宰制insomniac

國交通大學語言與文化研究所碩士文ReimaginingImmigrantWomen:ChineseAmericanMobilityDiscoursesinNiehHualingandYanGeling'sWritings研究生:怡君指導教授:馮品佳教授中華民國九十三七月ReimaginingImmigrantWomen:ChineseAmericanMobilityDiscoursesinNiehHualingandYanGeling'sWritings研究生:怡君Student:Yi-chunLin指導教授:馮品佳Advisor:Pin-chiaFeng國交通大學語言與文化研究所碩士文AThesisSubmittedtotheDepartmentofForeignLanguagesandLiteraturesGraduateInstituteofLinguisticsandCulturalStudiesNationalChiaoTungUniversityInPartialFulfillmentoftheRequirementsFortheDegreeofMasterofArtinGraduateInstituteofLinguisticsandCulturalStudiesJuly2004Hsinchu,Taiwan,RepublicofChina中華民國九十三七月關鍵字:移動、華裔移民、聶華苓、嚴歌苓、《桑青與桃紅》、《無出咖啡館》、、、黃秀中文摘要本文借用亞美研究學者黃秀(Sau-lingC.
Wong)的雙向移動探討華裔移民性之移動、抵拒男性宰制並建起主體性的過程.
此移動包含平的地式移動與垂直的社經式移動.
在聶華苓的《桑青與桃紅》中,主角藉著移動產生同的空間意,以抵抗宰制並建新主體性.
另一方面,嚴歌苓故事中的華裔移民性則較關國生存問題.
在《無出咖啡館》、、,她們表現出對垂直式移動的矛盾感受,同時也抗拒著主文化的再現.
此文盼能藉華裔移民性的質經驗豐富、活化華裔美國移動述.
全文共四章.
第一章針對移動性主體之構成做分述.
其中,除回顧華裔美國移動述中性的邊緣化地位之外,亦述黃秀的雙向移動概作為基礎.
此章中並借用鄭明河(TrinT.
Minh-ha)的性主義觀點探究華裔移民性在原生結構與社會關係(filiation/affiliation)之間的主體性構成與抵拒.
第二章借用黃秀雙向移動述中將移動視作可消融宰制述之「競爭的文化述」(rivalculturaldiscourse)分析聶華苓《桑青與桃紅》中的平移動.
由此,桑青與桃紅的平移動可策性突破宰制的限制.
在移動中,桑青與桃紅創造同於宰制的空間述,也在過程產生強的主體性.
第三章分析嚴歌苓故事中主角的社經移動、在原生關係與社會關係中的掙扎.
她們的經驗揭模範弱勢述(themodelminoritythesis)的虛假與種族主義本質,也顯示嚴歌苓本身對依附白人主者的質疑.
同時,本章亦討華裔移民性的垂直向上移動將會帶華裔美國社群中性別階級的翻轉.
第四章總結本文,除提出多質經驗的可能性,並藉此將華裔美國移動述視作持續開放的文化述.
KeyWords:mobility,Chineseimmigrant,NiehHualing,YanGeling,MulberryandPeach,NoExitCafé,"SiaoYu,""TheVirginAmanda,"Sau-lingC.
WongAbstractThisthesistriestoexplorethethemesofwomen'smobilityindislocationinthecontextofChineseAmericanimmigrantliteratureandtodiscussthewaysinwhichtheysetupsubjectivitiesfromtheirmobilityexperiences.
AdaptingfromSau-lingC.
Wong'stheoryofmobilitydiscourse,whichconsiderstheissueofmobilitybothhorizontally(geographically)andvertically(socio-economically),Iarguethattowomenmobilityisawayofresistingmaledominationandofconstructingsubjectivity.
Ononehand,inNiehHualing'sMulberryandPeach,thefemaleprotagonistcreatesalternativeconsciousnessofspaceasameanstoempowerherselftofightagainstandrocentricdominationandconstructsanewsubjectivityinthenewworld.
Ontheotherhand,theheroinesinYanGeling'sNoExitCafé,"TheVirginAmanda"and"SiaoYu"aremoreconcernedabouttheproblemofsurvival.
Theyshowambivalentfeelingstowardverticalmobilityandresisttherepresentationsofthemainstreambyastrongsubjectivity.
ThisthesismayhelptorevitalizeChineseAmericanmobilitydiscoursebydisclosingthespecificexperiencesofChineseimmigrantwomen.
Chapter1firstlydiscusseswomen'smarginalizedstatusinChineseAmericanmobilitydiscourses.
Iintroducemytheorizationoftheconstructionoffemalesubjectinamobilecondition,whichismainlybasedonWong'stwo-directionalmobility.
Also,IborrowTrinT.
Minh-ha'sfeministperspectivetoviewChineseimmigrantwomen'ssubjectivityandresistanceinanon-filiation/affiliationstatus.
Chapter2demonstratesmyappropriationofSau-lingC.
Wong'sviewpointsaboutmobilityas"rivalculturaldiscourse"againstdominantvalues.
BythisIarguethatMulberry/Peach'shorizontalmobilitycanberegardedastacticsintendingtotransgresslimitationsofdomination.
TheresultsshowthatmobilityempowersMulberry/PeachbycreatingnewspatialdiscoursesagainstChinesepatriarchismorAmericannationalismandfurthergeneratesstrongsubjectivity.
Chapter3focusesontheheroines'socioeconomicmobilityandtheirstrugglesbetweenthefiliativeortheaffiliativerelations.
Iarguethattheirexperiencesunmaskthehypocrisyofthewhite'smodelminoritythesisanditsracismandrevealYan'ssuspiciontothosewhoattachtothewhitedominant.
Lastly,IdiscusshowChineseimmigrantwomen'sverticalmovementmayresultinthereversalofgenderhierarchyinChineseAmericancommunity.
Chapter4concludesthethesiswithaviewofregardingtheChineseAmericanmobilitydiscoursesasanopenonewhichmayincludemoreandmoreheterogeneousexperiences.
AcknowledgementsThisthesiscannotbecompletedwithoutProfessorPin-chiaFeng's(馮品佳教授)guidanceandsupport.
Asmyadvisor,sheshowedgreatpatienceandunderstandinghelpingmetoovercomethechallenges—oflifeorofstudy.
Iwouldliketoexpressmydeepestappreciationtoher.
Also,IwanttothankProfessorYing-HsiungChou(周英雄教授)andProfessorTe-hsingShan(單德興教授),whospenttimesharingtheirinsightswithmeandprovidingmevaluableviewpoints.
Theirsuggestionshelpedmetoimprovemythesisalot.
Thankstomyfriendswhoencouragedmetogothroughthemoodydaysinwriting.
Withlove,tomyfamilies.
Theyalwaysbelievemeandbackmeup.
ContentsAbstract…Acknowledgements…Contents…Chapter1Introduction…1Chapter2MulberryandPeach…26Chapter3NoExitCafé,"SiaoYu"and"TheVirginAmanda"………50Chapter4ChineseAmericanMobilityDiscourse—AlwaysontheRoad…73Appendix…80WorksCited…82Lin1Chapter1IntroductionAsanoldChineseproverb"mendominatetheoutsideworldandwomen,thedomesticfield"shows,themobilitypracticesofChinesepeoplehavebeendeterminedbyagenderhierarchy.
Inotherwords,totraditionalChinesewomenmobilityisalmostoutofreach.
ThosewhofirstcametotheUnitedStateswereatthedictateoftheproverb.
Outofpoverty,themaleCantoneselefttheirwivesbehindwithapromiseofcomingbackandcrossedtheoceantoAmericaforbetteropportunities.
Eversincethen,thediscourseofChineseAmericanmobilityhaslongbeencircumscribedbythemainstreamwhite.
Whileexploringanewfrontierimpliesheroismandmasculinityforthewhite,the"promised"landtoChinesepeoplehasbeenovershadowedbytheChineseExclusionLaw(1882-1943)whichbannedtheChineseimmigratingintoAmerica.
Onlyasmallnumberofwomen,includingprostitutesandafewpaperdaughters,enteredbutcontributedverylittletoformingChineseAmericanfamiliessincetheU.
S.
governmentwastryingtouproottheChineseAmericanpopulation.
ThisresultedinabachelorsocietyinChineseAmericancommunityforalongperiodoftime.
1TheSecondWorldWarhadaprofoundimpactonChineseimmigrantsandtheir1MyresearchofthehistoryofChineseimmigrationintotheUnitedStatesisbasedonSuchengChan'sAsianAmericans:AnInterpretiveHistory.
Lin2descendants.
InSuchengChan'sstudy,thewarbroughtfourpositivechanges,includingtheimprovementoftheChineseimages,theremovalofsomeracialbarriersofthelabormarket,sizableChinesemembers'enlistmentinthearmedforces,andthegradualliftoftheimmigrationexclusion.
2ToChinesewomen,particularly,theamendedWarBridesActin1947admittedthemtobethemaingroupenteringAmericaundertheamendment.
MostofthemmarriedChineseAmericanmenandturnedthebachelorworldintothatofnormalcy.
Andsomeofthemthrewthemselvesintothelaborforceandinitiateddifferentlivingexperiencesfromthatoftheirpredecessors.
ThedooroftheStatesthenopenedtothepoliticalrefugeesaftertheCommunistChinawasestablishedin1949.
Themembersofthisgroupweremostlywell-educatedintellectualswhowouldeventuallyconstitutethebaseofChineseAmericanmiddleclass.
Yet,duringtheColdWar,eachChineseimmigrantwasunderthecountry'santicommunistsurveillance,whichmovedtheChineseAmericangroupsintosilenceandthenightmareofinvestigation,suchasthecaseofYanGeling.
3Ingeneral,however,aftertheperiodofthelegalprohibitionofChineseimmigrationcomestheinclusionage.
AccordingtoChan'sresearch,throughoutthe60's,70'sand80's,changesinU.
S.
immigrationlegislationhadgreatlyincreasedthe2Chan,"ChangingFortunes,1941to1965.
"AsianAmericans:AnInterpretiveHistory.
121-42.
3Yan'smarriagewithherhusband,awhitediplomat,wasunderinvestigationbecausesheisfromacommunistcountry.
Herhusbandthendecidedtoresignfromthejob.
Hedidnotgobacktohisdiplomaticcareeruntil2004.
Lin3immigrationquotasforChinese.
TheabolishmentoftheImmigrationLawespeciallybringsinagreatnumberofChineseimmigrants,althoughtheyhavetogainthepermissionfromtheimmigrationbureaubeforemovingin.
4ThisisalsoanageinwhichAsianAmericansarecalled"legalaliens"byDavidLeiweiLi,because,notliketheexclusionperiod,"theregulatoryfunctionofthelawindefiningcitizensandaliensisincreasinglysubsumedbymassmediaandpubliceducation"(Li6).
Sharingthisracistmind,themodelminoritythesishasemergedinthemid-1960.
AccordingtoChan,thethesistendedtopaintrosypicturesofChinese/JapaneseAmericansas"models"whileinfactitservedacriticalpoliticalpurposeattheheightoftheCivilRightsmovement:ProponentsofthethesiswereinfacttellingBlackandChicanoactiviststhattheyshouldfollowtheexamplesetbyAsianAmericanswhoworkhardtopullthemselvesupbythebootstrapsinsteadofusingmilitantproteststoobtaintheirrights.
(167)SuchhomogenizeddiscoursefortheChineseAmericancommunitynotonlyignorestheindividualdifferenceswithinAsian/ChineseAmericans,butalsocoversupitsracistcorebyastereotypicalrepresentationoftheChinesepeople.
5Livoiceshis4AccordingtoChan,theliberalizationcomeswhenin1965ImmigrationLaw"abolishes'nationalorigins'asthebasisforallocatingimmigrationquotastovariouscountries"and"Asiancountriesarefinallyplacedonanequalfooting"(198).
5The"model"imaginationcansoonbebrokedownifwetakeAsianAmericanwomenforinstance.
Someofthemtakejobstosupporttheirfamiliesowingtomalemembers'lowwages.
Yet,thesewomenarenot"receivingearningsthatarecommensuratewiththeiryearsofschooling,"accordingtoLin4protestagainstthisdominantstrategybecause:"ItdetachesAsiansfromtheirassociationwithotherracial'minorities'byhailingthemasawhite-appointed'model,'whileitdistinguishesthemfromtheunmarked'true'nationalsbycallingAsianstheir'minor'"(10).
ItisundersuchracismthatsomeChineseAmericanwriters,suchasFrankChin,attempttoinvokeamasculinistandactiveChinesetraditiontocounterthepracticeofdiscriminationagainstChineseimmigrants.
Yet,theirformulationofChineseAmericanmasculinistdiscourseleadstoamarginalizationofwomen'sspecificitiesandreproducesthestereotypesthatallocateChinesewomentothepositionofpassiveobjects.
ChineseAmericanwomen,sufferingfromrestrictionsonimmigrationmobilityimposedbythewhitemainstream,arevoicelessandinvisibleagaininChin'sportrayalofamale-centeredChineseAmericancommunity.
AsPatriciaP.
Chusuggests,whenwritingAsian/ChineseAmericanexperiences,writers,particularlyfemalewriters,shouldcombatwithbothmasculinistnarrativesinsidetheirgroupsandthestereotypicalrepresentationofthewhite.
6PositioningChineseAmericanwomenthusisadialoguebetween"patriarchalvaluesinChinesetraditionandAmericanpoliticalandideologicalcolonizationsincetheearlydaysofEast-Westcontact"(Wong,"Chinese"51).
Chan'ssurvey(169).
6SeeherintroductiontoAssimilatingAsians:GenderedStrategiesofAuthorshipinAsianAmerica.
Lin5ExceptfortheU.
S.
government'spoliticalcontroloverChineseAmericanmobility,writerswhoareChinese-bornandimmigratetotheUnitedStatesaftertheSecondWorldWarhavebeeninstillingdiasporicexperiencesintoChineseAmericaandhavealsosignificantlytransformedChineseAmericanmobilitydiscourse.
Beingmostlywell-educatedintellectuals,someofthesenewimmigrantshelpformulateoverseasstudentliterature(liuxueshengwenxue)andimmigrantliterature(yiminwenxue).
7TheirtextsoftendepictmultiplerolesofChineseAmericanwomen,suchaswiveswhoareboundtofamilyobligations,immigrantstudentsorsuccessfulprofessionals.
ThethemeofChineseAmericanwomen'smobilitythusisexpandedfromthedifficultiesofboundary-crossingtothemoreimminentissueofsurvivalindislocation,andboththemesconnectcloselytothetribulationsofbeingaminoritywomaninthewhite-dominantsociety.
AsSylviaYanagisakoindicates,whenborder-crossingoccurs,womencan"disrupttheseseeminglyexclusive,naturalboundariesofclass,nation,andethnicidentity…"(289).
WhilephysicalmobilityforChinesewomenisnolongerseverelysuppressed,theirmarginalizedpositionstillkeepspushingthemtofindbetterdaysbystrugglingagainst"theHaves"ineither7Theoverseasstudentliterature(liuxueshengwenxue)specificallyreferstothepopulargenrearoseinthe60sandthe70sduetotheflourishingphenomenonofstudyingabroad.
ThewriterswhoarecategorizedintooverseasstudentliteratureincludeBaiXianyong,YuLihua,ZhangXiguoandNiehHualing.
InadditiontoNieh,whoseMulberryandPeachischosenaspartofmyresearch,YanGeling—alsothewriterIamresearchingon—canbeseenasawritercontributingtoimmigrantliterature.
Inmyviewpoint,intermsofabroadly-definiteimmigrantliterature,thewritingsofthoseliuxueshengwenxuewritersmightbecollectedintheimmigrantliteratureaftertheyresidedinAmerica.
Lin6theirethniccommunityorthe(white)dominantsociety.
Hence,socialmobilitycanbeacrucialpointinunderstandingwomen'slivesinChineseAmericaandtheirtransnationalexperiences.
WhenChinesewomenimmigratetoAmerica,theso-called"NewWorld,"willtheybeabletooverturngenderhierarchybecauseoftheirmobilityCantheyreleasethemselvesfromtheroleoftheoppressedintermsofthemobilitydiscourseofChineseAmericansandestablishtheirownsubjectivitiesWhatisthetrajectoryoftheirsocialmobilityinAmerica—downwardorupwardWhatdoesChinesewomen'ssocialmobilitysuggesttotheChinesecommunityorthe(white)mainstreamsocietyToanswerthesequestions,thisprojecttriestoexplorethethemesofwomen'smobilityindislocationinthecontextofChineseAmericanimmigrantliteratureandtodiscussthewaysinwhichtheysetupsubjectivitiesfromtheirmobilityexperiences.
IwouldliketodrawuponSau-lingC.
Wong'stheoryofmobilitydiscourse,whichconsiderstheissueofmobilitybothhorizontallyandvertically,asastatingpoint.
Horizontalmobilityreferstophysicalandgeographicaldisplacements;verticalmobilityisaboutsocio-economicallyupward/downwardmovements.
Towomen,mobilityisawayofresistingmaledominationandofconstructingsubjectivity.
InNiehHualing'sMulberryandPeach,throughhorizontalmovements,thefemaleprotagonistcreatesalternativeconsciousnessofspaceasameanstoempowerherselfLin7tofightagainstandrocentricnationalistdiscourseandconstructsanewsubjectivityoutofherownalterityinthenewworld.
Ontheotherhand,aftergeographicaldisplacementresultingfromimmigration,thefemaleprotagonistsinYanGeling'sNoExitCafé,"TheVirginAmanda"and"SiaoYu"aremoreconcernedabouttheproblemofsurvivalbecauseofthecrisisofhavingdownwardmobilityinthealiencountry.
Atthesametime,theyreflectChineseAmericanwomen'sambivalentfeelingstowardverticalmobilityandsocialaffiliations,includinginterracialrelationships(thewhitevs.
thecoloredorthecoloredvs.
thecolored).
"SiaoYu"suggestsChinesewomen'slongingforanofficial"recognition"asadriveformobility.
Inthestorysheundergoesasemi-traumaticexperienceofagreencardmarriage,duringwhichtimeSiaoYu'ssubjectivityneverthelessgraduallybecomesstronger.
Thisprocessoftransformationsymbolizesamaternalpowerwhichtranscendseitherthedemandofherpatriarchalboyfriendortheregulationofthelegalauthority.
ThisfemaleagencyisfurtheremphasizedbyYaninNoExitCaféinwhichtheheroine'srefusaltomarryawhitemanfromthemainstreamsocietybespeaksanefforttoresistbeingotheredandorientalized.
ItalsoexpressesYan'spositiveperspectiveonthesubjectivitiesofimmigrantwomeninAmerica,whichisnotnecessarilyrecognizedbythemainstreamideologybutisneverthelessconstitutedalongwithastrongagency.
Atthesametime,femalesubjectformationin"TheVirginAmanda"isshownasanLin8ambivalentimpactonChineseAmericanmobilitydiscoursesincethestorysuggeststhataChinesewoman'sverticalmobilityalongwithman'sdownwardmovementmayleadtoareversalofgenderhierarchyinChineseAmericancommunity.
AlthoughoriginallywritteninChinese,Nieh'sMulberryandPeachandYan'sNoExitCaféandotherstoriescanberegardedasChineseAmericanliterarytextsbecausetheyrepresentimmigrantlifeofChineseAmericaindifferentways,especiallythefemaleexperiencesofmobility.
BothauthorshaverelocatedfromMainlandChinaorTaiwantoAmericaandtheirsentimentsofdisplacementpermeatetheirstories.
TheirwritingsarealsorecognizedbymainstreamreadersinAmerica.
8InadditiontotheirEnglishachievement,theemergenceoftheseChinese-languagewritersinAmericamayresultfromthemultilingualreconfigurationofAsianorChineseAmericanliteraturewhichhasbeenraisedinrecentcriticaldiscourse.
WhendiscussingtheLOWINUSproject,whichstrivestorevealpossibilitiesofmultilingualselectionofAmericanliterarytexts,Te-hsingShaninhis"Re-definingChineseAmericanLiteraturefromaMultilingualPerspective:TwoRecentExamples"suggeststhatChinese-languageworksactuallyare"relativelystrongandpowerful,"forthey"musthavealreadyproduceddistinctliteraryandculturaltraditions.
"He8TheEnglishversionofMulberryandPeachwonAmericanBookAwardin1990,whereasYanhassuccessfullyenteredintoHollywoodScreenwriterAssociation.
Yet,aboutEnglishwriting,Yanherselfacknowledgesthat"themostdifficultthingforChinesewriterswhowriteinEnglishtobeacceptedbyAmericanreadersisculture.
Youcannotwritewellbymerelyknowthelanguage.
"Liu,Yi.
"XingganYeMeileShiChediShibai"[WithoutDesire,ItTotallyFails].
StarOnline05November2003.
05November2003>Lin9addsthatthesubjectshoulddealwith"theimmigrantsofthatlinguisticcommunityintheUnitedStates.
"Otherwise,"theyarereadas'foreign'ratherthanAmericanliterature,becauseboththecontentandthelanguagearenotcommonlyunderstoodandacceptedas'American'"(118).
Shan'sargumentnotonlypointstoamultilingualprojectwhichbasicallyquestionstheconceptof"Englishasanationallanguage,"italsobringsoutanissuethattheinclusionoftextswritteninChinesemayexpandthefieldofformerlyEnglish-basedChineseAmericanliterature.
9Asidefromthedifferentchoiceoflanguage,drawingfromWong'sviewpoints,NiehandYan's"experienceofglobaldispersal"criticallydifferentiatesthemfromthosewritersofEnglish-writingbestsellers,suchasMaxineHongKingstonandAmyTan(Wong,"Chinese"49).
BeingcontemporaryChineseAmericanfemalewriters,theynotonlyappealtodifferentreaderships,themajorthemesoftheirworksarealsodifferent.
KingstonandTanemphasizeonculturalpredicamentsofAmerican-bornChinese,whileNieh'sandYan'swritingsstressimmigrant'severydaylifeandtheirstruggleinmobility.
Besides,KingstonandTan'spopularityleadstoaccusationsofmis-representation.
ForNiehandYan,themisogynistorexoticizedChinaasrepresentedinKingstonandTan'sstoriesisaninseparablepartoftheirrelocatinglife.
9LikeShan,Pin-chiaFengalsosuggeststhatthecanonformationofAsianAmericanliteratureshouldbeinterrogated,foritislimitedtocertain"official"languageorgeographicallocationastheAiieeeee!
editorsmentioned.
ShesharesconceptswithWongthat"establishingtheAsianAmericanpresence"and"claimingAmerica"inthecontextofAsianAmericaarethedecidingfactorstoviewAsianAmericanculturalpolitics(69-70).
Lin10NiehHualingwasborninHubeiprovinceofChina.
ShespentherearlydaysduringtheturmoiloftheSino-JapaneseWarandtheChineseCivilWar.
AftermovingtoTaiwanin1948,shebegantodedicateherselftowritingandbecamealiteraryeditorofTheFreeChinaFortnightly.
Thejournalhighlightedtheimportanceoffreedomanddemocracy,"welcomingwritersthatabsolutelyabandon'anti-communism'andwritingsofpropaganda"(Nieh,Black37).
SoonitincurredthewrathoftheNationalistgovernmentandthegeneraleditorLeiZhenwasarrestedunderthechargeoftreason.
NiehhadtoliveundertheNationalist"WhiteTerror"untilsheleftforAmericatoparticipateintheWriter'sWorkshopattheUniversityofIowain1962.
HerChinesenovelMulberryandPeachrecreatesherexperiencesofbeingoppressedandanexile.
Thisbookhasbeentranslatedintomanylanguages.
10ItsEnglishversionwonAmericanBookAwardin1990.
Inthestory,aChinesewomannamedMulberryisforcedtomovearoundowingtothewarsinMainlandChina,theWhiteTerrorinTaiwan,andtheoppressionofU.
S.
immigrationagency.
MulberrysuffersfromschizophreniaandhersplitselfPeachemerges.
InAmerica,PeachfinallyovercomesMulberryandcontinuestowanderaround.
AstoYanGeling,shewasborninShanghai.
AttwelvesheparticipatedinthePeople'sLiberationArmy'sdancingtroupe.
Yanshiftedhercareerfromdancingto10InadditiontoChineseandEnglish,thenovelhasbeentranslatedinCroatian,Dutch,KoreanandHungarian.
SomesectionsofthenovelhavealsobeentranslatedintoPolish(Wong,"Afterword"227).
Lin11writingandwenttoColumbiaCollegeinChicagoforaMFAdegreein1989.
HerworksarewritteninChineseandwonnumerousliteraryawardsinTaiwan.
Both"SiaoYu"and"CelestialBath"havebeenadaptedintofilms.
Herworksoftendepictpeopleleavingtheirmotherlandandstrugglingthroughtheexperiencesofrelocation.
Forinstance,"SiaoYu"isasocalled"Green-Card"storyinwhichSiaoYuleavesforAmericatobewithherChineseboyfriendbuthastomarryanoldItalianmantogainlegalresidency.
And,Yan'slatestnovelNoExitCafésemi-autobiographicallyretellsherexperiencesofmigration.
Inthenovelthefemaleprotagoniststrivestomakealivingoutofimpoverishment.
Furthermore,herloverelationshipwithherfiancé(aprospectiveCaucasian)isalsounstablebecauseoftheFBIinterrogationsaboutherpastinthePeople'sLiberationArmy.
Toreaders,thestorycouldbeavividportrayalofYan'sstudentdaysinAmerica.
Theotherstory,"TheVirginAmanda,"presentsthestoryofasuccessfulChineseimmigrantwomanwhosehusbandaccidentallygetsinvolvedinasexualharassmentcasewithaEurasiangirl.
BothYan'sandNieh'swritingsplaceemphasisonthemotifofhorizontalmovementacrossnationalboundariesaswellasthewaysinwhichminoritywomenneedinordertoacquiresocioeconomicmobility.
Thistwo-dimensionalframeworkofmobilityiswhatSau-lingC.
Wonghashighlightedinherarticle"ThePoliticsofLin12Mobility.
"WongrecognizesthesignificanceofAsianAmericans'economicproblemsandtheirchangingsocialstatuswhilepointingoutthattheclassissueisacrucialfactor.
11Therefore,shedividesherdiscussionofAsianAmericanmobilityintotwodirections—horizontalandvertical—torefertogeographicalandsocioeconomicmovementsrespectively.
WongstructuresamasterparadigmofNecessityandExtravagancetomakeacontrastbetweenhorizontalmobilityandverticalmobility.
ShefirstarguesthatAmericanideologicalmythofunfetteredmobilityisExtravaganceforAsianAmericans,becauseitconnotesindependence,freedom,oropportunitythatcanhardlybeappliedtoAsianAmericanlives.
Historically,AsianAmericansaremostlyunderforcedmovementsassociatedwith"subjugation,coercion,impossibilityoffulfillmentforselforcommunity—inshort,Necessity"(121).
WongthereforeregardsAsianAmericans'projectionofverticalmobility—ascentofsocialclass—asExtravagance.
TheconnectionbetweenverticalmobilityandExtravagancesomehowrevealsWong'sambivalenceofimmigrant'supwardmobility.
TheprotagonistofNoExitCaféalsomaintainsasimilarkindofambivalenceasshekeepsquestioningherselfaboutwhetheritisrighttoearnupwardmobilitybymarryingawhiteman.
11TheclassconsciousnessofAsianAmericanpoliticsisalsopointedbyEdnaBonacichwhobelievesthatclassisconstitutedbyrelationsofdominanceandresistance.
AndinimmigrantAmericathisisespeciallyimportantbecause"classsystemoftheU.
S.
ishighlyracialized"(69).
Sheconsidersrace-classproblemismuchmoredeterminativethanthatofgender.
Ontheotherhand,toXiao-huangYinclassconsciousnessmaybemoredirectbecause"therepersistseitheraconspicuousoranearlyhiddenclassstruggleinvirtuallyeverymajorChinese-languagework,servingasbackgroundforthedynamicprocessofintra-ethnicconfrontation"(203).
Lin13AlthoughWongattemptstoraisetheissueofclass,inmyview,Wong'sframeworkfailstoaddressimportantissuessuchasgenderdifferences,thepossibilityofdownwardmobility,andshealsooverevaluatestheimportanceofthecommunity.
Firstofall,women'sexperiencesinWong'sdiscussiongivewaytothebroadly-viewedimmigrantAmerica.
WongputsmoreemphasisongroupmobilityofFilipinoAmericans,JapaneseAmericansandJapaneseCanadiansthanonChineseAmericansanddoesnotdelveintospecificcasesoffemalemobility.
Besides,whileexpandingontheupwardmobilityinverticaldirection,Wongseemstoneglectthatdownwardmobilityoftentakesplaceinanimmigrantconditionsothatnoteverypersoncanmoveupward.
Moreover,one'schangingstatusathomeandatthehostcountrymightcausevariousreactionsamongdifferentimmigrants.
Forinstance,towell-educatedChineseimmigrantsespecially,underdislocation,theyaremorelikelytohavethefeelingof"losingface"becausetheyareforcedtodonon-intellectualworkorsufferfromimpoverishment.
Anotherpointthatshouldbere-examinedisWong'scommunitynarrative.
ToWong,upwardmovementscouldremoveimmigrantsfromnecessitousconcernsandbringsdistancebetweenNecessityandExtravagance,whichstandsforthecompetingclaimsofthehorizontalaxisandtheverticalone.
Wongimpliesthatthetensioncanbereconciledbyacceptinga"basisofstablelateralnetworkofhumanrelationshipsthatconstituteat-homeness"(156).
Lin14ToWong,thismeansreturningtocommunity.
Putitanotherway,Wongconsidersthatascendingindividualsshouldstillroottheirspiritsingroupworksimultaneously.
Yet,thiswayofattachingto"at-homeness"canbedangerous.
Itmaymarginalizewomen'sexperiencesandundersuchnarrativefemalesubjectsareplacedinaminorpositionforthesakeofcommunity'sintegration,havinglimitedsubjectivitiesfornotbeingabletomovefreely.
SuchproblematicisreflectedinNieh'sorYan'sstoriessincemostoftheirheroines,afterleavingthemothercountry,choosetokeepadistanceawayfromanygroup,beittheChinesecommunityorthatofthewhitepeople.
TounderstandsuchanambivalencetowardcommunitysharedbybothNiehandYan,ananalysisofimmigrantwomen'srelationtohomeandcommunityshouldbetakenintoaccount.
Whencrossinggeographicalborders,or,inotherwords,havinghorizontalmobility,theauthorsandtheirheroineswillinevitablycomeacrossthelooseningoffamilialrelations,realizingthattheiridentityistrappedinastateofwhatAmyLingcalls"betweenworlds.
"And,inthenovelstherearetwobasicpresentationsofmobilitywhich,includingexileandimmigration,destabilizetheideaofnatural"home.
"Thatistosay,thefoundationofnatalstructure—homeandfamilies—isindangerofdestructionbecauseofmobility.
Whilethisisnotmerelypersonalexperienceswithinasinglelocationbutacollectivephenomenon,especiallyLin15inatransnationalcontext,Iwouldliketoproposeadifferentwaytoconsiderindividualswhoareindangeroflosingnaturalbonds.
Inher"ImmigrationandDiaspora,"ShirleyGeok-LinLimdealswiththephenomenonbydrawingoutmetropolitanwriters"whoaresituatedoutsidetheirnatalborders"andwhoseworksshebelieves"canbetakentoillustrateWesternnotionsofAsiancorruptionorWesternpracticesofpostmodernism"(298).
Theterm"metropolitan"meanshowthesewritersenjoy"absorptionintoWesternpublishingmarkets"(290).
Thewriterswhoundergodisplacements,Limargues,havetocopewithbetween-worldtensionsastheirancestorsdidthroughoutAmericanhistory.
Gettingfarawayfromnatalfoundation(filiation),thealiensturntosearchforinstitutionalsupportandunification(socialaffiliation)asthepathtonaturalization,whichcompensatesforthelossof"home.
"12Tometropolitanwriters,thus,writingbecomesawayofgettingaffiliatedtoothersocialgroups,althoughinAmericatheyareoften"fallingoutsideU.
S.
canonicalwork"(290).
InheressayLimalsosuggeststhehomogenizingpowerofthefiliation/affiliationpatternandseekstopositiondiasporicparadigmsin-betweenthefiliativeandtheaffiliativeto"overlap,destabilize,orsupersedeparadigmsof12Limborrowstheideaoffiliation/affiliationfromEdwardW.
Said,whoconsidersitathree-partpatternandsaysthat"whatIamdescribingisthetransitionfromafiledideaorpossibilityoffiliationtoakindofcompensatoryorderthat,whetheritisaparty,aninstitution,aculture,asetofbeliefs,orevenaworld-vision,providesmenandwomenwithanewformofrelationship,whichIhavebeencallingaffiliationbutwhichisalsoanewsystem"("SecularCriticism"19).
ThusaccordingtoSaid,systemsoffiliationoraffiliationshouldbothbeexclusiveanddominant.
Lin16immigration"(291)whichdominateminoritydiscoursesinAsianAmericanwritings.
Inshort,LimtakesmetropolitanwritersastherepresentativesofeducatedintellectualsinAsianAmericatolookintotheirdilemmabetweenfiliativerelationsandaffiliativeordersandshowsalternativewaysoutbyrespondingtodiasporicproblematics.
13IwillarguethattheexperiencesoftheeducatedheroinesinNieh'sandYan'sstories—moreorlessrepresentingeachauthor'slife—havedeviatedfromthatpattern,too.
Whenthesymbolichomebecomesvoidinmovementandwhentherearechancesofgettingupward/downwardmobility,womenareendowedwithpossibilitiesofreexaminingtheconceptofrootednessorbelongingness—beitfiliationoraffiliation.
Peachafterallchoosesnomadicwanderingaroundtheland,andtheanonymouswomaninNoExitCaféalsorejectstheattachmenttothewhitedominantvalues.
Itseemstomethatthroughhorizontal/verticalmobilityaChineseAmericanwomancanfindspacetoescapefrombeingappropriatedbyeitherthefiliativeortheaffiliativeandisenabledtoconstituteherselfwhilemaintainingastatusinresistance.
Inthebetween-worldsituation,theheroines'migratoryexperiencescloselyreflectwhatLimcalls"individuallynegotiating"worksthatreveal"contestationsandthecooperationsofthefiliativeandtheaffiliativeinthehistoricizedcontextofthe13Limbelievesthataftertherelationbetweenfiliation/affiliationgetsreified,conditionsofexilesanddiasporacanbeproducedand,todiasporaspecifically,"thediscourseofdiasporaisthatofdisarticulationofidentityfromnatalandnationalresourcesandincludestheexilicimaginationbutisnotrestrictedtoit"(297).
Lin17subjects'particulardiasporic/ethniccultures"(307).
ThisnegotiatingworkinevitablyrelatestothecriticalissueofsurvivalinAmerica.
ThereforeSiaoYuinYan'sstorysacrificesherselfbymarryinganoldItalianmanforalegalidentification.
ShemayatlastreturntoherChineseboyfriendbutduringthefakemarriagebuildsastrongagency.
Thefemaleprotagonistin"TheVirginAmanda,"HanMiao,successfullyentersintothemainstreamworldasalawyerwhileatthesametimesheisalienatedbytheChineseAmericancommunityforherhusband'ssexualscandal.
ThoughYan'sportrayalofthetwoprotagonistsisonthetragicside,thestoriesvividlydemonstratehowChineseAmericanwomenambivalentlyoscillatebetweendifferentsocialaffiliationsandhowtheylongfornotonlyasurvivalandbutalsoanewselfinthenewworld.
Hence,Lim'sconceptionofindividualnegotiationcanberegardedasaprocessofsubjectformationwhich,Ibelieve,isalsoSaidian.
Lim'sbinarypatternofthefiliative/affiliativecouldbetoosimplifiedbecauseaccordingtoSaiditisatransformativeprocessfromfiliationtoaffiliationandduringitthesubjectmaylosehisposition.
14Mostimportantly,toSaid,howtosituatethesubjectawayfrombeingappropriatedbythefiliative/affiliativesystemleadstothestrongresorttoholdcriticalconsciousnessagainstthedominants.
Inmyviewpoint,amongthepossibilitiesthat14Saidarguesthat"thelossofthesubject,asithascommonlybeenreferredto,isinvariouswaysthelossaswelloftheprocreative,generationalurgeauthorizingfiliativerelationships"("SecularCriticism"20).
Lin18mobilitybringstoChineseAmericanwomen,claiminghersubjectivitysomehowbecomesmoreimportantthanclaimingChinese/Americabecausethatisawaytocountertheexclusivefiliation/affiliationsystem.
Furthermore,byclaimingthesubjectposition,itiscriticalthatthebetween-worlddilemmasunderdislocationcannotbeviewedashomogenousbecausetheyaremadeupofaseriesofpersonalnegotiations,asLimmentions.
InevitablyitisnecessarytoimplodethehomogenizingcoverofChineseAmericanstudiesormovementstomakeeachsubjectvisible.
HeterogeneousfactorsthataffectChineseAmericanindividualexperiences,suchasrace,gender,sex,class,oreducation,shouldallbeconsidered.
Inparticular,ChineseAmericanwomenhavebeenmarginalizedbygendered,racistideologywhichgeneratesnarrativesthat"generalizeAsianAmericanidentityasmale"andinwhich"womenarerenderedinvisible"(Lowe431).
TheirmobilityhasbeensupersededbyWestern,male,andwhitemobilitydiscourse.
Therefore,inthisthesisIintendtoridChineseAmericanwomenofthelabelasanimmobileobjectandattempttotracetheirdifferenttrajectoriesindailyliveswheretheyfightagainstmultipleforcessuchasracism,patriarchism,sexism,andclassstruggle.
Whenmobilitybecomespossible,ChineseAmericanwomen'sheterogeneousexperienceswillprovideenormoussubversiveenergyinabetween-worldspaceandestablishtheiruniquesubjectivities.
Lin19TorespondtotheheterogeneityofChineseAmericanwomen'sexperiencesandtoavoidamonopolizedpresentationofChineseAmericanmobilitynarratives,analternativebutopenwayofviewingwomen'ssubjectformationindislocationshouldbeproposed.
InherWomen,Native,Other,TrinhT.
Minh-haqueriesThirdWorldwomen's"authenticity"andchallengesaunitaryconceptofidentitybyregardingthesubject(thatis,"I")asofinfinitelayers.
Owingtothistypographicidea,thereisnoabsolutelimitontheconstitutionofsubjectbecause"thenaturesofI,I,you,s/he,We,we,they,andwo/manconstantlyoverlap"(94).
Thereforetheprocessofsubjectformationisalwaysendlessandsubjectivityshouldbemultiple.
Ibelievetheindeterminateconditionofsubjectivityisreflectedinhorizontalmobilityinparticular.
Nocertaindominationcanwhollyruleitwhenasubjectrejectsbothfiliationandaffiliationorderandmaintainsherin-betweenness.
IntheChineseAmericancontext,asfarasTrinh'sinfinitesubjectisconcerned,itisaprotestagainstthewhite/maleideologythatimplies"Not-I"asafixedOther.
Therefore,undersuchcircumstances,the"Not-I,"namely,woman,maymeetpressuresnotonlyfromhercommunity,butalsofromtheoutsideworld,suchasracialdiscrimination,orientaliststereotypes,maleoppression,andsocioeconomicstruggle.
Notuntilawomanrecognizesherpredicamentcanshefindchancestofightagainstthisprocessofotheringandbuildupherownsubjectivity.
Lin20MytheorizationoftheconstructionoffemalesubjectinamobileconditionwillthereforebasicallybuildonWong'stwo-directionalmobilityandborrowTrinhT.
Minh-ha'sfeministperspectivetoviewChineseimmigrantwomen'ssubjectivityandresistanceinanon-filiation/affiliationstatus.
Inthischapter,afterreviewingthehistoryofChineseAmericanimmigrationandwomen'smarginalizedstatus,IbrieflyintroduceNiehHualing'sandYanGeling'sbackgrounds,includingtheirwritingsandtheirrolesinChineseAmericanliterature.
Firstofall,IdiscussWong'stheoryofmobilitydiscourseandseehowChineseAmericanwomen'sspecificitiescanberevealedunderhertwo-directionalformulation.
BecauseNieh,Yan,andtheirheroinesareeducatedintellectuals,nextIwanttoinvestigatewell-educatedwomen'stransnationaldilemmabyviewingthetransformativeroutefromfiliationtoaffiliation—atheoreticalpatternderivedfromSaidandLim.
Inaddition,IdrawoutTrinhT.
Minh-ha'sconceptofinfinitesubjectivitytoshowthewayinwhichwomenconstitutethemselvessoastoresistfixednessorappropriation.
Inthesecondchapter,Iwillfocusonwoman'shorizontalmobilityinMulberryandPeach.
ByadaptingWong'sviewpointaboutmobilityasa"rivalculturaldiscourse"againstdominantvalues,Iarguethatwomen'smobilitycanbeviewedastacticsintendingtoblurlimitationsofdomination.
Mydiscussionofthefemaleprotagonist'sschizophrenicpersonalitywillbedividedintotwoparts.
First,Lin21Mulberryrepresentshowamobilewomanisunderthepowerofpatriarchalnationalistdiscourseinforcedmovements,yetthemobilityempowersherbycreatingnewspatialdiscourses.
However,heroscillationbetweenfiliativeandaffiliativeordersmakeshersubjectivitylimitedowingtothecontrollingpowerofthetwosystems.
ThisalsoresultsinMulberry'sschizophreniaaftersheimmigratestotheUnitedStates.
MobilitygivesbirthtoPeach—anew-bornsubjectthattranscendseitherthefiliativeortheaffiliative—innomadicmobilityafterthesymbolicdeathofMulberry.
Furthermore,duetoPeach'spregnancyandtheindeterminatesituationofbeing"ontheroad"(Nieh157),Iconsidermobilitynotonlyaresistancetodominationbutapowerthatkeepsonregeneratingitself,whichcancorrespondtoTrinh'sperspectiveonfemalesubjectwhoproducesandre-producesnarrativesendlessly.
Inthethirdchapter,myreadingofNoExitCafé,"SiaoYu"and"TheVirginAmanda"placestheemphasisonthenarrator'ssocioeconomic/verticalmobility.
ThefirstpartwillbrieflyillustratefourkindsofroleofChineseimmigrantwomeninYan'sstories.
15Byunmaskingthehypocrisyofthewhite'smodelminoritythesisanditsracistessentialistview,sheprojectsasuspiciontothosewhoshow"thesenseofspecialness"togainaffiliativesupportinthewhitesociety,aprocessthatTrinhT.
15Generallyspeaking,therolesoftheChineseimmigrantwomeninherstoriescanbedividedintofourtypes:immigrantstudents,coolielabors,professionals,anduneducatedwomenwhogodirectlytotheU.
S.
bymarryingChinesemenorbecomingprostitutes.
Lin22Minh-harejects,Inthesecondpart,asarepresentativeoftheeducatedintellectualsinChineseAmerica,thefemaleprotagonistinNoExitCafésharesTrinh'srejectionof"senseofspecialness"andresiststobeapoor,"oriental"Other—bynotmarryingherfiancé,notconformingtoverticalmobilitybutquestioningwhitepeople'simpositionofsalvationonher.
16Thoughinadownwardstatusandbeingattractedbyaffiliativepower,thealternativeconsciousnesscomesfromtherecognitionofandrefusaltothepoliticsofdifferencewhichTrinhdefies.
In"SiaoYu,"however,YangendowsSiaoYuwithanalternativetranscendenceoverphysicaloreconomicalpressure.
Duringtheprocessofgainingofficialrecognition,althoughSiaoYu'smobilityiscontrolledbybothherboyfriend,whosymbolizesChinesepatriarchy,andtheItalianman,whosuggeststhecrueltyofAmericanlegalsystem,shefinallytranscendsthedifferencesofethnicityoraffiliativerelationswithauniversalmaternallovetocomfortthem,whichalsogoesfurthertoshowthebirthofastrongsubjectivity.
UnliketheSiaoYu'spositivegrowth,HanMiaoin"TheVirginAmanda"disclosestheissueofChinesemen'sdownwardmobilityincontrasttowomen'supwardmovement.
Thereversalofgenderhierarchyagainchallengesthemale-centeredvaluesofChinesecommunity.
Moreover,thestoryquestionspoliticsofdifferencebydrawingout16Yaninaninterviewindicatesthis"whitesaverism,"sayingthat"westernersliketoregardthemselvesasChristianswholoveallpeoplearoundtheworld.
TheytrytosavethosewhodonotbelongtotheChristianworldandminoritygroups.
Thereisdefinitelynoblevirtuewithinthespirit,butsuperiorityofindustrializedcivilizationexists.
Peoplewhoaresaved,likeOrientals,mayfeelplentyofironiesandrejections"(Yan,NoExitCafé406).
Translationmine.
Lin23interracialrelationshipswithotherracialgroups—onethemethatkeepsrepeatinginNoExitCaféand"SiaoYu.
"Finallyinthelastchapter,IconsiderthatNieh'sandYan'sstoriesdemonstratetheinterconnectionofgenderandraceinChineseAmericancontext.
Theopenendingsoftheirstoriesopenupmorepossibilitiesofimmigrant'severydaypractices,whichwillbringanewlifetoChineseAmericanmobilitydiscourse.
JustlikePeach's"alwaysontheroad,"thediscoursewillbeenrichedwithnewnessduetotheinclusionofmoreheterogeneousexperiencesinmobility.
Also,liketheconcludingsceneinNoExitCaféinwhichtheheroinevisitsL.
A.
tonursehermother'sex-lover,Iarguethatmobilitynotonlyempowerswomenwithitsdynamicenergybutalsomakesroomforthemtorecallhistoricaleventsandfurthertoproducenarrativesoftheirowntocounterdominantdiscourseandreleasethepast.
Thesubjectkeepsnegotiatingherselfbetweensystemsoffixedness—dominanthistoricaldiscourse,nativehome,oranyaffiliativerelations—andmakinghersubjectivitymultipleandindeterminate,defyingrulesthatseektosuppressitsagency.
ItalsorespondstoTrinh'sconceptofinfinitesubjectthatisalwaysinaprocessofindeterminacy-betweendepartureand"re-departure"(104).
Subjectsthuskeepproducingnewdistancesandnewrelationshipstospacesaroundthem.
IbelievethisempowersmobilewomentofurthercultivateconsciousnessandcritiquedominantLin24systems,includingfiliative/affiliativeorders.
Withthisthesis,IhopetorevealChineseimmigrantwomen'spleasuresandstrugglesinmobility,whichareconnectedtothetrendofglobalmovementbuthavebeenoverlookedbymasculinistnarratives.
Iwouldliketostressthatevenwithinthesewomen'smobility,differencesstillexist.
Forexample,thosewhoareincapableofmovingmaynotfitintothecontextIhavemade.
WhatweshouldnotfailtoacknowledgeisthatMulberryandPeach,NoExitCafé,"SiaoYu"and"TheVirginAmanda"arenarratedbywell-educatedintellectuals.
Theirexperiencesarenotrepresentativeofallwomenandweshouldalwaysbeawareofthefactthattherearewomenbeingleftout.
ExceptforthediversifiedfactorsinChineseimmigrantwomen'smobilitynarratives,myselectionofthetwoauthorsfromdifferentperiodsshowsthatwomenofdifferentagesstillhavesimilarproblemstosolveintheimmigrantcontext.
Infact,asWongmentionsin"ChineseAmericanLiterature,""thefemalewriter'srelationshiptoAmericancultureismuchmorevexedthanthemale's,for,givenhersubjectedpositioninChinesepatriarchy,thewoman'sfirstcontactswithWesternwaystypicallyhadsomeliberatingeffects,howevertheimperialisticorracistaspectsofWesternizationmightplayoutinthelongrun"(46-47).
Transnationalmobilitydoesofferthemmorepossibilities,althoughbothoftheauthors(andtheheroines,too)arehauntedbythepastandstuckwithdifficultiesLin25inthehostcountry,suchastheFBI'sinterrogations.
However,thepastisnotcompletelyugly.
Instead,thewomenstandtheirgroundbyestablishingaprocessofnegotiationsothatmemoryorhistorycanbetransformedintoenergiestosupportthemtofacethedaysinChineseAmerica.
Therefore,thedynamicpowerdemonstratedbyChineseimmigrantwomen'ssubjectivitieskeepsre-vitalizingChineseAmericanmobilitydiscourseasanon-exclusiveoneand,likePeachinMulberryandPeach,theyarealways"ontheroad"tosearchforabetterfuture.
Lin26Chapter2MulberryandPeachNiehHaulingemigratedfromTaiwantoAmericain1964andcompletedanovelaboutmigration—MulberryandPeach(SangqingyuTaohong)—inearly1970s.
WritteninChinese,thepublicationhistoryofthebookreflectsthepoliticalupheavalsinthehistoryofMainlandChinaandTaiwan.
Atfirst,thenovelwasbannedinmid-serializationwhenitappearedinTaiwan,whichwasobviouslycausedbysomepoliticalintervention.
Duringthenexttwodecades,thisbookbecamea"travelingtext"thatwentthroughdifferentversionsandtranslationsuntilarepublicationwasmadeinAmericaandlaterinTaiwan.
17Thenovelnotonlyreflectsthediasporicfateoftheauthor,itstravelingexperiencealsocorrespondstotheexilictheme.
Therefore,PaiHsien-yungplacesMulberryandPeachwithinthefieldofexilicliterature,comparingittoadiasporiclamentofChinesepeopleinthetwentiethcenturyas"thewandererofthecentury:""Mulberry"and"Peach"infactareboththeprotagonist'snames,whichstandforhertwoidentities.
Thewholestoryistheprocessofthesplitandtransformationofherpersonality.
InthebeginningsheisMulberry,agirlcomingfromMainlandChina,whoisnave.
Attheendshebecomes17TheEnglishversionofMulberryandPeachwonAmericanBookAwardin1990.
ItsChineseversionwasalsorepublishedinTaiwanin1997.
Sau-lingWongnotesinherafterwordofthenovelthat"inadditionaltoEnglish,MulberryandPeachhasbeentranslatedinfullintoCroatian,Dutch,Hungarian,andKorean,whilesectionsofthenovelhavebeentranslatedintoPolish"("Afterword"227).
Lin27Peach—atotallyeroticmadwomanwhowandersfromMid-WesttoNewYorkinAmerica.
NiehHualingdoesnotsimplydepictaneroticmadwomen'slifeexperience.
Thenovelisnotmerelyacasestudyforclinicalobservationofpsychology.
Bythebook,theauthoractuallyallegorizesthemiserablehistoryofmodernChina.
18However,asNiehmentions,thisbookisabout"thefateof'humanbeings'"and"notjustaboutthefateof'Chinesepeople.
'"19Inmyopinion,Niehinthenovelattemptstoexpresstheso-calledfatebythefemaleprotagonist'sexiliclifetorefertohumanmobilitythroughtime.
Inherconstructionofthemobilitytheory,Sau-lingC.
WongconsidersthatinAmericamobilityisironicallyrepresentedascollectivelyforcedhistoricalexperiencestoAsianAmericans.
Shearguesthatthepoliticsofmobilitycanberegardedasatacticthattriestotransformthehegemony.
Byviewingmobilityasa"rivalculturaldiscourse"todisclosethepossibilitiesandproscriptionsofmovementinAsianAmericancontext,WongbelievesthatAsianAmericanscanthusloosenthefixednessofplacesandtheprohibitionsofthedominantsociety.
Inthischapter,therefore,Iwillborrowherconceptionof"rivalculturaldiscourse"toexploreChinesewomen'shorizontalmobilitywithintheframeofnationalist/patriarchalsystem.
ThecentralquestionsthatIamworkingwithare18Thisismytranslationfrom"Shijidepiaobozhe:chongduSangqingyuTaohong"([TheWandereroftheCentury:RereadingMulberryandPeach]276).
19Thisquoteistranslatedfrom"SangqingyuTaohonglihfangxiaoji"([NoteontheexileofMulberryandPeach]271).
Lin28thefollowing:intheprocessofmobility,witharenewedspatialconstruction,canwomensuccessfullycontendwiththecontrollingstructureanditsencodedsystemBesides,intheirmobility,wheredoesthepowerofresistancecomefromHowdoesthiskindofresistanceaffecttheirsubjectivityintheimmigrantAmericaWomeninMobilityandSpatialConsciousnessAsPaiHsien-yungsuggests,MulberryandPeachisbasedontheturbulenceofmodernChina.
ItportraysMulberry,aChinesewoman,whoexperiencesJapaneseinvasion,thecivilwarbetweentheCommunistpartyandtheNationalistparty,the"WhiteTerror"inTaiwan,andfinallyexileinAmerica.
UndertheinvestigationandinterrogationoftheImmigrationServiceagents,MulberrysuffersfrommultiplepersonalitydisorderandfinallybecomesPeach.
Sofar,itseemsthatthetemporalandspatialframeofthestorycoversthreeplacesandoffersanepic-likepresentationofthemodernChinesediaspora.
However,NiehchoosestowriteinanexpressionalistwaywiththeinsertionofPeach'sfourletterstotheImmigrationServiceagentsasprefacestothefournarrativesegments—thestrandedboatinChu-TangGorge,thebesiegedPeking,theatticinTaiwan,andtheexileinAmerica.
Bydoingso,NiehbreaksthesimplelinearityofHistoryandturnsthefocusonfourspatialnarratives.
Inotherwords,MulberryandPeachisinfactanovelaboutaChinesewoman'smobilityandhowthespatialconsciousnessemergesfromtheLin29process.
Inthestory,Mulberry/Peachconstantlyputsherselfintoexileormoveswithfreewill.
Hermobilityispresentednotasdirectlyresultedfromnationalcalamityorfamilydisasterbutratheroutofherownchoice.
InpartⅠ,Mulberryappearsinthesceneofthestrandedboatasagirlwhowantstoescapefromherfamily.
ShedoesnotgotoChungkinginresponsetothegovernment'scallforyoungpatriots'volunteerforwar.
Instead,sheistheretorunawayfromthedisaffectionbetweenherfamilies.
20Nexttothis,whenpeoplefleefromtheNorthtotheSouth,MulberrytakesanoppositerouteandfliestoPekingtoliveandmarryherfiancé.
AftertheCommunistpartytakesoverMainlandChina,herhusbandandsheescapetoTaiwan.
Yet,thehusbandembezzlesthegovernment'smoney,whichcausesthemtohideintheattictogetherwiththeirdaughtertoavoidbeingarrested.
AtlastinPartⅣ,MulberryexilestoAmericaandappliesforpermanentresidency.
PeachthentakestheplaceofMulberryunderthedisorderoftwoidentities.
ShepresentsvisualevidenceofhertravelinAmericawithfragmentarymapsandproudlyannouncesherpowerofmobilitywiththestatement:"I'montheroadagain"(Nieh157).
Movingasawomaninthepatriarchcalworld,themobilityofMulberry/Peachindeedkeepsonlooseningthelong-establishedcodesofgendersystem.
The20Sherunsawayfromhomebecauseshefeelsdissatisfiedwithherfatherwhowantstogivethefamilyheritage—"jadegriffin"—toherbrother.
Andalsoshedoesnotgetalongwithherstepmother.
Lin30movementschallengetheactiveandpositivecharacteristicsthatareconsideredmasculine.
21Therefore,Mulberry/Peach'shighmobility—"leaving"and"movement"—questionstheoldmythimposedbythepatriarchicalsystem,suchas"silentwomen"and"thefixed'mother'landwhichawaitsconquerors.
"Moreover,differentspatialconsciousnesscanemergefromtheprocessofmobility,whichconstantlysuggeststhepossibilityofresistanceandtransgressionagainstthehegemonicdiscourseofnationalism.
If,asSau-lingC.
Wongclaims,"thecoercedmovement[ofAsianAmericans]…canquitearguablybereadasakindofimmobilityaswell,notasblatantasimprisonmentbutnolessdamaging"(123),theChinesewoman'sgeographicalmobilityinthenovelthereforenotonlyblursortransgressesthelimitationsofthegendersysteminAmerica,italsosymbolicallyreversesthehistoricalexperiencesofAsianAmerican'simmobilitybyPeach'sfreewanderings.
ThusthemobilitybringsresistancesagainstboththechauvinisticformationofanotherizedwomanandthedominationoftheWhiteracism.
Abouttheconceptofmobility,WangZhi-honghasexpandedonitinhisThePoliticsandPoeticsofGenderedFlows:"…whenflowandmobilitybecometheintermediaryandthemanifestationofpowerandconstituteakeyfactorintherunning21WangZhi-hongthinksthatwomen's"goingout"underthepatriarchicalsystemononehandtransgressestheestablishedbordersand,ontheotherhand,italsodelimitsnewlines.
Heconsidersitadynamicprocessand"sinceflowcombineswithpublicaffairs,itsetstobemasculine.
Whenwomengooutandjointhisflowofhistory,thereareambiguoustransgressionswithintheencodingofgendersystem.
"ThisistranslatedfromXingbiehualiudongdeizhenzhiyushixue([ThePoliticsandPoeticsofGenderedFlows]114).
Lin31ofmodernsociety,theyarenotonlyasocialphenomenonortendencybutalsoissuesofpoliticalactions"(12originalemphases).
22Therefore,inMulberryandPeach,theepisodesofmovementsindifferentspacesshowushowChinesewomen'spoliticsofmobilityworks.
And,inlightofWong'sideaof"rivalculturaldiscourse,"thenarrativeswhichrepresentthese"politicalactions"shouldbetacticalduetovarioustime/spacecontexts.
23Wongbelievesthatthetacticalresponsecomingalongwithmobilitynarrativeswillbesaturatedwithconsciousnessofresistanceandtransformation,becausethosewhochoosemobilitywillhavetofacethedominantculturesorideologiesthatfavorfixity.
Hence,inhorizontalmobility,peoplemaytransformtheirrolesortransgresstheboundaryofgeography.
Besides,theycanbringaboutalternativenarrativeswhichdifferfromhegemonicdiscoursesintheprocessofdislocation.
Wongthusdeemsthatmobilitynarrativesfunctionasawayof"retelling/remapping"histories.
BasedonWong'sargument,aChinesewomaninmobilitywithfreewillmay,ononehand,demonstratemasculinecharacteristicsandtransformherroleundergenderhierarchy.
Ontheotherhand,herresistanceto22Wong'sdiscussionofflowormobilitymightoriginatefromArjunAppaduraiwhoprovidesaframeworkofnewmobileworldofmutatingculturalflows/scapes:ethnoscapes,mediascapes,technoscapes,finanscapes,andideoscapes.
Appaduraibelievestheseflowsleaddisjunctiverelationstoeachother.
And,theywillgraduallyseparatethenationfromthestate.
Amongthefiveflows,"ethnoscape"isclosesttoWang'sconceptionofmobilitybecauseitstandsfor"movinggroupsandpersons"whoconstituteashiftingworldand"appealtoaffectthepoliticsofandbetweennations…"(Appadurai222).
23Wongargues:"weareaccustomedtothinkingofnarrativestructureastemporallyorganized,butinamobilitynarrative,placenamesandthewaytheyaresequencedcouldalsobeindicesofnarrativestructure,formobilitybydefinitioninvolveschangesinbothtemporalandspatialdimensions"("PoliticsofMobility"128).
Lin32re-establishthespatialdiscoursesetbypatriarchicalpoweralsomakesherreconfigurefemaleexperiencesofmobility.
Consequently,thewomaninmobilitycanbreakthesignifyingsystemoftheold,patriarchicalpowerandre-arrangepeculiar,dynamiccodesofspacesbythepowerofexileandmovement.
InMulberryandPeach,wecanseehowMulberry/Peachchallengesthegenderedcodesof"passivewomen/activemen"andhowshecontendswithnationalisthegemonybyconstantdislocation/de-position.
However,paradoxically,thisdoesnotmeanthatthepowerandspatialreconfigurationbringingbymobilitycanmakeMulberrydisregardthecallforChinesenationalism.
Afterimmigration,AmericannationalistdominationalsocastsashadowonMulberry/Peach'slifewithimmigrationagent'sinvestigations.
Ingeographicaldisplacements,however,thewaysherespondstothisunceasingcallisthroughinitiatingalternativespatialexperiencesorimaginationstodispelandtransgressthehegemoniccontrolovergender,family,class,nation,andhistory.
Asaresult,bothMulberry'sexileandPeach'swanderingareenrichedwithasenseofresistanceagainstnationalism.
ToPeach,inparticular,thenationalisthegemonybecomesmorecomplexbecauseofitsracistelement.
Therefore,Peach'smovementindeedbringsmoreresistantpowerinaChineseAmericancontext.
Inthefirstpartofthestory,Mulberryandothersaretrappedinthestrandedboat.
Lin33Whiletheyarewaitingfortheboattomoveagain,itseemsthattheboatbecomeswhatFoucaultcallsa"heterotopia.
"Itreferstoheterogeneousspacesofsitesandsocialrelationsandcanbeconstitutedinvariedforms.
24Peoplegetridofclasses,gender,andmoralityandareaddictedtocarnival-likelaughterandplay,asthoughtheyareputtherebyNiehtocontrasttotheoutsideworldofwar.
Evenso,thecelebratoryatmosphereintheboatactuallyintermixeswiththestoryoftheThreeKingdomsthattheysingabout,whichtosomedegreeinstillsthegrandnarrativesofHistoryintothisheterotopia.
Theinterpellationofnationalistsentimentisthusmadeclear.
25PartⅡisabouthowMulberryfliestoPekingandmarryChia-Kang,herfiancé.
TheancientcapitalundertheCommunistsiegebecomesdisordered.
Chia-Kang'sdreamsimplyimpliesthatthecivilwarisgoingtoruinthisthousand-yearoldcapital:"TheTempleofHeavenIdreamedaboutwasn'tlikethatatall.
TheHallofPrayer,theImperialCircularHall,theAltarofHeavenwerecrowdedwithrefugees'strawmats,quilts,andsheets.
Raggedpantswerehangingouttodryinthesunonthewhitemarblebalustrades.
Thememorialtabletsoftheemperorshadbeenthrowndowntotheground,andtheHallofPrayerwasfull24FengPin-chiadrawsuponFoucault'sconceptof"heterotopia"toexplainhowtheboathasalternativeandimaginarymobility.
Becauseof"itsphysicalmobilityandtherichimaginationitoffers,"theheterotopiamakespeoplewanderbetweenHistoryandReality(Feng,En-Gendering56).
25Inthispart,thestoryconnectshistorytonationalistpatriotismbyresortingtoloyallydevotedhistoricalheroes.
Oneofthesixpassengersonboard—theoldman—believestheirfateisnotunlikethoseheroes':"allofushereontheboataregoingtoChungking;wearegoingtherebecauseweareconcernedaboutthecountry….
[yet]wearestrandedinthemidstofhistory!
"(39-40)Lin34ofexcrement.
"(72)26TheTempleofHeavenisoriginallyaholyplacesymbolizingpoliticalandpatriarchicalhegemony.
Itbecomesdirtyandmessyinthedream.
Thisdisclosesthattheillusionofaperfectnation/familyisindangerofbreakingintopieces.
Mulberryatfirstchoosestogetmarriedandestablishatypicalbondoffiliativerelationtomendthisbrokenimaginationofnationalism.
Yet,whentheCommunistpartyoccupiesPeking,thecouplefleestotheSouthandleavestheburdenoffamily/nationinPeking.
Inthe"noman'sland"(104),placesinbetweentheNationalistarmyandtheCommunisttroops,therefugeesintheno-nametemplere-setthespaceofheterotopiawheretheysingandplayasthoughallarefreeaspeopleofno-name,no-family,andno-nation.
However,theirhappinessisintermittentlymixedwithanxietyaboutthewar.
Theserefugeesafterallcouldnotabsolutelyachievethetemporaryamnesiaofno-familyandno-nation.
Inthethirdpart,thecouplefleestoTaiwanandChia-Kangcommitsacrime.
ToavoidbeingarrestedbytheNationalistgovernment,theytaketheirdaughter,Sang-wa,tohideinanattic.
Theisolationandconfinementoftheatticmakethetriadsimilartoprisonersonalonelyisland.
Atthesametime,thehistoricalfactof"WhiteTerror"stillpermeatesintotheattic,asrepresentedbytheircollectionofthe26ThequotationsofthestoryinthischapterareallquotedfromtheEnglishversion—MulberryandPeach:TwoWomenofChina.
Lin35newsclips.
Tothethree,thewordsonthenewspaperbecomethemediumforimagininganation.
Theycannotgoout,buttheycanimaginetheirwayout.
InSang-wa'sdiary,thiseagernessgraduallytransformsintodisorderednarrativesandfantasticplots:Thetyphooniscoming.
Itisrainingsohard.
Theywanttohurttheatticwiththewindandrain.
They'llturnmeintoawetchicken.
Theywanttodrinksoupwithpeople'smeatinit.
Idrawadragononmyfloursack.
Iweardragonclothesthenturnintoadragongirl.
Thetyphoonbreakstheatticwindow.
Raincomesin.
whentherainhitsmeIbecomeadragonandswimoutthewindow.
Themoreitrains,thehappierIam.
IgiveoutsilverraysasIswiminthesky.
Theyloseagain.
(148)FromSang-wa'snarrative,theatticseemstobeakindofmythicalspace.
TheworldoutsidetheatticisunfamiliartoSang-waandlifeintheatticisoutofnormality.
Therefore,sheproducesthesenseofmythoutoftherealityaroundher;mythandrealitycannotbeeasilytoldapartinthiscase.
AsTuanYi-Furemarks,"thoughinaccurateanddyedinphantasms,[thefantasticfield]isnecessarytothesenseofrealityofone'sempiricalworld.
Factsrequirecontextsinordertohavemeaning,andcontextsinvariablygrowfuzzyandmythicalaroundtheedges"(88).
Sofar,itseemsthattheattichasbecomeafantasticworldandmythicalspace.
Besides,theLin36"realityofone'sempiricalworld"mostlycomesfromthefunctionofthepatriarchicalstructure.
Thetwowomenintheatticfinallygetupfromthis"mythicalpurlieus"andgooutofittodrawthenextrouteofmovement.
Withtheirmobility,theythrowthemselvesinto"reality,"thehegemonicworldofnationalism.
Atthesametime,however,Mulberry'sleavingtheatticandabandoningherhusbandsymbolizeherresistanceoffamilialburden,anactionwhichhasloosenedthebaseofpatriarchicalnationalism.
ThespaceatlastdislocatesintoAmericawherePeachwrotefourletterstotheImmigrationServiceagents.
Inthreeofthem,sheevenaddslocalmapstoindicateherrouteofwandering.
Aboutthemap,BenedictAndersonhasinformedushowamapmaycarryimportanthistoricaldiscoursebehindit:Theywereonthemarchtoputspaceunderthesamesurveillancewhichthecensus-makersweretryingtoimposeonpersons.
Triangulationbytriangulation,warbywar,treatybytreaty,thealignmentofmapandpowerproceeded.
(173)Throughchronologicallyarrangedsequencesofsuchmaps,asortofpolitical-biographicalnarrativeoftherealmcameintobeing,sometimeswithvasthistoricaldepth.
(175)Themapcanberegardedasademonstrationofideology.
ItclearlymarkstheLin37waythehegemonicdiscoursedominatesthespace.
Thestruggleforpowerleadstotheproductionofthemap.
Whatliesbehinditmightbespecifichistoricalandpoliticalmeaningor,undermodernity,asymbolofcolonialism.
27Inotherwords,themapisthetoolwithwhichIdeologicalStateApparatusnaturalizesthings.
Inthenovel,thethreemapsthatPeachofferstotheagentsareallincompleteoneswithwhichsheinthefirstletterclaims"I'mwanderingaroundtheseplacesshownonthemap.
Ifyouwanttochaseme,comeon"(Nieh11).
Accordingtothis,LiangIpinginher"Women/Maps/Empires"considersthatPeach"tearsupthemapandnomadizesintheempire:""Furthermore,thethreefragmentedmapsthereforebreaktheunityofthemap/nation.
ThisillustratesthatPeachhasalreadydiscardedidentityofnationorconsciousnessofnation"(351).
ToLiang,whatPeachasserts—sheis"alwaysontheroad"—justshowsthatboththeendandthebeginningofthistravellosetheirmeaning.
HenceLiangpointsoutthatPeach"notonlyrunsawayfromChinaandTaiwan,butalsodisdainsAmerica"(364).
However,sincePeachappropriatestheJews'diasporichistoryintoheridentityandregardsherselfas"anAsianJew"(Nieh114),Ibelievethereismoretothinkaboutthisdeviceofinsertingmaps.
Inthestory,whenPeachispregnant,inthefourthlettershesays:"Iwanttofindaplacetogivebirthtomychild"(159).
Itseemsthat,ontheonehand,Peachwantstobreakthe27Andersonsuggeststhatcensuses,maps,andmuseumsarethreeflexiblepowersystems.
Theyhaveaffectedhowthecolonizersimagineaboutthecolonized.
Themap,asakindoflogo,its"instantlyrecognizable,everywherevisible"characteristicmakesitpenetratedeep"intothepopularimagination"(Anderson175).
Lin38fixityoflandsandborderlinesbyherhorizontalmobilityandthefragmentedmapsjustreflecttheinstabilityofthenationalistdiscourse.
Ontheotherhand,however,whensheconnectstotheJewishpeople'sexilicfate,sheatthesametimeshowsadesireofsearchingfora"promisedland.
"Here,the"promisedland"suggeststoPeachanewlife.
Shehastobreakupboththecompletenessofthemapandthehegemoniccontrolbehindittogenerateherspatialnarrativesoftheland.
The"promise"thencanbefulfilled.
Therefore,shemaydaretopenetratethe"invisiblewall"ofman-setspaceandmakeafreewayofwandering.
Inthemeantimeshealsocarriesoutamissionofsearchingaplaceforthenextgeneration—alandwhosesoilisenrichedwithPeach'smovingexperiencesandexpectationsforthecominglife.
InChinaandTaiwan,MulberryinmobilitycreatesheterotopiaswhereHistorykeepsonintruding,andintheprocesswecouldseedynamicre-constitutionofspatialdiscourseandre-encodingofgendersystem.
Fromhorizontalmobility,shecaneitherrelyonfamilialnaturalbondsor,borrowingEdwardW.
Said'sidea,createsocialaffiliationtocompensateforthelackoffiliativerelations.
AccordingtoSaid,bothfiliativeandaffiliativeordersarethedemonstrationsofhegemony.
Thus,whenMulberryenjoysthepleasureandpowerbroughtaboutbymobility,sheisalsoanxiousforthehuntofeitherthefiliativeortheaffiliative,whichsometimesleadstoheralienationtobothmodes.
Worse,beinganon-whitewomaninimmigrantLin39America,MulberryhastonotonlynegotiatewithtraditionalChinesevaluesbutalsofacethe"positions"imposedbywhitemaleracistsociety.
Inconsequence,Peach'semergenceandwanderingsreflectMulberry'sfailureofhoveringbetweenthefiliativeandtheaffiliative.
Peachcontinuesthehorizontalmobilityandmakesherselfastrongindividualwhoattachestonocertainsystem,sothatshecansurviveinthenewworld.
SubjectFormationinMobilityandRootednessInthemobilitynarrativesofthisnovel,Mulberry/Peach'swanderinginNorthAmericaultimatelybecomesatravelofsplitidentities.
InwhatfollowsIwilldiscussthemotivatingforcethatpushesPeachtotaketheplaceofMulberryinhermobility.
ThisisnotlikewhatPaiHsien-yunghasarguedasacreationofaneroticmadwomanbutaprocessabouthowaChineseimmigrantwomanresistsbeinganobjectandhowanewsubjectemergesfromhermobilityinthenewworld.
AsaChinesewoman,hermobilityisoftenrestricted,andthereforeshegetslessandlessopportunitiestomovearound.
Thissituationresultsinherinabilityofestablishingcompletesubjectivity.
Sinceawomanisalwaysconsideredapassiveotherandanobject,anyactof"leaving,""movement,"or"transgression"canmakehermobilityfilledwithasenseofresistance.
IntheNorthAmericantravel,thegradualsplitbetweenMulberryandPeachisLin40reflectedthroughtheentirelydifferentbehaviorsandwaysofselfexpressionofthetwopersonae.
Thetwokeepsconversingandcontendingwitheachother.
WhereasMulberryishelpless,Peachisbold.
Theinternalsplitofthecharacterisclearlyshowninthenarrativesofthenovelandalsoleadstoatextual"schizophrenia":forexample,therearetwotypesofprintedcharactersthatrevealhowMulberrysuffersfromthissplit.
Yet,itisMulberry'sweaknessandPeach'srudenessthatfinallydecide"who"winsand"who"loses—therepressedgreenisoverwhelmedbytheunrestrainedred.
Inthenovel,Mulberry'snameimpliesauniqueconnotation:"Mulberryisaholytree,Chinesepeopleconsideritthechiefofthetreefamily,itcanfeedsilkworms,silkwormscanproducesilk,silkcanbewovenintosilkandsatinmaterial"(178).
The"tree"implicationinfactreferstotheoldChinesefableofLeiZu—thewifeofHuangEmperor.
Sheisregardedasthefirstpersonthattrainedherpeopletoobtainsilkfromrearingsilkworms.
BothHuangEmperorandLeiZuareconsideredthegreatancestorsofChinesepeopleand,moreover,silkinthefablehasasignificantmeaningofongoingpropagation.
Hence,thereisnodenyingthatMulberry'snameindeedcarriestraditionalChinesevaluesoffamilyandnation.
Asaresult,itisnotdifficulttorealizethereasonwhyherfree-willedmobilityoftenresultsinhome-likerootednesswhenshemovesaroundinChinaandTaiwan.
AccordingtoFeng,inLin41MulberryandPeachthereis"aconstantoscillationbetweenfiliationandaffiliation.
"28TakeMulberryforinstance.
Shemovesbetween"spaceofhome,"and"spaceofno-home.
"Inthefirstinstance,sherunsawayfromherfamilyandformsanewfamilyinPeking.
WhenshehidesintheatticwithherhusbandandSang-wa,sheatlastgoesoutandthrowsherselfintosocialaffiliation.
Traditionally,weconsiderfamily/homeastheprototypeofnation,anditscharacteristicrootednessalwaysrepresseswomen'sdevelopmentofsubjectivity.
Therefore,thoughMulberrytriestomovewithfreewill,sheseldomhasthechancetodeviatefromtheroutepreparedforher.
Herrolesswitchfromdaughter,wifetomotherandarealwayssettobeanobjectunderthepatriarchicalnationalism.
Shetriestounloadtheburdenofnationalism.
However,unlikePeach'sprovocativeactions,shecanonlypassivelyescapefromit.
Hence,althoughmobilitygivesMulberrysomepossibilitiestoavoidthegrandnarrativesofHistory,itcannotwhollydispelit.
Theconflictsbetweenthefateof"alwaysbeingtheobject"andtheactivecharacteristicofmobilitysomehowcauseMulberry'ssplitafterwards.
Asfortherelationshipbetweensubjectandrootednessinthesocietyofmobility,Wangthinksthatrootednessmightrepressandconstrainthesubjectsothatpeoplewouldratherrunawayfromit.
Yet,duringtheprocessofconstructingthesubject,28FengborrowsShirleyLim'sideaofthesetwotoshowusthetensionintheprotagonist'smobility:oneis"affiliativeidentity(socializedself)";theotheris"filiativeplace(homeland)"(En-gendering50).
Lin42rootednesstoacertaindegreecanbringusasenseoffamiliarityandsafety.
Thereforerootednesssometimesisnecessary.
Duetothis,towomeninmobility:Theywillconfrontwithboththerepressionoftheoriginalrootednessandthegeneralshakeofthebaseofthesubject'srootednessinanewenvironmentofflow.
Thisisadoubledilemma.
Accordingtothis,womenhavetoconfirmanddeveloptheirsubjectivitiesbythepowerofthenewenvironmentofflow.
Theycangetridoftheoldrootednessandfightagainstthepowerofflowthatisstilldominatedbymen.
Atlast,theycanfindanewbaseofrootednessintheenvironmentofflow.
(Wang179)Inthestory,MulberryhasalreadybeeninAmericawhereshelosesconnectionwithherdaughter,Sang-wa.
Itseemsthatshecanthusgetoutof"theoldrootedness.
"However,whensheispregnantagain,thisnightmareofrepressionandfixity,comingfromthesenseofrootedness,shadowsherlife.
Mulberry'shesitanceofkeepingthebabyorabortingitrevealsherosicilliationbetweenaffiliationandfiliation.
Child-bearingsomehowsymbolizesthereturnofthefiliativeorderandthepatriarchaloppressions.
HerbeinginvestigatedbytheagentsoftheimmigrationbureaualsostaggerstheconstructionofanewlifeinAmerica.
Peach,onthecontrary,proudlyannouncesinthefourthletter:"I'mgoingtogivebirthtoalittlelifethat'smyownfleshandblood"(Nieh159).
HeractivewayofresistancesubvertsLin43thegenderedandstereotypicalpassivityofwomen.
ShethenstrivesformovingandinsistsonbeingawomaninmobilitytoendMulberry'sstruggle.
AsWangZhi-hongsuggests,peoplemighthavebothsensesofexclusionandrequirementwhentheyfacehome-likerootedness.
Peachwandersinspacestoexcludethisrootednessand,atthesametime,shealsowantstofindabirthplaceforthebaby.
Onherway,shedevelopstemporaryaffiliationswithotherAmericansorgroupsbyhitchhikingbutsoondisruptstheseinteractionsinthenameoflookingforabirthplace.
"IamastrangerwhereIgo,"Peachgladlyremarks,"butI'mhappy"(6).
ComparingtoMulberry'spassivity,Peachseemsto"occupy"boththefiliativeandtheaffiliativeasafreeandactivesubjectinmobility.
Sherefusestobeanobjectandkeepsonchallenging"thepowerofflowthatisstilldominatedbymen.
"DuringPeach'swandering,what"home"meanstoherisalsoworthexamining.
Interestingly,inaccordancewithSaidianfiliative/affiliativesystemnewaffiliativebondisproducedowingtonatalhome's"failureofthecapacitytoproduceorgeneratechildren"(Said16).
Peoplethusoutwardlyrelyonbuildingnewhumanrelationshipstomakeupforthelackofhomehierarchy.
Inthissense,bothfiliativeandaffiliativeorderscarrythesignificanceofthewaypeoplelookforhome-likerootedness.
UnlikeMulberry,whoregardsherpregnancythere-appearanceoffiliativefixityandsocialactivitiesintheimmigrantsocietyadifficulty,PeachLin44insteadisstrengthenedbythepregnancyandinteractswithpeoplefromvariousracesorclassesinherhorizontalmobility.
Bytransformingexclusivenessandrootednessofnatalhomeintoboundlessplace,toPeach,homeisclosertoWang'sargument:itis"acollectionofeverystrategicpositionsandnotasinglelocation.
Itisanetwork(includingdifferentnodesandconnectedrelationships)indynamics,notapronounofstop"(180).
Forthisreason,Peach'ssearchforabirthplacecanbeviewedasastrategicresistanceagainstthedominationofeitherthefiliativeortheaffiliative.
Therefore,toher,thenewrootednessdoesnotnecessarilyrepresshersubjectivity.
Onthecontrary,itmightestablishhersubjectposition.
WhenPeachsaysthatsheis"alwaysontheroad,"sheshowsushowthepowerofmobilityworkssothateverywherecanbehome.
ToChineseimmigrantwomen,thisdynamicconditioninmobilitymakesthemawareoftheirpotentialininitiatingchangesandpositiveattitudes,whichhelpstoconstructtheirsubjectivityoutoftheshadowofrepression.
MobilityasthePowerofRegenerationAsIhavementionedabove,mobilitytoChinesewomenisatacticofresistanceagainstthecontrollingsystem.
Inmobility,theycanthusgetempowermentandreleasetheirrepressedsubjectivity.
Peach'saggressiveattitudeshowsexactlyhowthisempowermentworks:Lin45You'redead,Mulberry.
Ihavecometolife.
I'vebeenaliveallalong.
ButnowIhavebrokenfree.
Youdon'tknowme,butIknowyou.
I'mcompletelydifferentfromyou.
Wearetemporarilyinhabitingthesamebody.
Howunfortunate.
Weoftendotheoppositethings.
Andifwedothesamething,ourreasonsaredifferent.
Forinstance.
Youwanttokeepthechildbecauseyouwanttoredeemyourself.
IwanttokeepthechildbecauseIwanttopreserveanewlife.
(183)ObviouslytheempowermentofmobilityfunctionsnotonlyasawayforPeachtosetupanewsubjectivitybutalsoasasweetburdenofsearchinganewpossibilityforthenextgeneration.
FromMulberry'sdeathtoPeach'semergence,itisaprocessofgeneratinganewsubject.
And,Peach'spreservationofthenewlife,ontheotherhand,isagainageneration.
Itseemsthatbymobilitywomencanendlesslycreatethepossibilitiesofre-generation.
Besides,inthebeginningofthenovel,theImmigrationServiceagentsfindcrookedcolumnsofwordsonthewallofMulberry/Peach'shouse.
SomeinChineseandsomeinEnglish:TheheadisconnectedtothethighsGenitalsgrowoutofthenecknormalpeople(4)Lin46ThesewordscaninformusofthereasonwhyPeachembracessensualandsexualfeelings.
Sheputsthegenitalintheupper,superiorpositionandthehead,thelowerplace.
Thiskindof"normalpeople"seemstoignoretheelementsofreasonandcivilizationinthe"brain.
"Theyjustfollowthenaturalpowerofsexuality.
Moreover,thesewordscanberegardedasPeach'sdesireforanewlife.
Sheliftsupthegenitalthatsymbolizesthepowerofreproduction.
Herpregnancygoesagainstthetraditionalvaluesystemthatdemandsfemalechastity.
Onthecontrary,shewantsthebabyoutofherfreewill.
ComparedwithMulberry'spassiveattitude,Peachisnotresponsibleforanyone.
Shejustsearchesfornaturalfeelings,suchassex.
Hermobility,combinedwiththepowerofnature,thusmakestheconstructionofthesubjectastrongerone.
Intermsofthepoliticsofmobility,WongusesFrederickJacksonTurner's"frontierthesis"toexpresshowpeoplecontrollandsundermovement:"Frontierthesis"regardstheavailabilityoffreeland—presupposingunconstrainedmobilitytotakeadvantageofit—coupledwithequalityofopportunity,tobecrucialdeterminantsofAmericancharacterandthesourceofAmericandemocracy,throughaprocessof"perennialrebirth.
"("ThePoliticsofMobility"118)Here,wefindthatPeachmovesfreelyinNorthAmerica.
AccordingtoTurner,sheLin47cansomehowgetfreelandandspace.
And,whatinducesthe"perennialrebirth"actuallyisthepowerofpregnancy.
Inhermobility,thispowerofrebirth/regenerationalsocontinuallyconstitutesa"new"subjectthatcanresisttheappropriationofthecontrollingsystem.
Therefore,Mulberry's"death"isnotarealdeath.
Itisalsoa"rebirth"whichresultsinanewwomancalledPeach.
ToPeach,whatsheworshipsontheroadis"life,"becauseitbringswomenasymbolofhope,andalivelypowerofmobility.
Thehopesymbolizeswomen'sexpectationfornewlivingexperiencesinducedbymobility'sgenerativepower.
Atthesametime,thisagainreflectsPeach'sjoyfulattitudeinwanderings:"IamastrangerwhereverIgo,butIamhappy"(6).
Thus,thepleasurefor"rebirth"isstronglydemonstratedinthefourthpartofthenovel,inwhichreaderscanperceivetheemergenceofanewwomanduringMulberry'ssymbolicdyingprocess:29Now,I'mstilldazed;Igropemywayintothebathtub.
AsIsinkdownintothewater,Ibecomeanewwoman—myheadache,allmypainsvanish.
Allfeelingsofsuspicion,dear,andguiltdisappear.
Thewaterwarmsmywholebody.
Iamtranslucentasthewater.
Itiswonderfultobealive.
(166)29ThenoveldisclosesMulberry'scontentionwithPeachbyitalictypes.
Intheforthpart,Mulberrymoans:"…Istillcan'tmakeanysound.
Imustalreadybedead.
Onlythedeadcan'tmakeanysound.
I'malreadydead—dead—dead…"(166).
Lin48Waterseemstocleansethedepressedportionsloadedonthiswomanandrefreshthebodytobecomeavigoroussubject.
Theconnectionbetweenwater'sfluidityandwoman'sbodyisalsosignificant.
InWoman,Native,OtherTrinhT.
Minh-hatalksaboutsomewritings/storytellingswithheroinesastheirprotagonists.
Shecomparesthedynamicsofwomen'sstorieswiththefixityofthegrandnarrativesofHistoryconstructedbymen.
Toher,writingaboutwomensomehowcanhavethepoweroffluiditythatregenerates.
Women'sstoriesthereforefunctionsasthewombandmaintainsthetransmission:"Thewordspasseddownfrommouthtoear(onesexualparttoanothersexualpart),wombtowomb,bodytobodyaretherememberedones"(Trinh136).
Exceptforthediasporicfateofthenovelitself,whichtransmitsitfromoneplacetoanotherandbe"remembered,"themobilityofMulberry/Peachfinallyempowersanewlife.
AsTrinhsuggests,"whatistransmittedfromgenerationtogenerationisnotonlythestories,buttheverypoweroftransmission"(134).
Thispowerextendstoindividualsandcommunitiesjustastheprotagonist'sexileinitiatestheprocessofempowerment.
Therefore,withtheirgeographicalmobility,exilicChinesewomenkeeponregeneratingalternativememory/narrativetoresistthediscourseofhegemony.
Thereisnotalwaysafixedobject.
BytheregeneratingpowerofmobilitytheycanloosentheexternalforceofdominationandcreateLin49somethingnewfromit.
Attheendofthestory,Niehuses"PrincessBirdandtheSea"asherepilogue.
ThePrincessbirdsymbolizesthelifeafterdeath.
Takingpebbles,sheswearstofilluptheseathatdrownsher.
Hence,tothisday,sheis"flyingbackandforthbetweentheSeaandtheMountain"(207).
ThisisjustlikePeach'swayofgeneratingastrongsubjectandherconstantmobility,whichreflectswomen'scontinuousconsciousnessofresistance.
30LeoOu-fanLeesuggeststhat"wearealldescendantsofMulberryandPeach.
"31Itseemsthatwomen'smobilitynarrativescanbeexpandedandbecomepartofpeople'sdestinynowadays.
Becauseofthisgenerality,thetragicsenseofthestoryfadesawayandallkindsofnewpossibilitiesrapidlysurface.
However,Trinhalsosuggeststhatthetransmissionofpowerisneverfinished.
Bythepowerofmobility,womencreate/writethememoryofresistancetosubvertthegrandnarrative.
Atthesametime,itisalsoalifelongstrugglethatisneverfinished.
30IwouldliketothankProfessorYing-HsiungChouandProfessorTe-hsingShan,whoremindmeofthepossibleproblematicofviewinga"madwoman"toopositively.
Inmyreading,ItendtorevealPeach'sfreedomandhappinessinmobilityasaresolutionofunravelingMulberry'sstruggleinin-between,which,ofcourse,isconstitutedduetoPeach'sincapabilityofconformingtothenormality.
Somehow,thismadnessalsoendowsPeachpossibilitiesofdeviatingfromthedomination,whichisthemostsignificanteffectgeneratedbythepowerofmobility.
Yet,accordingtoChouandShan,alongwithhermadness,mobilitymaynotabsolutelyguaranteeheraprospectivefuture.
AnditisnecessarytoconsiderPeach'spsychologicalconditionwhenexploringthisthesis.
31Thisistranslatedfrom"ChonghuaSangqingyuTaohongdeditu"([Re-mappingMulberryandPeach]281).
Lin50Chapter3NoExitCafé,"SiaoYu"and"TheVirginAmanda"WhenSuchengChananalyzesthehistoryofAsianAmericanimmigrationafterthemid1960'sinAsianAmericans:AnInterpretiveHistory,shestressesthattherearetwoforcesbringingimmigrantsintotheStates:thepullandthepush.
AccordingtoChan,"…changesinU.
S.
immigrationlegislationcreatedthepullthatbroughtmillionsofAsians…,[whereas]conditionsinthemajorAsiansendingcountrieshaveprovidedthenecessarypush"(148).
Asitismentionedinchaptertwo,NiehHualingwasoppressedbytheNationalist'sWhiteTerrorinTaiwan.
ThepressurepushedhertobecomeoneoftheinitialmembersofthesecondwaveofAsianimmigrationintotheUnitedStates.
32ItisnotlongbeforetheCivilRightsmovement.
YanGeling,ontheotherhand,leftChinafortheUnitedStates,"followingthemassacreatTiananmenSquare"(TheLostDaughter276).
Althoughthetwoauthorsemigrateduringdifferentperiodsoftime,bothofthemcarrytheburdenofhistoricalandnationaltrauma.
Interestingly,theirworksdemonstratedifferentfacetsandthemesofChineseAmericanimmigrationlife.
Yanseemstobemoreconcernedaboutimmigrants'dealingwithsocioeconomicproblems.
Inparticular,bydepictingmoreofthevariousclassesofChineseAmericanimmigrants,Yang'sportrayalofChinese32ChansuggeststhatAsianwomenandrefugeeshadarrivedinAmericaasthemajorpartofthesecondwavesincethemid-20thcentury.
Thiscombinationdifferedfromthatofthefirstwave,whichwascomposedofAsianmenwithoutfamiliesduringthelate19thandearly20thcentury.
Lin51immigrantwomenhassignificantlybroadenedNieh'sscope.
WhileNiehmanifestsChinesewomen'sstrongandindependentsubjectivitybywritingasingle,nomadicwomanontheroad,YanfurtherdisclosesthemarginalizedstatusofChineseAmericanimmigrants.
ToYan,thedownwardmobilityofsomeChineseintellectualsinAmericaespeciallyneedstobeexplored.
Besides,sheconcentratesonChineseAmericanwomen'sstruggleoversocioeconomicmobility,whichcloselyrelatestotheirsurvivalinthenewworld.
InanacknowledgementYanstates:"immigration—themostfragileandsensitivelifestyle—canprovokethemostrealisticreactionstothecruelenvironment"(FuSangv).
Combiningwithherrelocationexperiences,Yanelaboratesthese"realistactions"intodramaticstories.
AboutherChineseAmericanwritings,thoughthenarrativethemessometimesdorepeat,shecaninstillnewnessintoeachstory,representingmultipleexperiencesofherfemalecharacters.
Ingeneral,theChineseimmigrantwomeninYan'sstoriesarerepresentedintofourtypes.
Theycanbecoolielabors(e.
g.
factoryworkers)oruneducatedwomenwhomovetoAmericathroughmarriageorbecomingprostitutes.
Someprofessionals,suchaslawyers,tourguidesorhostessesofChineseTVprograms,arealsomentioned.
And,lastly,themosttypicalcontextinYan'sworksisframedbylivesofimmigrantstudents.
Hershortstoriesprovidegoodexamplesofthelasttype.
"TheInsomniac'sBeautifulLin52Encounter,""TheChestnutHair,""RobberCharlieandI"and"StoryinSchool"("Hsiehhsiaodegushih")allrelatetothehardshipsofChineseimmigrantstudents.
33HerlatestChineselongnovel—NoExitCafé—vividlyrepresentssuchlifeaccordingtoherpersonalexperiences.
ThroughthesefourtypesofChinesewomen,Yanrevealssuspiciontowardthosewhoaffiliatetothe(white)mainstreamsocietyintermsofsocialmobility.
Inherstories,itturnsoutthatChineseimmigrantwomenwhosuccessfullyattachtothemainstreamwillpayforitafterall.
TheChineseAmericanlawyer'slifein"TheVirginAmanda"almostcollapsesduetoherhusband'slawsuit,whereasin"TheFoe"theTVhostess,Nancy,breaksupwithherdaughter.
Yan,moreover,negativelycriticizesAliceforherbeingsupportedbyrichmenin"TheRiddleofLasVegas.
"Toacertaindegree,Yan'sdepictionofthosewhogainaffiliationtothemainstreamisaresistancetothemodelminoritythesisimposedonAsianAmericansundertheassimilationistpolicy.
SuchathesisemergesattheheightoftheCivilRightsmovement.
Accordingtothemodelminoritydiscourse,AsianAmericansareconsideredtoown"higheducationalattainmentlevels,highmedianfamilyincomes,lowcrimerates,andabsenceofjuveniledelinquencyandmentalhealthproblems"(Chan167).
This,infact,istochastiseBlackandChicanoactiviststhattheir33Thetitlesofthestories,including"TheVirginAmanda"inthebeginning,aremytranslations.
Lin53protestscanbeadeviation.
InhisAsian/American:HistoricalCrossingsofaRacialFrontier,DavidPalumbo-LiuindicatesthatthemodelminoritydiscoursehasleftAsianAmericainaliminalstate—betweenAsiaandAmerica:…thecontentsof"AsianAmerican"varyastheratioof"Asianness"to"Americanness"ismanifestedinsocialpractice.
Despitesuchpractices,whichhaverelegatedAsianAmericanstoparticularlyconstrainedrolesintheAmericanimaginary,thisrepertoryincludes,significantly,theroleofa"people"who,albeitmarginalized,serveasmodelsforAmericans.
(Liu171originalitalics)Theambivalenceofbeingboththemarginalizedandthemodelimpliesapredicament:undertheappropriationofsuchWhitediscourseAsianorChineseimmigrants'subjectivitiescanhardlybeestablishedduetotheliminalcondition.
Asaresult,inYan'simmigrantstorieswewillseetheheroines'hesitationofattainingsocialaffiliationtoearnupwardmobility,whichleadstotheirstateofalienationforcertaincommunities.
Yet,theirawarenessoftheminoritystatusmakesitpossibletoridtheliminalstateandfurthercreateastrongsubjectivity.
Besides,Yan'sconsciousnessoftheminorityconditionwithregardtotheinterracialrelationshipsalsodifferentiatesherwritingfromNieh's.
ThefemaleprotagonistsoftenhaveromanticencounterwithmenfromthewhitesocietybutendLin54uptragically,suchasthecaseinNoExitCafé.
Or,liketheChinesewomenin"SiaoYu"and"TheVirginAmanda,"theycancomeintointeractionorevenfrictionwithHispanicorItaliangroups.
Yan,moreover,turnsoverthemodelminoritythesis,inwhichChineseandJapaneseAmericansaredefinedas"models,"toregardJewishAmericansasrolemodels.
ItissuggestedinNoExitCaféwithinwhichJewishAmericansareofan"economicallyandpoliticallysuccessfulgroup,"and"theyrepresentacommitmenttoaffirmingethnicidentitywithinassimilation"(Yin193).
Paradoxically,whenYanquestionstheblindnessofthemodelminoritythesisbyviewingtheJewishasnewmodels,somehowshereproducestheracistcoreofthethesisandhomogenizestheheterogeneityinsidetheJewishgroup.
YanpurposestomakeacontrasttosomeChineseimmigrants'needysituationbytheJewish'ssuccess.
Meanwhile,herstrategyexposesthedangerofrepresentinganygroupswithsimplification.
AsfarasYan'sheroinesareconcerned,someareawareofthisdanger,anditbringsforththeirambivalentfeelingaboutachievingverticalmobility.
Basedonlastchapter'sargumentofChineseimmigrantwomen'sre-creationofspatialdiscoursesingeographicalmobility,inthischapterIwillengageinthesewomen'sconstructionofChineseAmericanexperiencesafterimmigration.
MyfocuswillbeonYan'sfemaleprotagonists'ambivalentfeelingstowardsocialmobility,theirresistancetothemainstreamrepresentation,theirsurvivalsoutofthedomination,Lin55theirrelationstootherminorities,andtheirconstitutionofsubjectivitiesundertheconditionofin-betweenness.
NoExitCafé:DownwardMobilityTheplotofNoExitCafésurroundsanimportantmotiftowhichYanpaysmuchattention—namely,thedownwardmobilityofChinesefemaleintellectualsafterrelocationandthesocioeconomicstruggleinAmerica.
Thenovelsemi-autobiographicallyreflectsYan'semigrantexperiencesasanimmigrantstudentandisnarratedinfirstperson.
Inthestory,thefemaleprotagonistisastudentfromCommunistChina,whereshehadbeenacorrespondentinthePeople'sLiberationArmy.
However,thisexperiencehasbroughtherlotsoftroublesinceshefellinlovewithAndrei—awhite,would-bediplomat.
TheFBIagentsimposeceaselesssurveillancesandinterrogationsonher;theyevenforcehertotakethepolygraphtest.
DuringtheprocessshecannotbuthavetoquitherjobasawaitressinaChineserestaurant.
Thefemaleprotagonist'seconomicconditionisthereforepushedtotheedge.
Throughpenetratingobservations,Yan'portrayaloftheheroine'sdestitutionagainsubvertsthemodelminoritythesis.
ThestorypointsoutthatsomeChineseimmigrantsarestilllivingunderthepovertylineofAmericaandcanhardlybeacandidateforamodelrole.
ToYan,"theextremelypoorinAmericaarenotcalledLin56theextremelypoor,theyarenowimmigrantstudents"(NoExitCafé113).
34Fortheheroine,beinganimmigrantstudent,howtoearnsocioeconomicsurvivalsomehowbecomesacriticaltaskduringherdailylife.
Inthestory,theeconomicdiversityandexploitationoflaborwithintheChinesecommunityalsofostersthedownwardmobilityofthefemaleintellectual.
Sheisengagedasawaitress,wearinguniformswithcheapandbright-colored"Chinesecharacteristics"to"buyoffhugeamountofdinersfromotherraces"(Yan44).
HerinteractionswithhercausticChinesebossbespeak"unequalrelationsduetodifferentgeographicaloriginsandfinancialbackgroundsinsidetheChineseAmericancommunity"(Feng,"ChineseImmigrantExperiences"49).
ThisresultsinheralienatedattitudetowardtheChinesecommunitybydroppingherjob—awaytopreservethedignityofanintellectualinherdownwardmobility:TheChineserestaurantsindowntownwerefew.
Imighthaveastableperiodofunemploymentaftermyresignation.
Hefeltdespairedaboutme.
HewonderedhowapersoncouldbeasungratefulasIam,whowouldrathersufferfromotheraspectsexceptforinjuringherdignity.
Inhisperspective,everythingiscomfortablecomparedtounemployment.
Hegavemeseveralpiecesofmoneygloomily.
34AllthequotationsfromNoExitCaféinthischapteraremytranslations.
Lin57Iroughlycountedit.
"Youownmethirtybucks,"Isaid.
Hepushedthecashier'sdrawerabruptlyandclosedit.
HethoughtthatImisplacedthebenefitandtheprioritysothatIdeservedtosufferoutside.
Hehadtobeconvincedbymeandtotallygavemyup.
(Yan166)OutsidetheChineseAmericancommunity,despitethefactthattheheroine'sdestitutiontearsaparttheimaginationorrepresentationofthemodelminoritydiscourse,herpovertyfurtherendowsthewhitewithchancestotransformthediscoursebyaddinginsaverism.
Bythebiblicalstoryofthebasketbabywhofloatstotheshoreofhappiness,Yanindicatesthesaveristmissionofthewhitemainstreamtowardthefemaleprotagonist:"inmyownview,sheisachildbeingputinthebasket,andthebigcurrentflusheshertoourshore"(333).
Yet,suchastatementisbuiltonracistOrientalism:theChinesegirlisthesymbolofthefragileEast;shecanbeowned,transformed,andevenassimilatedbysavingheroutofpoverty.
Therefore,thewhitesaverismplaysanimportantroleofelevatingtheEast—towardanupwardmobilityinAmerica.
Thus,theheroineisplacedbetweenAsiaandAmerica,asPalumbo-Liusuggests,andinthisliminalstateherconstitutionofsubjectivityishardlypossible.
Inthenovel,thesaverismissharedbyherfiancéandwithwhomshecanrapidlygainverticalmobility.
Bythis,shecan"model"afterthelifeofAndrei'srichJewishfriend,Laura,toenjoysocioeconomicsuperiority.
Yet,throughoutthenovelsheLin58revealsherambivalentfeelingstowardsuchmobility:AndreiDavis'wifewillsitonthesofatoreadnewspapersorthebillinsuchmorning.
Or,shewillbeabsorbedinheridlenessandjustsitonwhereIamnow.
Thatisawomanwhofeelslucky,cherishedandthankfulforbeinginsidethewindow,notoutsideofit.
Whowillbethepeacefulwomaninthick,softandwhitebathrobeWillitbeme(100)InherWoman,Native,Other,TrinhT.
Minh-haarguesagainst"thesenseofsepcialness"toreflectthedangerofcoloredwomenwhoenjoyaverticalmobilityinthefirstworld:Ishall,therefore,playadoublegame:ontheonehand,Ishallloudlyassertmyright,asawoman,andanexemplaryone,tohaveaccesstoequalopportunity;ontheotherhand,Ishallquietlymaintainmyprivilegesbyhelpingthemasterperpetuatehiscycleofoppression.
(Trinh86-87)Trinhconsidersthatinthisdoublegameuprootedwomenapproachingthemainstreamed"makeup"theirdifferenceor"specialness"tosatisfymasterdominationandform"athirdworldinthefirstworld"(98).
TheheroineinNoExitCafésharesTrinh'sdissatisfactionwiththiskindoftradingonpoliticsofdifferencestogainaffiliativesupport.
Sherefusestoexpress"thesenseofsepcialness"thatisLin59basedonorientaliststereotypesandterminatestheinterracialloveaffairwithAndreiatlast.
Shethenfindsanewjobtomakeherlivingandkeepsanindependentsubjectivityoutoftheappropriationofthewhitesaverism.
Againstthis"senseofsepcialness,"thenarratorthenstatesthatshehasnoEnglishname.
Somehow,YantendstodrawforththecollectiveexperiencesofChineseimmigrantwomenbytheanonymouscharacter'sstory.
ThenamelesswomansuggeststhatChinesewomenareinstraitofbeingalienatedandmarginalizedbyEnglishlinguisticsystem.
Theyarewaitingtobenamedorpositionedbythedominantideologyatanytime.
Thispassivityreflectshowtheyareinaliminalpredicamentowingtothenamelessconditionandfeelimmobile,whichleadstheirsubjectformationtoadifficultpath.
Whenthestorygoeson,theheroinemovestothewestcoasttolookafterhermother'sex-loverandearnsanewincome.
Oneofhertasksistoteachtheoldmanhowtogiveaname:"webringoutMandarin,English,andthelanguageswehavecreatedalltogether"(Yan402).
Here,YanchallengesthewhiteideologybehindthedominantEnglishsystemwiththehybridityoflanguages.
Thehybriditysymbolizestheheterogeneityofimmigrantexperiencesandofsubjectformations.
Allofthesecannotbesimplifiedbycertainmodelminoritythesisorwhitesaverism.
Sofar,YanseverelyinterrogatesthemodelminoritydiscourseandthewhiteLin60saverismbytheheroine'srejectionof"thesenseofspecialness.
"Yan'sdoubtisalsosuggestedbythetitleofthenovel—"noexitcafé.
"Interestingly,beforeNoExitCaféisbroughtintopublic,Yanactuallypublishestwoshortstorieswiththesametitle.
35ItseemsthatthereisabasicconcernwhichneverfadesawayeversinceYanmovestoAmericaandwritesthefirstno-exit-caféstory.
Twice,inthenovelthefemaleprotagonistmentionsthat"therewillalwaysbeanexit"inAmerica.
However,thestatementfulloftheimaginationof"Americandream"and"landofopportunities"isironicallyforfeitedundertheFBIagents'constantinterference.
TheFBIagents'interrogationsandthepolygraphtestimposedontheheroinenotonlypresupposeastereotypeofavicious"East"butalsotearatthehypocrisyofsaverism.
Yan'stitleimpliesthatChineseimmigrantwomenwhoattachtotherepresentationsofthewhitewillstepintoanimpassewithoutanexit.
Ontheotherhand,YanindicatesthatinChicagothereindeedarefewrestaurantswhosenameisadoptedfromNoExitbyJeanPaulSatre.
Theyarenamed"NoExitCafé"wherewecanseesome"socialmarginalizers"who"distrustordisdainthemainstream"("ADarkHorse"408).
Inheritingfromthisanti-mainstreamspirit,Ibelieve,Yanusesthetitleofthenoveltoresisttothepoliticsofdifference.
Itconnoteshowafemaleimmigrantintellectualgetsherself-consciousnessanddignityoutofbeingappropriatedbythewhite35ThefirststoryiscollectedinOntheOtherShore,andtheother,SongofaKite.
Lin61saverismandbeingexploited.
"SiaoYu:"AMaternalFigureChineseimmigrantwomen'srejectionoforientalistsaverismturnsouttobeastoryofseekingforpermanentresidencein"SiaoYu.
"Bothwomenareundertheeconomicpressure,andtheyhavetodealwithsocioeconomicmobility.
ToSiaoYu,mobilitymeansobtainingalegalstatusinAmerica.
Inthisshortstory,SiaoYuleavesMainlandChinaforAustraliatobeunitedwithherChineseboyfriendJiangWei,animmigrantstudent.
Sheoughtto"workalldayduringtheweekandgotoclassesonweekends"(161).
Forthesakeofpermanentresidency,SiaoYumarriesanoldItalianmanunderJiangWei'sarrangement.
SiaoYuthenmovestolivewiththeoldmanowingtotheImmigrationBureau'sinvestigation.
However,SiaoYu'sconcernfortheoldmanleadsherrelationshipwithJiangWeitoadownhill.
Whenthestoryisadaptedforfilm,thedirectortransplantsthesetfromSydneytoChinatowninNewYork,contextualizingitwithintheframeofimmigrantAmerica.
Thechangeoflocationisnotnaturallymadeforadaptation.
Instead,accordingtoFeng,"theauthormainlydescribeswidespreadingChineseimmigrantsandappealstothereader'scollectiveimaginationofthelivesofimmigrants/overseasstudents.
"Therefore,shefurthersuggeststhatJiangWeiandSiaoYucanbecertain"representativesofnewimmigrants,"whose"deliberatelyvaguelocation"can"achievethepurposeofgeneralityandcommonality"(Feng"ChineseImmigrantLin62Experiences"56).
WhileJiangWeiiseagertoacquirepermanentresidencyforSiaoYu,toacertaindegree,theirstoryisamicroscopicviewofallChinesepeople'simmigrationdreaminthenewworld.
Inparticular,asafactoryworker,SiaoYurepresentshowthethirdworldlaboringwomenareexploitedinAmerica.
Yet,differentfromthecaseinNoExitCafé,SiaoYu'ssearchforsocialmobilitybyafakemarriageisnotawayoflosinghertrueself.
Onthecontrary,SiaoYuholdsapuregoodnesstonegotiateherselfbetweentherelationshipswithJiangWeiandthechallengeoftheAmericanlegalsystem.
Inthestory,JiangWeicanbeseenasasymbolofChinesepatriarchythatdominantlypusheswomenintoatradethroughwhichtheycanbenefitthepatriarchalfamily.
SiaoYucanberegardedasa"gift"whichJiangsendstotheAmericanlegalsysteminexchangeforapermanentresidency.
TheprocesssomehowreflectsGayleRubin'sdiscussionof"exchangeofwomen.
"RubinborrowsLevi-Strauss'theoryofthesocialinteractionsintheprimitivesocietyinwhichpeopleexchangegiftstoachievepeace.
Theprimitivereciprocityshowsthat"marriagesareamostbasicformofgiftexchange,inwhichitiswomenwhoarethemostpreciousofgifts"(173).
Consideringthatmenaretheexchangepartners,sheextendsLevi-Strauss'sideastoexaminehowwomenbecomegiftsundersuchanexchangesothattheymayconsolidatepatriarchalkinshipsandsociallinkage:Lin63Therelationsofsuchasystemaresuchthatwomenareinnopositiontorealizethebenefitsoftheirwomencirculation.
Aslongastherelationsspecifythatmenexchangewomen,itismenwhoarethebeneficiariesoftheproductofsuchexchanges—socialorganization.
(174)Rubinalsopointsoutthatawomanisbeingdeprivedofherfreewillinanarrangedmarriage,whichfurtherincreasesherpowerlessnesswithingenderhierarchy:"Exchangeofwomen"isashorthandforexpressingthatthesocialrelationsofakinshipsystemspecifythatmenhavecertainrightsintheirfemalekin,andthatwomendonothavethesamerightseithertothemselvesortotheirmalekin.
Inthissense,theexchangeofwomenisaprofoundperceptionofasysteminwhichwomendonothavefullrightstothemselves.
(177)InthecaseofSiaoYu,hermarriagewiththeItalianmansuggeststhatsheisactuallybeingtraffickedforpermanentresidencyand,mostimportantofall,asagiftthatcanonlyenhanceChinesepatriarchalcontrolandthefiliativehierarchy.
YetitcannotbedeniedthatthemarriagealsoreferstoSiaoYu'saffiliativeprocessofovercomingAmericanlegalsystem.
Somehow,underthesepressuresandaneedycondition,SiaoYushouldhavebeen"theminoramongtheminors.
"However,YanletsSiaoYugoontostriveformaintaininganindependentsubjectbetweenthefiliative/affiliative,aswhathashappenedinNoExitCafé.
YanportraysherasaLin64desireless,"pureandinnocent"womanwhohopesthat"anythingthatpassedthroughherhandswouldbecomebetter"(178).
SiaoYu'skindattitudethenpullsheroutofthedangeroflosingdignityorbeingoppressedandbecomesauniquemodelofYan'sfemaleroles.
AsimilarcaseinTheLostDaughterofHappinessalsobringsoutsuchtypeofuniquewomen.
WhenFusang,aChineseprostituteofthelate19thcenturysellsherbodyinSanFrancisco,shewearssimpleandgoodsmilestowardtheChinesemembersandthewhitegroup,evenifoneofthewhiterapesher:Fusang'seyesfilledwithtears,butshedidn'tletthemfall.
Shewassimplykeepinghimcompanyinhiscrying.
Whenamotherseesachildsobbingwithsuchpain,sheisboundtobeaffected.
…hesawherkneelingformthroughhistears.
Itwasbeautiful.
Shekneltthere,forgivingthewholeworldoncemore.
(Yan250)In"SiaoYu,"thesceneofawomanholdingaweepingmanre-appearswhenJiangWeiisfrustratedbySiaoYu'sfakemarriage:Shewantedtocry,butseeinghimwithhisheadburiedinhershoulder,sobbingwithabandon,shefelthishurtwasevendeeperandmoreterriblethanhers.
Givehimthechancetocry,shethought.
Otherwise,ifbothcry,whowillbelefttogivecomfort(165)Lin65Fromthetwopassages,YandisclosesauniquemodelofChinesewomenwhopossessselflessmaternitytocomfortmen—whiteornon-white.
InSiaoYu'scase,somehow,whensheattemptstotakeoverJiangWei'sdepressionwhenpreservingthefakemarriage,whenshewillinglycaresfortheoldman,shedemonstratesauniversalmotherlovetosootheorhealmen'spain.
Tosomedegree,thisisalsoanupside-downoftheorientalistsaverism.
SiaoYuisnolongerapassiveOther,waitingforwhitepeople'ssalvation.
Instead,byhergoodness,sheisabletotransformsaverismbyelevatingothers.
Forinstance,afterco-livingwithSiaoYu,theoldman"hadchanged,"becausehe"hadfoundapartofhimselfthathadbeenlonglost"(178).
Yanfurtherdescribesthatthelostpartis"tranquilandrefined.
"ThoughtheoldmantakesSiaoYu'smoneyasanaccomplice,SiaoYuindeedneedshiscooperationandhelptogetovertheinvestigation.
Yet,itturnsoutthatSiaoYuisamaternalsavertohim.
Therefore,withthisuniversallymaternalimage,SiaoYuisempoweredtoearnhersurvivalinatranscendentalway.
AlthoughbeingoppressedbyJiangWei'sChinesepatriarchalway,shebearsunselfishloveandtriestoreleaseJiangWei'sguiltyconscience.
Atthesametime,herkindnesstotheoldmansuggestshowshewinsbackthetrustbetweenpeople,whichisdestroyedduringimmigrants'illegalsearchforaresidence.
HereSiaoYucanberegardedasatypicalpresentationofLin66goodness.
Itmakeshertranscendthelimitationsofthefiliativeorderortheaffiliativeandconstituteaforceful,alternativesubjectivity.
Hersubjectformationisthusfacilitatedbytheenergyofmaternallove.
Ingeneral,peoplebelievethatwomenarebornwithmaternallove.
ItseemsthatforSiaoYuorFusang,astrongsubjectivitywillnaturallytakeplacewithmaternalpower.
Theyneedneithertheinterventionofwhitesaverismnorthedominationofthepatriarchalorderstodefinetheirsubjectformation.
DespitethefactthatYantriestore-writewomen'shelplessstoriesinthepatriarchalsociety,itcannotbedeniedthatherpresentationofmaternalinstinctmoreorlessinheritsthepatriarchcalstereotypesimposedonwomen:thepositionofbeinga"good"mother.
However,herdescriptionsofChineseprofessionalwomendemonstrateherattempttodispelsuchconfinementtowomen.
Inthissense,Chineseimmigrantwomencanbeeconomicsuperiorstosupporttheirmenandwinsuccessoutsidetheirfamilies.
SiaoYu'sstoryexactlyrevealstheconditionofChinesemen'sweaknessinAmerica.
Yan'sdepictionofSiaoYu'suniversalmotherhoodsimultaneouslyreflectsJiangWei'sincompetence.
AsaChineseimmigrantman,JiangWeicannotprovideabetterlifeforSiaoYu.
Worse,hejustsellsherout.
Thoughhefeelsdeeplysufferedinthestory,JiangWei'spowerlessnessispresentedasacollectiveexperienceofmanyChineseimmigrantmen'sdownwardmobilityinAmerica.
ThestateofLin67beingsymbolicallycastratedisspecificallyrevealedinYan's"TheVirginAmanda.
""TheVirginAmanda:"ReversalofGenderHierarchyYanpresentspositivestoriesofSiaoYuandtheanonymouswomaninNoExitCafé.
In"TheVirginAmanda,"however,YancastsatragicviewontheChineseimmigrantwomanwhosuccessfullyentersintothemainstream.
Thewoman,HanMiao,movesfromthemainlandChinatoAmerica.
Aftershefinishesherstudyshebecomesanemployeeofalawfirm.
UnlikethecaseofSiaoYuandJiangWei,HanMiaourgesherhusband,YangZhi-bing,tocometotheStatesforher.
Yet,Yang'slackofexpertiseandlanguageabilityresultsinhisalienation.
ThestorythenisnarratedbyathirdpersonwhoretellshowYangisframedandaccusedofseducingajuvenileHispanicgirl—Amanda.
From"SiaoYu,"YanhasdisplayedinstabilityandtheinteractionsbetweendifferentethnicminoritiesintheU.
S.
SiaoYudemonstrateshergoodnessandmaternalinstincttosmoothovertheinstablerelationsbetweendifferentgroups.
In""TheVirginAmanda,"thecouplelivesinabuildingwherepeopleareof"variouscolors"(118).
36Withherbackgroundofadvancededucationandprofessionaljob,HanMiaoisclearlydifferentfromthoseresidentswhomerelyspeakbrokenEnglish.
InHanMiao'sviewpoint,herneighbors—Amanda'sfamilies—can"barelybelabeled36Allthequotationsfrom"TheVirginAmada"aremytranslationsfromBaiShe.
Lin68inthelowestclassofcultureandeducation"(121).
Moreover,sheconsidersthatYangZhi-bing'sencounterwithAmanda"willhavenothinggood"(118).
Althoughlivingwiththeminoritygroups,Han'ssuccessfulimmigrantexperienceslinkhercloselytothedominantmainstream.
Herdistrusttowardotherneighborssomehowrepresentsthegapbetweenthemainstreamandthenon-mainstream.
ThegapcausedbymisunderstandingsandstereotypesmakesherunabletorealizeorstoptherelationshipbetweenYangandAmanda.
ItseemsthatHan'sstoryreflectsYan'ssuspicionofChinesewomen'saffiliationtothemainstream—theywouldneedtosacrificesomethingtopayforit.
Ontheotherhand,YanseemstoimplythatHanMiaocanbeseenasafigurethatre-producesthemodelminoritythesis.
InordertoaccomplishsuchadiscoursethatisbasedonChineseAmericanstereotypes,YanhighlightstheatypicaldimensionofHan'slife—namely,YangZhi-bing'salienationinAmerica.
Inthestory,therefore,hersocialmobilityissetasacontrasttoherhusband'sdownwardmobility.
LikeJiangWei'sinabilityin"SiaoYu,"YangZhi-bing'ssituationalsopointsoutaproblematicissueofChinesemen'salienationinimmigrantAmerica.
InhisChineseAmericanLiteratureSincethe1850s,YinXiao-huangdiscussesChinesemen'sAmericanexperienceswhentheyfindouttheirpatriarchalauthoritydisappears:…thepost-immigrationexperienceofmanyChinesemenconsistsofadailyLin69attritionofconfidence,on-goingdifficultiesinadjustment,andtheshockoflosingtheironcetreasuredmalestatus.
Bycontrast,women,whowerenotpamperedinChinesesociety,arelessaffectedbychange.
Consequently,theyoftenbecomestrongerthanmen,arebetteradaptedtotheirnewenvironment,andplaymoresignificantrolesinfamilylife.
(208)Accordingly,thiskindofreversalofgenderhierarchyleadstoChinesemen'salienationanddownwardmobility.
In"TheVirginAmanda,"HanMiaotakesovertraditionalChinesemen'sobligationtoearnalivingfortheirfamily.
Yang,whooncecould"findanypositionsinsociety,inbusinessandinwomen,"now,eachmorning"huddlesupasanoutsiderwhenthesocietyoverwhelminglyentersintoitsinitiatingprogram"(95).
Inadditiontothat,Yang'salienationfromthesocietysymbolizesacastratingprocess.
ThusinthestoryYangtriestodealwiththehouseworkto"provethatheisnotuseless"(97).
Thisspiritualcastrationisstrengthenedandfinallybecomesaphysicalimpotenceatnights:YangZhi-bingimmediatelyunderstands.
Hismonthlysalaryinthreenumberscannotescapefromthewife'srealization.
Itcannotrunawayfromhersentimentorsympathyinmind.
HisarmsunderHanMiao'sneckgraduallybecomestiffandcold.
ActuallyitisHanMiaowhocovershimunderherwings.
ThereforetheimaginationofHanMiaostretchingherLin70wingscaringforthesix-feettallYangcannotfadeaway.
Itbecomesabigtroublewhenhegetsclosetoortoucheshiswife.
Atleastittroubleshimalottonight.
Cannotgoonagain….
(120)ToChinesemeninAmerica,"especiallythosewhowerewellestablishedintheirnativecountry,"materiallyandsocially,theemigration"canmeanaleapintoperilandastepdown"thatkeepserodingtheirconfidence(Yin207).
37Asaresult,"Chineseimmigrantmencometovaluetheirrelationshipswiththeirspousesandseekanemotionalheaveninthem"(Yin208).
However,YangZhi-bing'simpotencesuggeststhatthisheavenlyrelationshipwithhiswifeisalsoimpossible.
HanMiao'ssuccessfulsocialmobilityradicallyreversestheirpositionswithinthegenderhierarchy.
YangfindshisemotionalheaventurnsouttobeanextramaritalaffairwithaHispanicyounggirl—Amanda.
Obviously,toYang,itcanbeasalvationoftheChinesepatriarchalsystembecauseintheirrelationshipheisestablishedas"anicefigureoffatherandbrother"(111).
YetthissalvationisbuiltonAmanda'sbetrayalandwillnecessarilybecomeadisappointment.
Moreover,itisalsothebetrayaloftheChinesemanbythemainstreamideology.
WhenheshowsupasanunassimilableOtherwhocannotconformtohismodelminorityimage,hehastobe37YinborrowsElaineH.
Kim'sideatoindicatehowAsianpatriarchyissupersededbyAmericanpatriarchywhoseracistessencedoespromiseAsianAmericanmenabetterfuture.
Andthissomehow"resultsincomparativebenefitsforChinesewomen"(Yin208).
Lin71savedorwipedout.
InthestoryYangafterallcannotbesavedthroughHanMiao'supwardmobility.
Therefore,Yangisdestinedtobeexxcluded—intheend,hechoosestoreturntoChina.
ItshouldbenotedthattheauthordoesnottotallydiscreditHanMiaoorhermobility.
Han'smobilitybringsabouteconomicimprovementandmoreorlessdemonstratesasenseofmotherlyloveforherhusband.
Inparticular,theauthorshowshersympathyforHanatthemomentwhenHanthrowsawayherdignityandmobilityprivilege,returningtotheChineseAmericancommunityforfinancialassistanceinthelawsuit.
Regardlessofherhusband'sdeception,itseemsthathersupportforYangturnsbacktohumanlove.
And,inYan'swritings,thiskindofwomenwithgoodnessstandsabetterchanceofsurvivingintheend.
Sofar,theauthornotonlyexposestheimmigrationmythbutalsoclearlydescribesthepainandthegainofChineseimmigrantwomenduringtheprocessofearningsocioeconomicmobility.
Throughvariousroles,YanexposesChineseimmigrantwomen'sheterogeneousexperiences.
Shechallengestheiraffiliativerelationstothedominantmainstream;sherepresentstheiralienationtotheChinesegroup.
TotheChineseimmigrantwomen,thesestrugglesareallrelatedtoabasicissueofsurvival.
Thissurvivalrequiresanindependentandstrongsubjecttocarryoutthenegotiationsorresistanceswithintheirdailylives,becauseduringtheprocessLin72theymustconstantlybeawareoftheirpositionsaspeoplebeingobjectifiedororientalized.
IntermsofthereversalofgenderhierarchyinAmerica,YinXiao-huangonceacknowledgesthatitismore"acomplexproductofdehumanizingpressuresontheimmigrantsinAmericanlife"thanacomparisonofChinesewomen'srise/fallinAmericatothatinChina(218).
IbelievethedehumanizationmostlyresultsfromthedisillusionmentoftheAmericanDreambecauseoftheracistoperationofthedominantsocietywhomodelsChineseimmigrantsinaccordancewiththeirimagination,whichinevitablyunderminesindividualspecificity.
InYan'sstories,itisclearthatonlywhenChineseimmigrantwomenmaintainself-consciousnesstoavoidasenseofspecialnesscantheyestablishasubjectivityoutofbeingotherized.
Thisnotonlychallengesthemainstream'smanipulationofhomogenizingChineseAmericanwomen'sexperiences,italsopushesustore-considertheirrelationstootherimmigrantminorities.
Lin73Chapter4ChineseAmericanMobilityDiscourse—AlwaysontheRoadAlmosttwodecadesaftertherepublicationofMulberryandPeachinTaiwan,Niehrecentlypublishesherautobiography—ThreeLives,ThreeAges(2004).
ThetitleofthebookreferstoNieh'sdaysinthreeplaces,namely,mainlandChina,TaiwanandAmerica.
Fromherautobiography,wecaneasilytellthatNieh'spersonalexperiencesprovidethebackgroundforthemajorscenariosofthenovel.
38Inotherwords,MulberryandPeachsemi-autobiographicallyrepresentsNieh'slife.
LeoOu-fanLeecommentsonThreeLivesinhisreviewentitled"TheRebirthoftheWanderingGhosts"("YoHunZaiSheng").
Heassertsthatthereare"polyphonicforms"inthebook,includingprose,poetry,letters,records,anddialogue.
Theycanbe"voicesofhumanbeings"thatinformthereadersonhowNieh"ceaselesslyconverseswithpeoplewhomsheisfamiliarwithandconcernedabout,"and"throughconciseandvividlanguagesheinvokes'wanderingghosts'ofthepasttothepresent.
"39IsitpossiblethatNieh'swanderingheroine,Mulberry/Peach,isalsointhelistofinvocationLikeMulberry'sstruggleindislocation,NiehinThreeLivesrevealsheranxietyofunstablerelationshipstothefiliativeunitsdueto38Forexample,thememoryofChu-TangGorgeisbehindherbreathtakingscenesofthestrandedboat.
Mulberry'slifewithherfiancéinthebesiegedPekingisindeedNieh'spersonalexperience.
Moreover,theexperienceofhowherfatherishidinginanatticisalsorewrittenasanightmareepisodebroughtbytheWhiteTerror.
Thesescenarios,includingNieh'sAmericanlife,supplythebasictemporal/spatialframesforMulberryandPeach.
39"YoHunZaiSheng"[TheRebirthoftheWanderingGhosts].
Udnnews26May2004.
26May2004Lin74hergeographicalmobility.
Also,justasPeachexperiencesthejoyof"rebirth"inAmerica,NiehdepictsherpleasureofgaininganewlifewithahappymarriageinIowaafterfleeingtheWhiteTerror.
Thoughthisnewlifeisacutelycutbackbyherhusband'sdeathin1991,inherautobiographyNiehobviouslystandsuptoit.
40Therefore,inmyopinion,the"rebirth"thatLeementionsnotonlysuggeststhereconfigurationofthepastbutalsopointstoNieh'srebirthoutoftheshadowofdeaththroughtheactofwriting.
MulberryandPeach,Ibelieve,isalsoarebirth/representationofPeach'sstrongsubjectivity,whichisinitiatedbytheempowermentofmobility.
Mostimportantofall,inNieh'sandYan'sstories,ChineseAmericanmobilitydiscoursealsogetsanewlife,whichexpandsofWong'stwo-directionalmobilitytheory.
ThetwoauthorsexposegenderdifferenceswithinChineseAmericanimmigrationexperiencesandthepossibilityofdownwardmobility.
CorrespondingtoWong's"rivalculturaldiscourse"inwhichmobilityisregardedasatacticoflooseningdomination,intheprocessofmigrationtheseChineseimmigrantwomencansomehowcircumventtheinstitutionofChinesepatriarchytore-producevariousnarrativesoflife,whilesurvivingchallengesinanewworld.
Theauthors'characters—SiaoYu,theanonymouswomaninNoExitCafé,and40IntheepilogueofThreeLives,ThreeAges,Niehtalkedaboutherhusband'sdeath:"Hesuddenlyfelldownduringthetravelin1991.
Itseemedthatheavenandearthturnedupsidedown.
Ifelldown,too.
Aftertwelveyears,unexpectedlyIcomeoutwithThreeLives,ThreeAges,anditisalsohowIstrugglefromdeathtolife"(349).
Translationmine.
Lin75Mulberry/Peach—alsosupportWong'scritiqueofAmericannationalistviolenceinregardtotheimmigrationcodes.
Inparticular,Yan'sChineseimmigrantprotagonistshavesomeencounterswithAmericancapitalismandwiththeeconomicallyprivilegedinsidetheircommunities,demonstratingsocioeconomic/verticalmobilityexperiencestoopenupChineseAmericanmobilitydiscourse.
Totheirheroines,therefore,mobilityempowersthemtoresisthegemonicdominationandgeneratestrongsubjectivities.
IntheChineseAmericancontext,theirstrugglesforsocioeconomicmobilityrevealthesewomen'sflexibilityinadaptingtonewlivesand,simultaneously,adangerofaffiliatingtomainstreamstereotypicalrepresentations,suchasthemodelminoritythesis.
InMulberryandPeachandNoExitCafé,moreover,Chinesewomen'smobilityprovidesenergyofpurgingthetraumaofthepast.
InMulberryandPeach,theemergenceofPeachandherfreewanderingssymbolizethatshecangetridofMulberry'sfiliativeburden,suchasthecalloftheChinesenationalismandthebreakdownoffamilies.
And,inNoExitCaféthefemaleprotagonist'swestwardtraveltonursehermother'sex-loversuggestsawaytocompensateforhermother'slonglostlove.
Itseemsthatmobilitydoesnotmerelyendowthemwiththepowerofcreatingalternativenarrativestoblurthelimitationsofdominance.
Inaddition,mobilityprovideopportunitiesofhealingorreleasingthetraumaofthepast.
Lin76Also,itisnoteworthytopointoutthattheopenendingsofMulberryandPeach,NoExitCaféand"SiaoYu"indicatemorepossibilitiesofthefemaleprotagonists'immigrantlives.
PeachandtheanonymouswomaninNoExitCaféwillbeontheirwaytoafreerfuture;itisuncertainwhetherSiaoYuwillreturntotheChineseAmericancommunity.
Theindeterminacyoftheirdestinationsmakesitdifficultforthemtobesubjectedtothefiliativeoraffiliativeorders.
WhilePeachstatesinthenovelthatsheis"alwaysontheroad,"beingamigratorysubject,sheisinfactgoingthroughanongoingprocessofdepartureandre-departure,asTrinhT.
Minh-hasuggests.
Duringtheprocesstheywillconstantlyinitiatenewexperiencesand,atthesametime,theyhavetocontendwithdifferentdominantfactorstomaintainindependence.
Inadiscourseofmobility,theestablishmentsofsubjectivitieswillbebothflexibleandindeterminate,aprocesswhichcanneverbepermanentlyfixed.
Refusingtobemarginallypositioned,therefore,asTrinhargues,theseChinesewomencandoawaywiththepoliticsofdifference,whichimposesrestrictionsontheirsubjectformations.
Thesubjectformationwillbeceaselessly"inprocess"andgenerates"multiplepresence[s]"(94).
Duetothe"multiplepresence[s]"ofthesubjectformationandtheself-consciousnessresultingfrommobility,theheroinesinthesethreestoriesseemtobeabletobettersurviveinthenewworldthanChinesemendo.
ThismeetstheLin77suggestioninchapterthreewhichreferstothemisrepresentationofChineseAmericansunderthemodelminoritydiscourse.
AnditshouldbenotedthatChineseAmericanwomen'sverticalmobilityandthereversalofgenderhierarchyinYan'sstoriesshouldnotbeimaginedasalwaysfelicitous.
Instead,theyhavetogetthroughpainandgainwhentheystruggletodealwithhegemonicdomination.
Thechallengesoflivinginanaliencountryareshownbytheirdifferentsocialstatus:anomad,apoverty-strickenstudent,amaternal-likefigure,oracompetentprofessional.
SometimestheyevenhavetotaketheresponsibilityofsupportingChinesemen.
Whenitcomestoimmigrantexperiencesinthenewworld,LisaLowestressestheinterconnectionbetween"gender"and"race"because"wecannotisolate'race'from'gender'withoutreproducingthelogicofdomination"(433).
Throughtheirwritings,NiehandYanpointouttheheterogeneityandmultiplicityofChineseAmericanmobilitydiscoursebyrepresentingChinesewomen'slivestoindicatethis"interconnectionbetween'gender'and'race'.
"Theheroines'storiesrepresentChineseimmigrantwoman'sexperiencesthatarefilledwithindividualnegotiationswithvariousdominantelements:whiteracism,classstruggle,genderformation,nationalism,andpatriarchalism,tonamejustafew.
Intermsofrace,inparticular,thetwoauthorsportraythede-humanizationofimmigrantsthroughtheepisodesofpersecutionbytheimmigrationbureauagents.
InYan'sstoriesshefurtherquestionsLin78whitesaverism.
Thesetwosidesunderminewhitearroganceandtheproductionofmodelminoritythesis.
Bybringingoutheterogeneousexperiences,thetwoauthorsliberatetheraciallybound"model"ChineseAmericansandleadthemtomoreinteractionswithotherminorities.
TheheterogeneityofChineseimmigrants'livesandtheirresistantpracticesshouldbestudiedtoenrichtheChineseAmericanmobilitydiscourse,onethatresistsclosureormonologism.
Again,asLisaLoweremarks,instudyingChineseAmericanexperiences,wecan"includeamoreheterogeneousgroupandtoenablecrucialalliances—withothergroupsofcolor,class-basedstruggles,feministcoalitions,andsexuality-basedefforts—intheongoingworkoftransforminghegemony"(439).
InthecaseofChineseAmericanmobilitydiscourse,anymonologistinterpretationshouldbeputintoquestionand,atthesametime,itisnecessarytoopenitupbyallowing"alliances"andindividualspecificities.
ToChineseimmigrantwomen,tointerrogatetheirdefinedmobilityunderpatriarchalpoweror,tosurviveunderracistviolence,theyneedtoholdresistantconsciousnessagainsthegemony—an"ongoingwork"urgedbyLowe.
And,inNieh'sandYan'sstories,retellinghowtheycomethroughdislocation,alsopointtothisongoingworkandthepossibilityofre-generatingortransmittingdifferentChineseAmericanmobilityexperiences.
Theopenendingsoftheirwritings,especially,havepushedLin79ChineseAmericanmobilitydiscoursetoanopenroad.
Thisalsoimpliesthattheworkoftransforminghegemonythroughcreatingalternativeexperiencesinmobilitycanneverbefinished.
InthewordsofPeach,ChineseAmericanmobilitydiscourseisthus"alwaysontheroad"andalwaysfullofnoveltyandopportunities.
Lin80AppendixEnglishChineseBlack,Black,theMostBeautifulColor《黑色,黑色,最美的顏色》MulberryandPeach:TwoWomenofChina(1981)《桑青與桃紅》"NoteontheexileofMulberryandPeach"SangqingyuTaohong(1970)《桑青與桃紅》NiehHualingThreeLives,ThreeAges《三生三世》"ADarkHorseinWomen'sCommunity:YanGelingonNoExitCafé"BaiShe《白蛇》FuSang(1996)《扶桑》NoExitCafé《無出咖啡館》OntheOtherShore《海那邊》YanGeling"RobberCharlieandI"Lin81EnglishChineseSiaoYu《少小漁》SongofaKite《風箏歌》"StoryinSchool""TheChestnutHair""TheInsomniac'sBeautifulEncounter"TheLostDaughterofHappiness(2001)《扶桑》YanGeling"TheVirginAmanda"Lin82WorksCitedAnderson,Benedict.
ImaginedCommunities:ReflectionsontheOriginandSpreadofNationalism.
NewYork:Verso,1991.
Appadurai,Arjun.
ModernityatLarge:CulturalDimensionsofGlobalization.
Minneapolis:UofMinnesotaP,1996.
Bonacich,Edna.
"TheSiteofClass.
"PrivilegingPositions:TheSiteofAsianAmericanStudies.
Eds.
DorothyFujitaRony,GaryY.
Okihiro,MarilynAlquizola,andK.
ScottWong.
Seattle:UofWashingtonP,1995.
67-74.
Chan,Sucheng.
AsianAmericans:AnInterpretiveHistory.
NewYork:Twayne,1991.
Cheung,King-Kok,ed.
AnInterethnicCompaniontoAsianAmericanLiterature.
Cambridge:CambridgeUP,1997.
Chu,PatriciaP.
Introduction.
AssimilatingAsians:GenderedStrategiesofAuthorshipinAsianAmerica.
DurhamandLondon:DukeUP,2000.
1-23.
Feng,Pin-chia.
En-GenderingChineseAmericans:ReadingChineseAmericanWomen'sFiction.
Taipei:BookmanBooks,2001.
—.
"YanGelingduanpianxiaoshuizhongdehuayiyiminjingyan:'LiseToufa,''Dalume,'and'ShounuiXiaoyu'"[ChineseImmigrantExperiencesinYanGeling'sShortStories:"ChestnutHair,""MainlandGirl,"and"SiaoYu"].
Chung-WaiLiteraryMonthly29.
11(April2001):44-62.
Lin83Lee,LeoOu-fan.
"ChonghuaSangqingyuTaohongdeditu"[Re-mappingMulberryandPeach].
SangqingyuTaohong180-84.
—.
"YoHunZaiSheng"[TheRebirthoftheWanderingGhosts].
Udnnews26May2004.
26May2004Li,DavidLeiwei.
ImaginingtheNation:AsianAmericanLiteratureandCulturalConsent.
California:StanfordUP,1998.
Liang,Iping.
"Nuxing/ditu/diguo:NiehHualing,Sichouzi,Devituwenkuajie"[Women/Maps/Empires:InterspatialityinNiehHuaing,ChuwasLawa,andMahaswetaDevi].
Chung-WaiLiteraryMonthly27.
5(October1998):63-98.
Lim,ShirleyGeok-lin.
"ImmigrationandDiaspora.
"Cheung.
289-331.
Ling,Amy.
BetweenWorlds:WomenWritersofChineseAncestry.
NewYork:PegamonP,1990.
Liu,Yi.
"XingganYeMeileShiChediShibai"[WithoutDesire,ItTotallyFails].
StarOnline05November2003.
05November2003Lowe,Lisa.
ImmigrantActs:OnAsianAmericanCulturalPolitics.
DurhamandLondon:DukeUP,1996.
Nieh,Hualing.
Heise,heise,zuimeileideyanse[Black,Black,theMostBeautifulLin84Color].
Taipei:Linbai,1986.
—.
MulberryandPeach:TwoWomenofChina.
1981.
Trans.
JaneParishYangandLindaLappin.
Boston:Beacon,1993.
—.
SanshengSanshi[ThreeLives,ThreeAges].
Taipei:Crown,2004.
—.
SangqingyuTaohong.
1970.
Taipei:ChinaTimes,1997.
—.
"SangqingyuTaohonglihfangxiaoji.
"[NoteontheexileofMulberryandPeach].
SangqingyuTaohong.
271-73.
Pai,Hsien-yung.
"Shijidepiaobozhe:chongduSangqingyuTaohong"[TheWandereroftheCentury:RereadingMulberryandPeach].
SangqingyuTaohong.
174-79.
Palumbo-Liu,David.
Asian/American:HistoricalCrossingsofaRacialFrontier.
California:StanfordUP,1999.
Rubin,Gayle.
"TheTrafficinWomen:Notesonthe'PoliticalEconomy'ofSex.
"TowardanAnthropologyofWomen.
Ed.
RaynaR.
Reiter.
NewYork:MonthlyReview,1975.
157-210.
Said,EdwardW.
ReflectionsonExileandOtherEssays.
Cambridge,Mass.
:HarvardUP,2000.
—.
"SecularCriticism.
"TheWorld,theText,andtheCritic.
Cambridge,Mass.
:HarvardUP,1983.
1-30.
Lin85Shan,Te-shing.
Minkeyuzaixian:huayimeiguowenxueyuwenhuayenjiu[InscriptionsandRepresentations:ChineseAmericanLiteraryandCulturalStudies].
Taipei:RyeFieldPublications,2000.
—.
"RedefiningChineseAmericanLiteraturefromaLOWINUSPerspective:TwoRecentExamples.
"MultilingualAmerica:Transnationalism,Ethnicity,andtheLanguagesofAmericanLiterature.
Ed.
WernerSollors.
NewYork:NewYorkUP,1998.
112-23.
Trinh,Minh-haT.
Woman,Native,Other:WritingPostcolonialityandFeminismBloomington&Indianapolis:IndianaUP,1989.
Tuan,Yi-fu.
SpaceandPlace:ThePerspectiveofExperience.
Minneapolis:MinnesotaUP,1977.
Wang,Zhi-hong.
Xingbiehualiudongdeizhengzhiyushixue[ThePoliticsandPoeticsofGenderedFlows].
Taipei:Gardencity,2000.
Wong,Sau-lingCynthia.
Afterword.
MulberryandPeach:TwoWomenofChina.
ByNiehHualing.
Boston:Beacon,1998.
109-31.
—.
"ThePoliticsofMobility.
"ReadingAsianAmericanLiterature:FromNecessitytoExtravagance.
NewJersey:PrincetonUP,1993.
—.
"ChineseAmericanLiterature.
"Cheung.
39-61.
Yan,Geling.
BaiShe[WhiteSnake].
Taipei:Chiuko,1999.
Lin86—.
Hainabian[OntheOtherShore].
Taipei:Chiuko,1995.
—.
Fengzhengge[SongofaKite].
Taipei:ChinaTimes,1999.
—.
FuSang.
Taipei:Lienjing,1996.
—.
"Nuirenshewunlideyipiheima:YanGelingtanWuChuluKafeiguan.
"["ADarkHorseinWomen'sCommunity:YanGelingonNoExitCafe"].
WuChuluKafeiguan[NoExitCafe].
Taipei:Chiuko,2001.
405-13.
—.
ShaonuiXiaoyu[SiaoYu].
Taipei:Erya,1993.
—.
TheLostDaughterofHappiness.
Trans.
CathySilber.
NewYork:Hyperion,2001.
—.
"ChuniuAmanda.
"["TheVirginAmanda"].
BaiShe[WhiteSnake].
Taipei:Chiuko,1999.
87-137.
—.
WhiteSnakeandOtherStories.
Trans.
LawrenceA.
Walker.
SanFrancisco:AuntLute,1999.
—.
WuChuluKafeiguan[NoExitCafe].
Taipei:Chiuko,2001.
Yanagisako,Sylvia.
"TransformingOrientalism:Gender,Nationality,andClassinAsianAmericanStudies.
"NaturalizingPower:EssaysinFeministCulturalAnalysis.
Eds.
SylviaYanagisakoandCarolDelaney.
NewYorkandLondon:Routledge,1995.
275-96.
Yin,Xiao-huang.
ChineseAmericanLiteraturesincethe1850s.
Urbana&Chicago:UofIllinoisP,2000.