-tionandwasalsoexacerbatingthediscontentofpeopleagainstthegovernments.
Theincreaseinthepriceofbreadwasnottheonlyreasonforrioting:thepriceofwaterrose12%andthatofelectricity13%justbeforethefoodriots,andafewmonthsbeforetheeventsthepriceofbreadhadbeenincreasedinasimilarway.
Finally,thegovernmentandtradeunionshadsignedanagreementtoraiseby50%thefareofcollectiveminibuses[15].
Despitereceivingbillionsofdollarsininternationalaidsincetheendofitscivilwarin1992andhavingoneoftheworld'sfastest-growingeconomies,Mozambiqueremainspoorandunequal.
Mostofits20millionpeopleliveonlessthan$1.
25aday.
Thereisalmostnostatewelfare.
Thesmallestriseinthecostoflivingcanbe-comeaquestionoflifeanddeath.
Althoughthegovern-menthasblamedtheriseinthecostofbreadonsoaringglobalwheatprices,thatwasnotthemainfactor.
Ithadmoretodowithasharpfallinthemetical,Mozambi-que'scurrency(43%comparedwithSouthAfrica'srand,betweenJanuaryandSeptember2010),coupledwithapoorharvestinthesouthofthecountryin2010duetodrought.
Despitevastswathesofpotentialfarmland,onlyasmallproportionisdeveloped,asthecountryreliesonimportedfood,mostlyfromitsneighbour,SouthAfrica[14].
AlloftheseeventsoccurredwhenMozambiquewaswelcominginvestorsinterestedinexploitingthecoun-try'svastnaturalresources.
Forinstance,accordingtoNoticias,anewspaperclosetothegovernment,ChinaintendedtoinvestUS$13billioninthecountry.
Withaneconomicgrowthofabout7%in2010,Mozambiqueseemedtobemakinggoodprogresstowardsrecoveryfromacivilwarthatledtoabout1milliondeathsbe-tween1976and1992.
Therewere,however,seriousaccusationsofcorruptionatthetopofthestate.
Someofitsdecisionsalsoseemeddifficulttounderstand:forin-stance,contractsweresignedtoextendtheareastobecultivatedwithjatropha(inordertoproducebiodieselfromitsoil)whilethecountryhadseriousproblemsoffoodsupply[15].
Thegovernmentannouncedan'actionplan'tocanceltheriseinutilitytariffsforthepoorest,toreducethepriceofriceandsugar,inadditiontocancellingthe30%riseinbreadpricesforthwith.
Ithasalsopromisedtofreezethesalariesofpoliticiansandseniorcivilservants.
Thelatestmeasuresweretoremaininforceuntiltheendof2010.
Bythen,thegovernmentwasexpectedtoissuealonger-termplanforeconomicandsocialstability[14].
ImpactofclimatechangeClimatechangeandglobalwarmingareconsideredmajorthreatstoagricultureandfoodproduction.
In2007,theUnitedNationspredictedthat'zonesstruckbydroughtinsub-SaharanAfricamightincreasefrom60millionto90millionhectaresfromnowto2060.
.
.
'andthat'thenumberofpeoplesufferingfrommalnutritionmightincreaseupto600millionfromnowto2080'.
On1February2008,thejournalSciencepublishedforecastsofStanfordUniversity,California,whichpredictedthatSouthAfricacouldlosemorethan30%ofitsmaizepro-ductionfromnowto2030[16].
Catastrophicfloodsandseveredroughtsareinflictingheavydamagetosub-SaharanAfrica'secosystemsandagroecosystems,threateningthelivesoftensofmillionsofpeople.
Forinstance,onAugust25,2008,theUnitedNations'humanitariancoordinationinChadannouncedthatabout30,000personshadbeenaffectedbyfloodsinthesouthofthecountry.
InEthiopia,accordingtotheRedCross,75,000personswereseverelyhitbydrought.
Itisnoteasytocorrelatetheseeventswithclimatechange,buttheyenabletheexpertstoforecastthedan-gersandthreatsofclimatechangeinAfrica,whichpro-ducesonly5%oftheworld'semissionsofgreenhouse-effectgases[17].
Amidstthedebatesonclimatechange,Africais'theforgottencontinent',asstatedbyYvoBoer,Secretary-GeneraloftheUnitedNationsConventiononClimateChange,inAccra(Ghana),duringaninternationalcon-ferenceonthefollow-uptotheKyotoProtocol,whichendedonAugust27,2008.
AccordingtoGhana'spresi-dent,JohnKufuor,Africawasalreadysufferingfrom'cli-mateshocks':inhiscountry,rainfallhasdecreasedby20%overthepast30years.
Thisrainfalldecreasehasbeenconfirmed,onagreaterscale,byGermanandAfri-canscientistsduringasymposiumheldinOuagadougou(BurkinaFaso)onAugust26,2008:therainfallseasoninWestAfricastarts30dayslaterthan40yearsago.
AccordingtotheresearchprogrammeGlawo,whichwasthesubjectoftheOuagadougouseminar,a'considerablewarming'wasexpectedinAfricaaswellasa'remarkable'reductioninrainfallinsub-SaharanAfricaandalongthesouthernrimoftheMediterraneanfromnowto2050.
TheseforecastsconfirmthoseoftheIntergovernmentalGroupofExpertsonClimateChange,publishedin2007.
TheGroup'sreportforecasta5%to8%extensionofaridandsemi-aridlandsfromnowto2080,anincreaseinSassonAgriculture&FoodSecurity2012,1:2Page6of16http://www.
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com/content/1/1/2thenumberofpeoplesufferingfromlackofwaterfromnowto2020,andworseningdifficultiesforagriculturethatcouldhalveagriculturalproductioninsomecoun-tries[17].
TheelevationofsealevelcouldalsoaffectcoastalcountriessuchasGhana,Nigeria,andGambia;StefanCramer,oftheHeinrichBollFoundation,whoattendedtheconferenceinAccra,underlinedtheimpactthatwouldbefeltparticularlyinthedeltas,wherepopula-tionsaredense.
Forinstance,Lagos,Nigeria'seconomiccapital,with15millioninhabitants,wouldbeseriouslyaffected;severaldistrictsofthecitythataresituatedbelowsealevelarealreadyregularlyflooded.
Thisoverallsituationiscompoundedbytheincreaseinpopulationgrowthandbythelackofresources.
AccordingtotheUnitedNationsDivisionofPopulation,thenumberofpeoplelivinginAfricawouldrisefrom922millionin2005to1,998millionin2050.
Whileeconomicgrowthhasbeenratherhighoverthepastfewyears(6.
2%in2007,accordingtotheEconomicReportonAfricabytheUnitedNationsandtheAfricanUnion),publicaidfromtherichcountrieswasslumping(8.
4%in2007,accordingtotheOrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(OECD);[17]).
ThestudypublishedonJune3,2011bytheConsultativeGrouponInternationalAgriculturalResearch(CGIAR)andbasedonacomprehensivemappingworkconcludedthatregionswherefoodinsecuritywashighestwerealsothosewhereclimatechangewasexpectedtodrasticallychangefarmingactivities.
TheseregionsaremainlylocatedinAfricaandSouthAsia,butChinaandLatinAmericacouldalsobeaffected.
Inlessthan40years,theagricul-turalseasonsoftheseregionswillbeshorter,warmeranddrier,jeopardizingthelifeofhundredsofmillionsofpeoplewhoarealreadypoororverypoor.
Farmershavealreadymadeeffortstoadjusttoclimatevariationsthroughmodifyingthesowingperiodsorchanginggrazinglands.
ButtheCGIAR'sstudyunderlinedthattherapidityandrangeofclimatechangewouldmostprobablyneedmoredrasticadaptations.
Beyondaveragemaximumtem-peraturesabove30°C,yieldsofriceandmaizeareaffected,whilethecultivationofbeansbecomesverydifficult.
Tensofmillionsofsmallfarmersinsub-SaharanAfricamightbeconfrontedwithsuchasituationby2050[18].
Ontheotherhand,inanewstudy,theLondon-basedcharityOxfamstated'theinternationalcommunityissleepwalking'towardsahumanitariancatastrophe,asris-ingfoodpricesthreatentocausearangeofdemographicandsocialcrises.
Thereport,GrowingaBetterFuture,indicatedthatpricesforbasicstaplesmightriseto120%to180%oftheircurrentlevelsby2030(Table1),partlyasaresultofclimatechangebutalsobecauseofpoordistri-butionandunfetteredspeculationincommoditymarketsbybigbanksandhedgefunds.
Thetrendcouldbereversed,accordingtoOxfam,ifgovernmentsimprovedregulationandfocusedontheplightofsmallfarmers.
CanAfricacopewithglobalclimatechangeusingthemeansexistingundertheKyotoProtocolItdoesnotseemtobethecase.
'ThetotalamountoftheprojectsfundedinAfricabytheGlobalEnvironmentFacility(GEF)overthepast17yearswasUS$378million,whiletheglobalamountwasmorethanUS$2.
4billion,'statedYvodeBoerinAccra.
Regardingthe'mechanismofcleandevelopment',whichallowsforthefundingoftechnologyprojectsaimedatdecreasingtheemissionsofgreen-house-effectgases,itisspreadingslowlyonthecontin-ent.
'Only2%oftherelevantprojectsexistedinAfrica,comparedwith45%inChina,16%inIndia,and13%inChile;anunacceptablesituation,'statedEwahOtuEleri,wholeadstheInternationalCenterforEnergy,Environ-mentandDevelopment,basedinNigeria[17].
OnAugust26,2008,ataGEFmeetingheldinCotonou(Benin),theFrenchministerofecology,Jean-LouisBorloo,madeastrongpleaonbehalfoftheFrenchpresidencyoftheEuropeanUnionforanalliancebetweenEuropeandAfricaduringthenegotiationsonclimatechange.
Addres-singhiscolleaguesfrom14countriesofEquatorialandWestAfrica,heexpressedhishopethat'Europethathasthehistoricresponsibilityofglobalwarming'wouldreviewnewfinancialflowsinordertocontroldeforestationandtodevelopAfrica'senergyresources[17].
SuchastatementofEurope'sgoodwillwasechoedataCarbonAfricanForum,heldinDakaronSeptember3–5,2008,andwhereseveralprojectsonthemechanismofcleandevelopmentweretobenegotiated.
Itshouldbeunderlinedthatoneofthemainissuesofthenegotia-tionsthatwillleadtothefollow-uptotheKyotoProto-colistheinclusionofforestsandforestedareasintothedeal,becausereducingoreliminatingdeforestationleadstothepreventionofgreenhouse-effectgasemissions.
AccordingtoBriceLalonde,theFrenchambassadorforthenegotiationsonclimatechange,theinclusionoffor-estsinthesenegotiationsdependsontheaccuracyofmeasurementoftheiractualacreageandoftheiremis-sions.
Aconsensusseemstobeachievable,assatellitetechnologiesandothermethodsarenowavailableformeasuringthoseemissions.
Ageneralagreementwillnowbenecessaryfortheinclusionofforestsinthecar-bonmarket,becauseoneisdealingwithaveryimportantTable1Estimatedriseinthecostofbasicstaplesby2030CropWithoutclimatechange(%)Withclimatechange(%)Paddyrice72107Wheat5382Maize71126Processedrice3448SassonAgriculture&FoodSecurity2012,1:2Page7of16http://www.
agricultureandfoodsecurity.
com/content/1/1/2volumeofgreenhouse-effectgasesthatsurpassesEurope'semissions.
RegardingAfrica,ifamechanismweredesignedtoavoiddeforestation,thecountriesoftheCongobasinwouldbenefit[17].
Anothersolutiontodeforestationcar-riedouttoclearoutlandforagricultureistosupportagri-culturalintensificationthroughtherationaldistributionoffertilizers;ifyieldsoffoodcropsareincreased,farmerswillnotcleartheforeststoextendfarmlandacreage.
Inadequatefoodsupply:ThekeycauseoffoodinsecurityDemandsideThechronicallytightfoodsupplytheworldisfacingisdrivenbythecumulativeeffectofseveralwell-establishedtrendsthataffectglobaldemandandsupply.
Onthede-mandside,thetrendsincludethecontinuingadditionof70millionpeopleperyeartotheEarth'spopulationandthedesireofsome4billionpeopletomoveupthefoodchainandconsumelivestockproducts.
InChina,forin-stance,annualpercapitaconsumptionofmeathasrisenfrom20kgto50kginlessthan30years.
Abouthalfofthegrainsproducedintheworldareusedtofeedthelivestock.
Thatiswhytheincreasesincerealandfodderpriceshaveastrongimpactonlivestockproducts:milkrose80%to200%,whilepoultryrose10%[12,19].
Thus,afterabout40yearsofdecreaseintheglobalpricesofcereals(60%),whileproductionhasbeengrow-ing,2yearsweresufficienttosendpricessoaring.
Itwasnotthereforepossibleforseveraldevelopingcountries'governmentstosupplycheapfoodtotheircitydwellers.
Ontheotherhand,80%ofthe3billionpeoplesurvivingbelowthepovertythresholdliveinruralareasandhavein-creasingdifficultiesinfeedingthemselves.
TheFAOlistedover30countriesforwhichthesoaringpriceoffoodhasbeendramatic:inAfrica,Burundi,CentralAfricanRepub-lic,Chad,Cted'Ivoire,DemocraticRepublicofCongo,Eritrea,Ethiopia,Ghana,Guinea-Bissau,Kenya,Lesotho,Liberia,Mauritania,SierraLeone,Somalia,Sudan,Swazi-land,Uganda,Zimbabwe;inAsia,Afghanistan,Bangla-desh,Indonesia,Iraq,NorthKorea,Nepal,Pakistan,SriLankaandEastTimor;inLatinAmerica,Bolivia,Domin-icanRepublic,Haiti,Nicaragua;inEurope,MoldaviaandChechnya(RussianFederation).
Ofthesecountries,oneoutofthreeisconfrontedwithpoliticalproblems,thatiscivilwarand/orgeneralinsecurity[20,21].
Stillonthedemandside,andwithoutoverestimatingtheirimpact,theuseofmaizetoproducebioethanolintheUnitedStateshasraisedtheannualglobalgraincon-sumption[22].
SupplysideOnthesupplyside,thereisnotmuchnewlandtobebroughtundertheploughunlessitcomesfromclearingtropicalforestsorfromclearingtheBraziliancerrados(savannah-likeregionssouthoftheAmazonforest).
Thishasheavyenvironmentalcosts,forexampleincreasedrainfallrun-offandsoilerosion.
Andinmanycountries,primecroplandisbeinglosttobothindustrialandresi-dentialconstructionandtothepavingoflandforroads,highways,andparkinglotsforfast-growingautomobilefleets.
Now,sourcesofirrigationwaterareevenmorescarcethannewlandtoplough.
Duringthelatterhalfofthe20thcentury,theworld'sirrigatedareanearlytrebled,expandingfrom94millionhectaresin1950to276mil-lionhectaresin2000.
Sincethen,theirrigatedareaperpersonhasbeenshrinkingby1%ayear[12].
Itisthereforeobviousthattheglobalsupplyoffoodisinsufficient.
AsstatedbyJacquesChirac,theformerpresi-dentofFrance,'IhaveneverceasedtofightagainstthefreezingofproductioninEuropeandtopromoteagricul-turaldevelopmentinpoorcountries.
Everybodyatlastrealizesthathumankindneedsallitscropland.
Foodself-sufficiencyisthefirstchallengedevelopingcountriesshouldfaceandresolve'[23].
Foodsecurity:howtoachieveitFoodself-sufficiencyadvocatedinthe1970sandsup-portedbymanycountrieswasreplacedinthe1990sbytheconceptoffoodsecurity,theobjectiveofwhichistomakeavailableallfoodstuffsinsufficientquantitiesandwiththeadequatenutritionalqualities,whateveristheirorigin,betheyproducedlocally,imported,ordonatedasfoodaid.
Thatiswhythepromotersoffreetradede-mandtheopeningofcountriestoimportsoffood,con-sideringthatconsumersworldwidehavetherighttopurchasetheirfoodstuffsatthelowestcostpossible.
However,inaworldmarketdominatedbylargeagrifoodcompaniesandbythesubsidizedagriculturesofWesterncountries,agriculturalandfoodpriceshavebeen,since1990,onadownwardtrend.
Thismeantveryharshcom-petitionforsmallproducersfromdevelopingcountries,forwhomitisincreasinglydifficulttolivefromtheirfarmactivities.
Theirproductioncostsarehigherthanforimportedfood,whosedumpingpricesdiscouragethemfromproducingmore[24].
Inaddition,thefooddependenceofmanydevelopingcountrieshasincreasedmarkedly.
Forinstance,inWestAfrica,riceimportshavemultipliedeight-foldsince1960andthoseofmeathavetrebledin20years.
Hardcur-rencyprovidedbyagriculturalexportsfromWestAfricajustpaysforfoodimports,70%ofwhichcompetewithlocalproducts.
Consequently,networksandcoalitionsofproducershavebeencreatedinordertoadvocateanddefendtheirrighttofoodsovereignty.
TheirclaimsaredirectedtotheWorldTradeOrganization(WTO)withaviewtochangingtherulesofworldtrade,andalsotoen-couragegovernmentstoadoptagriculturalpoliciesthatsupportlocalproducers.
Onitsside,theFAO,throughSassonAgriculture&FoodSecurity2012,1:2Page8of16http://www.
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com/content/1/1/2itsVoluntaryDirectivesdevelopedin2004,encourageditsmemberstatestotranslatetherighttofoodincon-cretetermsastherightforalltobeabletofeedthem-selvesinadecentway[24].
Theendoftheeraofcheapfoodhascoincidedwithgrowingconcernabouttheprospectsoffeedingtheworld.
ByOctobertoNovember2011,theglobalpopula-tionroseto7billion,andthespikeinfoodpriceshasonceagainplungedintopovertymillionsofpeoplewhospendmorethanhalftheirincomeonfood.
ThenumberofthosebelowthepovertylevelofUS$1.
25perday,whichhadbeenfallingconsistentlyinthe1990s,rosesharplyin2007–2008.
Thissuggestedthattheworldcouldnotevenfeeditscurrentpopulation,letalonethe9billionexpectedby2050.
Addingfurthertothesecon-cernsisclimatechange,ofwhichagricultureisbothcauseandvictim[9].
Thefoodcrisishasproducedavarietyofproposedsolutions.
Onegrouparguesthathighandvolatilepriceswillmakethetaskharderandthatmoreneedstobedonetoboostsuppliesthroughthespreadofmodernfarming,cropresearch,andfoodprocessinginpoorcountries.
Fortheactorsinthisgroup(foodcompanies,cropbreeders,andinternationaldevelopmentagencies)thegreenrevolutionofthe1960swasastunningsuccessandneedstobefollowedbyasecondone[9].
Thealternativeviewisscepticalof,orevendownrighthostileto,themodernfoodbusiness.
Thisgroup,influ-entialamongNGOsandsomeconsumers'associations,focusesmoreonthefoodproblemsofwealthiercoun-tries,suchasconcernsaboutanimalwelfareandobesity.
Itarguesthatmodernagricultureproducesfoodthatistasteless,nutritionallyinadequate,andenvironmentallydisastrous.
Itconsidersthatthegreenrevolutionhasbeenafailure,oratleastithasdonemoreenvironmentaldamageandbroughtfewerbenefitsthananyoneexpected[9].
Feedingtheworldin2050willnotbeeasy,and'busi-nessasusual'willnotachieveit.
Therearewaysandmeanstoboostyieldsofthemaincrops;despitethecon-straintsoflandandwater,fertilizersandpesticidesareavailableandalthoughtheconcernsofthecriticsofmodernagriculturemaybeunderstandable,thereactionagainstintensivefarmingisnotalwaysjustified.
Organicfarminghasaroletoplayand,indeed,itsgrowthrateisimportant,butitcannotfeedtheworld[9].
In1996,theFAOestimatedthattheworldwasprodu-cingenoughfoodtoprovideeverywoman,man,andchildwith2,700kcaleachday,severalhundredmorethanmostadultsarethoughttoneed(around2,300kcaladay).
ThemedicaljournalTheLancetreckonedthatpeopleneedednomorethan90gofmeataday.
Onaverage,theyeatmorethanthat,nowadays.
AbhijitBanerjeeoftheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologyDepartmentofEconomics,stated'Weliveinaworldthatiscapableoffeedingeverypersonthatlivesontheplanet.
Ifthereisafoodproblem,itdoesnotlooklikeatechnicalorbiologicalone.
'Therefore,whyworryaboutproducingmorefoodPartoftheanswerisprices.
Ifoutputfallsbelowdemand,priceswilltendtorise,evenif'excess'caloriesarebeingproduced.
Thathappenedin2007–2008,andwasoccurringagainin2011.
Overtheperiod2007–2010,pricesweremorevolatilethantheyhadbeenfordecades.
Thissituationisbadforfarmers(whoareleftnotknowinghowandwheretoinvest)andworseforconsumers,especiallythepoor,whorisksud-denlybeingunabletoaffordbasicfood[9].
Anotherpartoftheansweristhatitishardtoimprovedistributionandreducepoverty.
Theworldmayindeedproducemassesofcalories,butthefoodisnotalwayswhereitneedstobe,andbiofuelpolicyishardtochange.
Pushingupsuppliesmaybeeasierthansolvingthedistributionproblems.
Theoveralltaskremainsadauntingone.
Inordertokeepupwithpopulationgrowth,farmerswillhavetogrowmorewheatandmaizeoverthenext40yearsthanwasgrownintheprevious500.
Thebalancebetweenwhatisconsumedandwhatfarmersproducemattersagreatdeal[9].
Regardingconsumption,whichcanbeforecastwithsomeaccuracy,thepredictableriseintheworld'spopula-tion,from7billionbytheendof2011tojustover9bil-lionin2050,istheequivalentoftwoextraIndias.
Ifweincludethe1billionpeoplewhoarenowstarving,theadditionalmouthstofeedoverthenext40yearsadduptothreeextraIndias.
Itdoesnotseemanimpossibletask.
Theincreaseinworldpopulationby2050willbearound30%,lessthaninthe40yearsto2010,whenitrosebyover80%.
Consumptionofwheat,rice,andmaizeroughlytrackspopulationgrowth,butatahigherlevel,sodemandforthemwilladdaboutabilliontonstothe2billionproducedin2005–2007.
Thatismuchlessthanduringtheprevious40years,whencerealproductionroseby250%(TheEconomist,2011).
In2000,56%ofallthecaloriesconsumedindevelop-ingcountrieswereprovidedbycerealsand20%bymeat,dairyproducts,andvegetableoils.
By2050,theFAOesti-matesthatthecontributionofcerealswillhavedroppedto46%andthatofmeat,dairy,andfatswillhaverisento29%.
Tomatchthatsoaringdemand,meatproductionwillneedtoincreaseto470milliontonsby2050,almostdoubleitscurrentlevel.
Outputofsoybeans(mostofwhicharefedtolivestock)willneedtomorethandouble,to515milliontons[9].
OveralltheFAOestimatesthattotaldemandforfoodwillrisebyabout70%inthe44yearsfrom2006to2050,morethantwiceasmuchasdemandforcereals.
Butthatisstilllessthanhalfasmuchastheriseinfoodproduc-tioninthe44yearsfrom1962to2006.
So,accordingtoSassonAgriculture&FoodSecurity2012,1:2Page9of16http://www.
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com/content/1/1/2theFAO,producingenoughfoodtofeedtheworldinthenextfourdecadesshouldbeeasierthanintheprevi-ousfour.
However,increasingfoodsuppliesby70%inthenext40yearsmayproveharderthanitwastoraisethemby150%intheprevious40.
Themainreasonisthatthegrowthinyieldshasbeenslowingdown,fromabout3%ayearforstaplecropsinthe1960stoaround1%nowadays[9].
AnothergreenrevolutionThechallengesAgriculturemustrespondtothechallengeoffeeding9billionpeople,whileprotectingtheenvironmentandtakingcareofruralsocieties.
Itwillbenecessaryto:1.
Eradicatehungerandensurefoodsecurity;globalfoodneedswillbethreetimeshigherin2030thantheyarenowadays.
Someproductionfactorscanbeincreased,forexampleploughingoutmoreland(likethecerradosinBrazil),improvingtheaccesstoscientificandtechnologicalprogress(forinstance,agrobiotechnology),moreresearchanddevelopment.
2.
Protecttheenvironmentandmitigatetheimpactofhumanactivitiesontheenvironment.
Thethreatsareknown:salinizationofsoils;increaseinsealevelsandcatastrophicfloods;desertification;lossoftropicalforestsandoftheassociatedbiologicaldiversity;overexploitationoffarmlandandpastures;waterscarcity;urbanizationandlarge-scaleengineeringworks.
3.
Takecareofruralsocieties.
Thereareover300,000industrialmegafarmsand1billionfamilyfarms.
The4billionhumanbeingswhomakeuptheruralsocietiescanalter,throughtheirmigrations,thedemographicbalance.
Thenecessaryincreaseinagriculturalproductionmustnotignoretheimplicationsforruralsocieties.
Amassiveexodusfromthecountrysidetothecitieswillcauseenormousproblemssincecities,industries,andservicescannotwelcomeruralpeopleproperly.
Theremustbeaprospectiveapproachtoagriculturaldevelopment:1.
Thepoliticalprocessmuststrikeanappropriatebalancebetweenpeoples'righttofoodsecurityandfreetradewithoutfrontiers;thescienceandtradedynamicsandthevulnerabilityofsocieties,aswellasoftheenvironment;thenaturalandculturalregionaldiversityandthetrendtowardstheglobalizationofamodel(aftertheglobalizationofexchanges).
2.
Goodpracticesmustbeidentifiedandexamplesofsuccessfulagriculturaldevelopmentshouldbepublicized.
Inotherwords,theagriculturalmodelsthatwillleadtosustainabledevelopmentmustbeprioritized.
Thefrequencyandincreasedintensityofextremeclimaticevents,suchasdroughtsandfloods,havebecomeadditionalchallengesforglobalagriculture,whichisalreadyfacinghigherdemandduetobothpopulationincreaseandnewconsumptionhabitsofseveraldevelopingcountries.
Inordertorespondtothischallenge,theselectionofdrought-resistantcropsispartofthesolution.
InDecember2010,BernardBachelieroftheFondationpourl'agricultureetlaruralitédanslemonde(FARM)publishedastudyontheprospectsofgeneticimprovementofcropstoleranttodrought.
Butthisisnoteasy:thecontrolofgenescodingforwaterstressandextremetemperaturesisverydifficult;itismuchmorecomplextodevelopthesekindsofplantsthanpesticide-resistantcropvarieties.
Researchinthisareaisinitsinitialstagesandittargetscropswithhigheconomicpotential,suchasmaize,andtoalesserextent,rice,sorghum,ormillet,whichplayasmallerroleinglobaltrade,butwhichareneverthelessessentialforfeedingthepopulationsofseveraldevelopingcountries[2].
Butimprovedseedsarejustoneelementofcropsystems.
Farmersconfrontedwithweathervagariesorclimatechangeshouldbeassistedintheimprovementofirrigationsystemsthatenablecropstoimprovetheirresistancetodrought,accordingtoHafezGhanem,assistantDirector-GeneraloftheFAO.
Only4%ofagriculturallandsinAfricaareirrigated[2].
3.
WorldwidegovernancemusthighlightsustainableagriculturaldevelopmentviatheWTO'snegotiationsonagriculture(Doharound),andtheimpactondevelopingcountriesofsubsidiesaimedatsupportingexportsofagriculturalcommodities.
TheAfricanchallengeOfthetotalofunderfedpeopleintheworld,atleastone-fourthliveinAfrica.
Thisistheonlycontinentwhereagriculturalproductionpercapitahasbeende-creasingforthepast30years;itisalsothecontinentwhereagriculturesufferedmostfromerroneousorin-appropriatepolicies.
Between1970and1997,armedcon-flictscausedlossesofagriculturalproductionestimatedataboutUS$52billion,thatistheequivalentof75%ofthetotalpublicaidreceivedduringthesameperiod.
Africa,wherepeopleunder15yearsoldrepresentsome45%ofthewholepopulation,willhavetofeedapopulationthatisexpectedtoincreasefrom832millionin2002tomorethan1.
8billionby2050.
Theagricul-turalsector,whichemploysabout60%ofthewholepopulation,representssome20%ofthegrossdomesticproduct(GDP)andprovidesmorethan10%oftheex-portrevenues.
ItshouldbecomethedrivingforceofSassonAgriculture&FoodSecurity2012,1:2Page10of16http://www.
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com/content/1/1/2economicandsocialdevelopment.
InJuly2003,attheirsummitinMaputo,Mozambique,theheadsofthestatesandgovernmentsoftheAfricanUnionmadeacommit-menttodoublethepartoftheirdomesticbudgetsdevotedtoagricultureby2010–2011,soastoreach10%.
ByearlySeptember2011,inMontpellier,south-eastFrance,duringtheConferenceonAgriculturalResearchforDevelopmentoftheG20(attendedbythemembercountriesoftheG20,internationalorganizationsandFrenchresearchbodies,includingtheResearchforDevelopmentInstitute(IRD)),MontyJones,presidentoftheWorldAgriculturalResearchForum,executivedirectoroftheAfricaAgriculturalResearchForum,andWorldFoodPrize2004Laureate,stated:'Nowadays,20%ofAfrica'spopulationisunderfedormalnourishedanditspopulationgrowthrateisthefastestintheworld,1.
8billionoreven2billionpeoplein2050.
Itisthereforecrucialthatfoodproductionmustincrease:agriculturalstrategiesshouldbechangedasintheemergingcoun-tries,andAfricamustadoptarangeofstrategies.
Inaddition,thenecessaryinfrastructuresmustbebuiltinordertofittheexpectedgrowthinproduction.
Finally,weneedtobuildadomesticmarket,whichwasuptonowsmallandfragmented,makingitmoreregionalandlinkingitbetterwiththeinternationalmarkets'.
M.
JonesgavetheexampleofRwanda,whichmadetherightdeci-sionsafterthecivilwarandisnowamongthemostadvancedAfricancountriesinagriculture,havingincreasedbothitsproductionandproductivity,andimprovedthequalityoflifeofitspopulation.
InSciencesauSud(pp.
1and5)[25],M.
JonesaddedthatAfrica'sgreenrevolutioncannotbethesameasthatofAsia.
ThereisnotinAfricaauniquesolutionsuchastheonebasedonricebecauseAfricanstaplefoodsaredifferent,andtechnologiesshouldbeadaptedtoadistinctcontext.
Whereastheyieldofirrigatedagricultureisthreetimeshigherthanthatofrainfedagriculture,Africaonlyuses4%ofitsavailablewaterresourcesforirrigation;only7%offarmland(1.
6%insub-SaharanAfrica)isirrigated.
Bycontrast,40%offarmlandisirrigatedinAsia.
Therecommendedobjectiveistoirrigate14%offarmland.
AnFAOspecialprogrammeforfoodsecurityisbeingimplementedin101countries,including42inAfrica.
OnNovember1,2004,US$766millionhadbeencol-lected,67%ofwhichwasprovidedbydomesticbudgetsinthedevelopingcountries.
Theaimsaretoincreasetheharvestsofcereal,horticultural,andfruitcropsthroughtheintroductionofhigher-yieldingvarieties;todeveloplivestockhusbandry(smallanimalsandpoultry),fisheriesandaquaculture;tocontrolinsectpestsandparasitesofplantsandanimals(forexampleplantingBtcottoninSouthAfricaandBurkinaFaso);toimprovefood-safetystandardssoastofacilitatetheaccessofproducetointernationalmarkets;andtostrengtheninfrastructuresthatareneededformarketingproductsatcompetitiveprices.
Africahasanumberofassets.
Ithasplentyofnaturalresources.
Theinternalmarketshouldreach2billionpeople,whilefortheproducersofgoodsandservices,therearegreatadvantagestodrawfromconverting250millionunderfedpersonsintoconsumerswithaneffect-ivepurchasingpower.
AccordingtoanFAOstudycar-riedoutbetween1960and1990in110countries,theannualGDPpercapitainsub-SaharanAfricacouldhavereachedbetweenUS$1,000andUS$3,500in1990ifnomalnutritionhadoccurred;infact,itdidnotexceedUS$800.
Thespikeinfoodandoilprices(dueinparticulartothepopularuprisingsinNorthAfricaandtheMiddleEast)hasledtheWorldBankanditssubsidiary,Inter-nationalFinanceCorporation(IFC),tostrengthentheirpolicyofgivingatopprioritytosub-SaharanAfricaregardingtheirinvestmentsintoagrifoodprojects.
Finan-cialcommitmentsoftheIFCinthisregionhaverisenover8yearsfromUS$140million(100million)insevencountriesuptoUS$2.
4millionin33countries.
Thisamount,whichincludedloansandparticipationshares,represented19%oftheinvestmentsmadebytheIFCtosupportdevelopmentworldwide,viaenterprises,andnotviagovernments.
Thus,theIFChasfundedandadvisedsocietieswhichlinked13.
5millionnewconsumerstotheelectricitygridand47millionpeopletoamobile-phonecompany,andwhichcreated161,000jobsin2010[26].
AgrifoodprojectsareatoppriorityforIFC.
ThierryTanoh,theIFC'svice-presidentsince2003,statedinthisrespect:'WhywouldBurkinaFaso,whichexportsitsherdsonhoofandlosesduringthejourneyone-fourthofthemeatweight,notinsteadcreateinOuagadougouaslaughterhousewiththerequirednormssoastoexportpackagedmeatintrucks'Itistruethatthecoldchainisnotguaranteedbecauseofthelackofelectricity,arealplaguethroughoutthecontinent.
Thelatterneedsabout7,000megaWatts(MW)moreeveryyear,whileonly1,000MWareinstalled.
TheIFCisthereforesupportingstudiesforbuildingdamsandhydroelectricplants.
In2014,aboutUS$3billionareexpectedtobeinvestedinsub-SaharanAfricabytheIFC,andmostlyinagrifoodprojectsthatwillconsistofproducingmorestaplefoodsandtransferringthemlocally.
Thisapproachwillnotonlyimprovethefoodsituation,butalsomakefoodstuffsprocessedinAfricamorecompetitiveregionallyandglobally[26].
AfricawantstomakeitsgreenrevolutionBythelate1960s,undertheauspicesoftheWorldBank(whichatthattimeincreasedby80%thefundsdevotedtoagriculturefor2years),thegreenrevolutionhadbeenasuccessinAsiaandLatinAmerica.
ButitfailedinSassonAgriculture&FoodSecurity2012,1:2Page11of16http://www.
agricultureandfoodsecurity.
com/content/1/1/2Africa.
Climatevagariesandcreditcrunch,soilfertilityandinsufficientuseoffertilizer,andaboveall,theweak-nessofthegovernments,madepublicadministrationsandtheirtools(suchascreditorganisms,stabilizationbodies,traininginstitutions,anddisseminationoftech-nologies)inefficientandoftencorrupted.
Theyalsowerethefirstvictimsofpoliciesofstructuraladjustment,carriedoutsincethe1980stosaveAfricanstatesfrombankruptcy[27].
Theresultwasthat,sincethe1990s,agriculturalandfoodproductioninsub-SaharanAfricahasgrownmuchlessthanthatinotherregionsofthedevelopingworld.
Between1996and2005,foodproductionrose2.
6%(comparedwith3.
3%inalldevelopingcountries).
Ofallfarmland,3.
5%wasirrigated(comparedwith22.
4%intherestofthedevelopingworld),andfertilizeruseamountedto13.
4kgperhectare(comparedwith115.
2kgperhectare).
ThebalanceoffoodinAfricancountrieshadadeficitofmorethanUS$900millionin2004,whileitwasinexcessinBrazilbyUS$15.
5billion,inArgentinabyaboutUS$10billion,inFrancebyUS$5.
7billion,andinIndiabyalmostUS$4billion[27].
AccordingtotheFAO'sestimates,thenumberofkcalconsumedperdayandpercapitareachedanaverageof2,260in2001–2003,thatisa0.
37%increaseover10years.
Foralldevelopingcountries,thesefigureswere2,660and0.
49%,respectively,and2,670and0.
56%fortheAsiaPacificregion.
In2004,64%oftheAfricanpopulationwaslivinginruralareasand59%madeathinlivingfromagriculture;45%ofthisruralpopulationhadaccesstoasourceofdrinkingwaterand6.
1%toelectri-city[27].
Thefailurewasobviousandsince1994,IsmailSerageldin,vicepresidentoftheWorldBank,hassetupaworkinggrouponagricultureforesight.
Thisgroup,ledbytheecolo-gistGordonConway,proposedavisionforamoreenviron-mentally-friendlyagriculture.
ThisproposalwasincludedintheMillenniumEcosystemAssessment(MEA),launchedbytheUnitedNationsandinvolving1,300scientistsbe-tween2001and2005,andcoordinatedbytheCGIAR.
In2005,theInternationalAssessmentofAgriculturalScienceandTechnologyforDevelopment(IAASTD)followedsuit;800researchershavebeeninvolvedundertheaegisoftheUnitedNationsandtheWorldBank;theirworkendedin2007[27].
RegardingAfrica,attheAfricanGreenRevolutionForum,heldinAccra,Ghana,atthebeginningofSep-tember2010,andwhereseveralhundredsofministers,entrepreneurs,representativesofagriculturalorganiza-tionsandinternationalbodies,bankers,andexpertswerepresent,itwasstatedthattherewasarenewedinterestinagriculture.
'Since2000,therehasbeenmoreaware-nessoftheneedtosupportagriculture,'statedMamadouCissokho,honorarypresidentoftheNetworkofFarmers'andAgriculturalProducers'OrganizationsofWestAf-rica(Roppa).
'However,Africahastorecoverfrom25yearsofstructuraladjustmentpoliciesandsixseveredroughts'[28].
Infact,in2003,inMaputo,Mozambique,Africanheadsofstatemadethecommitmenttodevote10%oftheirnationalbudgetstoagriculture.
Thisaspectoffundingagricultureiscrucial,accordingtoMontyJones:'Whenourgovernmentsdonotincreasefundsallocatedtoagriculture,itimpliesthatthesupportcomesfromex-ternaldonors.
Butthelattercannotprovidetheirsupportovermorethanthreeorfouryears.
Consequently,ade-creaseintheirassistanceresultsinasignificantreduc-tioninproduction.
ThatisthecaseforMalawiandNiger,',heexplained.
Hewentontocommentthat,inhisview,famineinseveralpartsofAfrica(especiallyintheHornofAfrica)isdueabovealltopersistentneglectoftheagriculturalsectorbygovernments.
InSomaliaandneighbouringregionsseverelyaffectedbyfamine,statis-ticsonagriculturaldevelopmentandinvestmentsareamongtheworstinAfrica,forexampleonly1%ofarablelandisirrigated,comparedwith7%forthewholecontin-ent[25].
In2006,theAllianceforaGreenRevolutioninAfrica(AGRA)hadbeencreatedanditscouncilischairedbyKofiAnnan,theformerUnitedNationsSecretary-General.
In2008,59governmentspublishedareportwrittenby800agronomistsandotherresearchers:theIAASTDaimedatpromotinganagronomybasedonecologicalpro-cessesaswellasthesupportforfoodcrops.
ButwhatkindofagriculturalpolicyshouldbeeffectivelycarriedoutSomeNGOsconsiderthatAGRAissupportingatechnologicalsolution,forexamplethroughtheuseofgenetically-modified(GM)crops,whichispromotedbytheRockefellerFoundationandtheBillandMelindaGatesFoundation(thelatterhasinvested23millionintoMonsanto'sresearchonGMcrops).
AGRA'spresident,NamangaNgongi,reactedbystating:'Weareworkingwithconventionalseeds,buttheseneedtobeimproved.
Also,theuseoffertilizeriscrucial:Africauses,onaverage,8kgoffertilizerperhectare,whichisverylittle;ifthisamountcouldbeincreasedto30kg,thiswouldchangethefaceofagriculture'[28].
KofiAnnan,interviewedbytheFrenchnewspaperLeMonde,alsostatedthatimprovedseedsshouldbesuppliedtofarmers,thatagroproductsshouldbetrans-formedandbroughttomarket,orbestoredforlongper-iods.
Theaimistoenablefarmerstomeettheirownneedsandtoselltheirsurplusonthemarket.
KofiAnnanquotedtheexampleofMali,whereresearchershavedevelopedasorghumvarietywithayieldof4tonsperhectareinsteadoftheaverageof1tonperhectare.
Thegovernmentisfullycommittedtotransformingthecountry'sagriculture.
Anetworkof150storessupplySassonAgriculture&FoodSecurity2012,1:2Page12of16http://www.
agricultureandfoodsecurity.
com/content/1/1/2seeds,fertilizers,andtools,andthissavesthefarmerstravellingoverlongdistancestobuytheagriculturalinputstheyneed.
KofiAnnanconsideredthatthiscom-binationofresearch,politicalwillandgoodorganizationofthemarketshouldbeextended,alongwithirrigation[28,29].
NamangaNgongi,AGRA'spresident,hasunderlinedthattechnologicalimprovementwasnottheonlyfactorinimprovingAfricanagriculture;'.
.
.
itisalsonecessarytoreducethecostsoftransactions,tobettermanagetrainingandcommercialization,tomobilizelocalbanks;capitalisnotlacking,butratherexperienceandmethodstolendmoneytothesmallfarmer'.
ManyagronomistsconsiderthatagreenrevolutioninAfricacannotbebasedonjusttechnologicalimprovements.
JacquesBerthelotoftheassociationSolidaritécommentedthat'Theagriculturalfutureofsub-SaharanAfricashouldbebasedonsystemsofagroecologicalproductionandagro-forestrythatdonotneedtoomanyinputs.
''DuringAgro2010,thebiginternationalcongressoftheEuropeanSo-cietyofAgronomy,almostallpresentationsweredealingwithagroecology,'confirmedMichelGriffon,deputydir-ectoroftheFrenchNationalResearchAgency.
Agroecol-ogymeanstherelianceonbiologicalprocesses,theassociationofcrops,trees,andlivestockhusbandryinagroforestry,theuseofcropdiversityinordertoensurebetterprotectionagainstpestsandthedevelopmentoforganicfertilizersratherthanchemicalones.
Inotherwords,agroecologydoesnotjustrelyontheimprove-mentofseedsandtheuseoffertilizersandpesticides[28].
ThisnewapproachtoagriculturaldevelopmenthasbeensupportedbytheCGIAR,which,forinstance,high-lightedtheexperienceofthe'Africanvegetablegarden',developedinBeninandNiger.
Itcombinesdripirriga-tion,vegetablecrops,fruittrees,andthecommunitarysharingofcosts[28].
KofiAnnaninsistedonakeyfactor:politicalwill.
Asanexample,heindicatedthatin2010,11Africangov-ernmentswereinvesting10%ormoreoftheirnationalbudgetsintoagriculture.
Heconsideredthatthiscom-mitmentwasgoingtobemadebyanever-increasingnumberofcountries,whorealizethatitisnotjustaboutmeetingfood-securityneeds,butalsotocreatejobsandslowdownruralexodus.
ThechangeinpolicyoftheWorldBankcouldhelpthemovement[28].
Asanillustrationofthetopprioritythatshouldbegiventoagriculturaldevelopmentandfoodsecurity,itisworthmentioningtheappealmadeinNovember2010byDenisSassouN'Guesso,presidentoftheRepublicofCongo-Brazzaville.
Inacountrywhereoilcontributes90%ofexportrevenues,agriculturalactivitieshavebeenneglected,whileprivilegingapoorlydiversifiedeconomy.
Consequently,theRepublicofCongospentabout130billionCFAfrancs(about20million)in2010,thatistheequivalentofallthesalariesorwagespaidbythestate,toimportthefoodandcommoditiesneededtofeed4millioninhabitants[30].
Thislooksparadoxicalbecausethecountryreceivesanabundantandregularrainfall,andhasabout12millionhectaresofarablelandofwhichonly2%areexploited.
FurthertotheappealmadebytheRepublic'spresidentto'winthebattleforfoodself-sufficiency',theministerofagricultureandlivestockhusbandrystressedthatthemindsetshouldbechangedwhilebecomingawareofthewealthrepresentedbyagriculture.
Thelattershouldre-mainthetoppriority,hadsaidthepresident[30].
Thecountry'sstrategyistosupportproducers'organizations,toenablelandlockedproductionareastohaveaneasieraccesstomarkets,toorganizecommercializationnet-worksandtosetupinfrastructuresfortransformingagriculturalproduction,storingandconservingagrifoodproducts.
Suchapolicyaimstoachievethreeobjectives:increasethevolumeofagriculturalexports,improvefoodsecurityandcreatenewjobs,andincomeforruralpopulations.
Accordingtodecision-makers,thedevelop-mentoftheagriculturalsectoriscompoundedbyarchaicproductionstructuresandthelackofstoragefacilitiesandtransportofagrifoodproductstoconsumptionmar-kets.
Infact,foodcropsarecultivatedbysmallfarmersusingobsoletetechniqueswithlowyieldsinperiurbanareasthatarerapidlyshrinkingbecauseofextensiveurbanization[30].
Inordertoobtaintheexpectedresults,thestatehassetup,withthehelpoffundinginstitutionsliketheWorldBank,arangeofincentiveprogrammessuchastheNationalFoodSecurityProgramme(PNSA).
Thelat-ter,withafundof29million,isbeingcarriedoutinpartnershipwiththeFAO,andaimsatintensifyingtheproductionoffoodcropsineachvillagewiththeassist-anceofVietnameseandChinesetechnicians,rehabilitat-ingruralroads,settingupcommercializationandinput-distributionbodies.
AnotherdevelopmenttoolistheProjectforAgriculturalDevelopmentandRehabilitationofRuralRoads(PDARR),whichhasreceived14.
5mil-lionandintendstoenablepoorruralpopulationstodrawmoresubstantialincomefromtheirproductionthroughthesupplyoftechnologicaltools,thepurchaseofequipmentandinputsatlowerprices,andthebuild-ingofmarketinfrastructures[30].
Themostemblematicdevelopmentprojectisthatofagriculturalvillages,theconceptofwhichisinspiredfromthatoftheIsraelikibbutz.
ThisprogrammehasbeenlaunchedbyPresidentSassouN'Guessoanditreceived20million.
Theprogrammeisexpectedtosig-nificantlyincreaseagropastoralproduction,forexample8millioneggsand6millioncassavacuttingsperyear.
EachvillagelocatedinaregionhavingcompetitiveSassonAgriculture&FoodSecurity2012,1:2Page13of16http://www.
agricultureandfoodsecurity.
com/content/1/1/2agroecologicalconditionswillwelcome50families.
Everyoneofthesefamilieswillhaveahouseanda2-hectareareaoffarmland.
Collectiveinfrastructureshavealsobeenplanned:alibrary,arecreationarea,amedicalcen-ter,anelectricitygrid,adrinking-watersupplysystem,androads.
'ThedevelopmentofagriculturalvillagesinCongowillshedapositivelightonagricultureandisexpectedtoreshapeCongoleseruralsocietiesduringthethirdmillennium.
Theexploitationoftheimmenseagri-culturalpotentialofthecountryismadepossiblebyastatepolicybasedonagriculturalmechanizationandthecreationofaFundforSupportingAgriculture(FSA),'commentedtheministerofagricultureandlivestockhusbandry[30].
ThisFundwascreatedin2008bythestateanditaimstosupportagropastoralproductionandfisheries,andtoassistthecommercialization,storage,andtransformationofallrelevantproducts.
TheprogrammesupportedbytheFundconsistsofstrengtheningtheinstitutionalframework,carryingoutresearchforthedevelopmentoftherelevantsectors,aswellasextensionactivitiesinordertodisseminateagriculturaltechnologiesandtotraintechnicians.
OneoftheFund'sprioritiesistoallo-catemoremoneytoshort-cyclecropssuchasvegetables,maize,andrice,aswellastopoultryandswinehus-bandry.
OneofthesuccessesoftheFund,withabudgetof6.
7millionin2011(thusallowingthesupportofhundredsofprojects),hasbeentoinvolvebanksthatfa-cilitateloanstofarmers,especiallytothosewhowantedtobuyheavyequipment[30].
ThisstrategyhasdrawntheattentionofinternationalagriculturalcompaniesthataresettlingintheRepublicofCongo.
ThusCongoAvenir,apartneroftheSouthAf-ricanAgriSA,acquired80,000hectaresoffarmlandon10March2011furthertoanagreementsignedwiththeCongolesegovernment.
Thisareawillbedevotedtolar-ger-scaleagropastoralactivities.
Ontheotherhand,theMalaysiancompanyAtamawilldevelopoil-palmcultiva-tionon180,000hectareswithaviewtoproducing900,000tonsofpalm-oilperyear[30].
FairtradeandcompetitionButsolvingtheproblemofAfricanagriculturedoesnotdependonjusttechnologyandorganization.
AccordingtoMamadouCissokho,'TheagreementsoftheWorldTradeOrganizationhaveresultedintheeliminationoftariffpro-tectionatthefrontiers;Africancountriesimportupto40%oftheirfood,andtheyhaveneitheraregionalnorcontinentalmarket.
Inordertobeabletodevelopresearchandtobuildupregionalmarkets,locallygrownfoodcropsneedprotectionatthecountries'borders.
'Thisviewpointisamajordivergencewiththosewhomakeastrongpleafortheliberalizationoftrade.
Inaddition,inEuropeandtheUnitedStates,farmersreceivesubsidiesfromtheirrespectivegovernments.
InAfrica,thisshouldalsobethecasetohelpfarmersovercometheirdifficultiesandlaterbecomemorecompetitiveonregionalandinternationalmarkets[28].
AsWesterncountriesarereluctanttodismantletheirtradebarriersthatprotecttheirfarmersagainstglobalcompetition,whichledtotheinterruptioninJuly2006oftheWTO'snegotiationsonliberalizationoftrade,Africanstateswanttosetuporstrengthenbarrierstoentertheirownagriculturalmarkets.
Thus,sinceJanuary1,2006,15countriesthatarepartoftheEconomicCom-munityofWestAfricanStates(CEDEAO)haveimposedacommonexternaltariffof5%to20%onimports,thehighesttariffsconcernedfoodproducts,thusrestoringamechanismadoptedin2000bytheFrench-speakingcountriesoftheregion.
However,thistariffremainedverylowbecausetheCEDEAOmemberstatesmadethecommitmenttoopenuptheirmarketswithintheframe-workofnegotiationswiththeircreditors,theWorldBank,andtheInternationalMonetaryFund,onthealle-viationoftheirdebt.
'Thesecountries,probablytheweakestintheworld,arealsothemostopen:tariffsof50%to80%areimposedelsewhere,,deploredHenriRouilléd'Orfeuil,presidentoftheNGOnetwork,Coord-inationSud.
Buthereandthere,somecountrieshavetakenmoredrasticmeasuresinordertodefendtheirproduction,suchasKenyainthecaseofmilk,withposi-tiveresultsforlocalproductionandcommercialization[31].
SuchinitiativesarecontrarytofreetradepromotedbytheWTO,whichaimstohelpAfricancountriestoex-portonworldmarkets.
But'therealaccesstothemar-ketsweseekfor,istheaccesstoourownnationalandregionalmarkets,'statedNdiogouFall,presidentofRoppa,inDecember2006.
Onthesemarkets,locallyproducedcommoditiesareconfrontedwiththecompeti-tionoflow-costimportedproducts,forexamplericeproducedinSenegalagainstThairice,orpoultryagainstfrozenchickenmeat.
Africanagriculturecannotcompetewithsuchimportedproductsduetoanumberofhandi-caps,likeweathervagaries,soildegradation,ineffectiveroadnetworks,lackofacoldchain,andlackofaccesstoinformationonmarkets.
Manyeconomistshavecon-cluded,therefore,thatAfricanagricultureneedssometariffprotectioninordertobeabletodevelopandbe-comegraduallycompetitive.
Thereisalsoaneedtosetupnationalorregionalagriculturalpoliciesthatentailthenecessaryinvestments,justaswasdoneintheEuropeanUnion[31].
Thus,withintheframeworkofitsunifiedagriculturalpolicy,inMarch2006,theWestAfricaneconomicandmonetaryunion(UEMOA)createdaregionalagriculturedevelopmentfundwithaviewtopromotinganddevelopingcommoditychainsfromproductiontocommercializationSassonAgriculture&FoodSecurity2012,1:2Page14of16http://www.
agricultureandfoodsecurity.
com/content/1/1/2forrice,maize,poultrymeat,andsoon.
Similarly,theAfricanUnionandtheNewPartnershipforAfrica'sDevel-opment(NEPAD)hadlaunchedin2003aprogrammeofagriculturedevelopmentthatneededinvestmentsofaboutUS$251billion,whilepublicaidtodevelopmentaccountedtolessthanUS$1billionin2004.
TheAfricanUnion,inDecember2006,expresseditsconcernsregardingtheslowprogressintheimplementationofthecommitmentmadein2003byeachmemberoftheUniontodevoteatleast10%ofitsnationalbudgettoagricultureandruraldevelop-mentover5years[31].
Inawiderframework,thecountriesoftheregionAfrica-Carribbean-Pacific(ACP)hadtonegotiateanewtradeagreementwiththeEuropeanUnion,whichwantedtorevisethetradepreferencesgrantedtotheACPcoun-triesinordertoalignthemwiththerulesoftheWTO.
Thishadtobeachievedbythebeginningof2008.
The77ACPcountries,three-quartersofwhichareAfricancoun-tries,wereconcernedthatsuchrevisionmaychangetherulesofthegameaffordingthemtheadvantagesindicatedintheLomeandCotonouagreementsandconcerningtheexportoftheiragriculturalproducts:bananas,sugar,orcotton.
Europeansstatedthattheywerewillingtomain-tainsomepreferentialtariffsiftheyhadanequivalentac-cesstotheACPcountries'markets;inthiscase,theexportsweremainlyindustrialgoodsandservices.
There-visionoftheagreementswasnecessarybecausetheprefer-entialtariffsgrantedexceptionallybytheWTOweretoexpirein2008;beyondthisdate,itwouldbeillegaltomaintainthem,andtheycouldbethetargetofanattackbycompetitorsofACPcountries,suchasLatinAmericanones.
Theyhadalreadydonesoregardingbananas:anum-berofLatinAmericancountriesarebigproducersandexportersofbananas;atariffisimposedonthefruitsimportedbytheEuropeanUnioncountries,whereasthisisnotthecaseforbananasimportedfromAfricaortheFrenchAntilles[32].
ProtectionofAfricanfarmersAnAfricangreenrevolutioncannotdoawaywiththeeconomicandpoliticalaspectsmentionedabove.
Subsid-izingAfricanfarmersandprotectingthemfromthedumpingofimportedlow-costfoodandagriculturalpro-ductsareconsideredofcrucialimportancebymanyeconomistsandNGOs.
Thus,BernardNjonga,in2003,createdtheCitizenAssociationfortheDefenceofCollectiveInterests(ACDIC,AssociationCitoyennedeDéfensedesIntérêtsCollectifs)inordertostruggleagainsttheimportsofchickensandpoultrymeat.
InaninterviewwiththeFrenchnewspaperLeMonde,hestated:'Ourdomesticmarkets,afterhavingbeenfloodedbyEuropeanproducts,arenowfloodedbythosecomingfromSouth-EastAsiaandLatinAmerica.
InCameroon,forinstance,rice,tomatoes,onions,andmaizeareimported,whiletheycanbegrownlocally.
Alllocalpro-ductionstructureshavebeenprogressivelyabandoned.
Farmers,whorepresent60%ofactivepopulation,areweakened,unemploymentrises,andyoungpeoplemi-gratetothecities;itisthereverseofdevelopment.
'In2004,helaunchedwithACDICa'war'againsttheimportsoffrozenchickenfromEurope.
TheseimportswerethreateningCameroon'sproducersandwerejeop-ardizingthenationaleconomy,aswellasthehealthofpopulations.
TheroleofACDICistosupportandadvisetheorganizationsofproducers,inordertodesigntheirproductionstrategies.
ACDICalsohelpsdefineana-tionalagriculturalpolicy.
In2006,ACDIClaunchedacampaignonfoodsovereigntyandcollectedthewrittensupportofcitizensforsubsidiestofarmers.
NotonlydidtheproducersfollowtheNGO,butconsumersdidtoo.
Itwasthankstotheparticipationoftheconsumersinthebattleagainstimportedfrozenchickenthatthelatterwaswon[33].
AnotherexampleofassistancetothefarmersasakeytoagriculturaldevelopmentandoveralleconomicgrowthisthatofMozambique.
DespiteanannualGDPgrowthofbetween8%and13%over10years(exceptin2000becauseofcatastrophicfloods),Mozambiqueremainsoneofthepoorestcountriesoftheworld,with54%ofitspopulation,mainlyrural,livingonlessthanUS$1perday.
PresidentGuebuza,electedin2004,aswellasthemaindonorsofaid,wasconvincedthatafter20yearsofstructuraladjustmentandopeningtoforeignindustrialinvestments,priorityhadtobegiventoactiv-itiesandjobcreationintheruralenvironment.
Accesstolandshouldremaineasyforfarmers,buttheymustalsohaveaccesstolocalmarketsthankstogoodroadsandtoloans,aswellastotrainingandtechnologiesthatwillraiseproduction.
Theyoughttobeprotectedagainstcli-materisks.
Thereweresomeexpertswhomadeastrongpleainfavouroflandprivatizationbecausethiswillat-tractinvestmentsfromagroindustrialgroups.
Othersconsiderthatsuchprivatizationwouldbenefitonlythesocialandeconomicleadership,whocouldpurchasetheland;bankswouldnotliketohavelandsasaguaranteeandbecomelandlordsincasetheownerwentbankrupt.
Thereforetheriskofhavingidlelandswouldbecomereal.
Theyconsiderthat,insteadofprivatizingland,farmers'workshouldbeorganizedandfacilitatedthroughallkindsofassistance,asmentionedabove[27].
AbbreviationsACDIC:AssociationCitoyennedeDéfensedesIntérêtsCollectifs;ACP:Africa-Carribbean-Pacific;AGRA:AllianceforaGreenRevolutioninAfrica;CEDEAO:EconomicCommunityofWestAfricanStates;CGIAR:ConsultativeGrouponInternationalAgriculturalResearch;FAO:FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations;FARM:Fondationpourl'agricultureetlaruralitédanslemonde;FSA:FundforSupportingAgriculture;GDP:Grossdomesticproduct;GEF:GlobalEnvironmentFacility;GM:Genetically-modified;IAASTD:InternationalAssessmentofAgriculturalSassonAgriculture&FoodSecurity2012,1:2Page15of16http://www.
agricultureandfoodsecurity.
com/content/1/1/2ScienceandTechnologyforDevelopment;IFC:InternationalFinanceCorporation;IRD:ResearchforDevelopmentInstitute;KARI:KenyaAgriculturalResearchInstitute;MDG:Millenniumdevelopmentgoal;MEA:MillenniumEcosystemAssessment;NEPAD:NewPartnershipforAfrica'sDevelopment;NGO:Non-governmentalorganization;OECD:OrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment;PDARR:ProjectforAgriculturalDevelopmentandRehabilitationofRuralRoads;PNSA:NationalFoodSecurityProgramme;Roppa:NetworkofFarmers'andAgriculturalProducers'OrganizationsofWestAfrica;UEMOA:WestAfricanEconomicandMonetaryUnion;UNICEF:UnitedNationsChildren'sFund;WFP:WorldFoodProgramme;WTO:WorldTradeOrganization.
AcknowledgementsIthankJessicaMnatzaganianforhersuperbworkpreparingthismanuscript.
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