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28511ManaforaNewAgeRachelMorgainFromchakrahealingtoAfricandrumming,sweatlodgestoshamanicjourneys,NewAgemovements,particularlyinNorthAmerica,arenotoriousfortheirpatternofappropriatingconceptsandpracticesfromotherspiritualtraditions.
WhilecontinentalNativeAmericanandAsianinfluencesareperhapsmostfamiliarassourcinggroundsforNewAgematerial,thetraditionsofPacificIslanders,particularlyHawaiians,havenotescapedNewAgeattention.
Inparticular,themovementknownas'Huna'hasintroducedHawaiian-soundingwordsandconceptstotheNewAgevocabulary.
Chiefamongtheseistheconceptof'mana',controversiallysubsumedwithinwhatisoftenalargelaundrylistofnon-westernreligiousandphilosophicalnomenclature,underthegenericcategoryof'energy'or'lifeforce'.
ContinuallyadaptedthroughsucceedinggenerationsofHunateachings,andfurtheradoptedintosectionsoftherelatedcontemporaryPaganmovementthroughthetraditionknownas'Feri',theconceptof'mana'displayssomeconsistentthemesacrossthesetraditions,quitedifferentfromitsmeaninginHawaiiancontexts.
Inbeingadoptedintothesemovements,ithasbeentransformedtofitwithinafieldofideasthathavedevelopedinwesternesoterictraditionsfromatleastthelateeighteenthcentury.
Inthischapter,ItracesomeoftheideasthathavecometobeattachedtotheconceptofmanathroughseveraliterationsofNewAgemovementsinNorthAmerica.
BeginningwiththefoundationalNewMana286worksofMaxFreedomLong,IlookatthespiritualpracticeknownasHuna,popularisedfromthelate1930sthroughaseriesofLong'stextsandhisHunaResearchorganisation.
IthengoontoexaminehowtheseideashavebeendevelopedintheworksofoneofHuna'smostinfluentialcontemporaryteachers,Serge'Kahili'King,whonotonlysubstantiallyexpandedtheconceptualvocabularyconnectedwiththenotionofmanainHuna,butwhosespiritualandhealingmethodshavebeen're'-introducedintoHawai'ithroughsitessuchastheKalaniRetreatCenter,locatedontheislandofHawai'i.
Finally,IexplorehowmanahasbeenadoptedintothecontemporaryPaganmovementthroughthetraditionknownasAndersonFeri.
Feritradition,createdbyVictorandCoraAndersoninCaliforniaduringthemiddledecadesofthetwentiethcentury,drewonideasdrawnfromHunaincludingtheconceptofmanaasithadbeenwrittenaboutbyLong.
Asanorallytransmittedtradition,Fericonceptsandpracticesarepotentiallysubjecttomanysometimescontradictoryinterpretationsamongthosefromdifferentlineages,taughtbydifferentteachers,orbythesameteachersatdifferenttimes,suggestingthatthereislikelytobenosingle,unifiedunderstandingofmanawithinFeri.
MyresearchherefocusesoninterviewswithagroupofFeripractitionersinSanFranciscowhoalsohavetiestothecloselyrelatedReclaimingmovement,withwhomIhavealong-standingresearchrelationship.
WhiletheirideasmaybeidiosyncraticinsomerespectscomparedwithotherFerilineages,certainthreadscanneverthelessbeidentifiedinhowmanaisunderstoodandspokenaboutthatareconsistentwithHunaideas,pointingtoawidespreadadoptionofparticularconceptionsofmanaacrossNewAgeandcontemporaryPaganmovements.
Here,Itracetheseideasbacktocosmologicalconceptionsthathavealonggenealogywithinwesternesoterictraditions,particularlysincetheworkofFranzMesmerinthelateeighteenthcenturyandthatoftheTheosophicalSocietyestablishedinthelaterdecadesofthenineteenthcentury.
MaxFreedomLongandHuna'Mana'enteredtheNewAgemovementprimarilythroughthespiritualpracticeknownasHuna,theinventionofwhiteAmericanteacherandwriterMaxFreedomLong.
LongclaimedtohavemetwiththeCurator28711.
ManaforaNewAge(laterDirector)oftheBishopMuseuminHonolulu,WilliamBrigham,suggestingBrighamwasthemainsourceofhisinsightsonHawaiiantradition.
LongworkedasateacherontheislandofHawai'ifrom1917to1920.
AccordingtothehistoricalworkofMakanaRisserChai,whohasexaminedtheevidenceofLong'stimeinHonolulu,assessinghisclaimsforthe'Hawaiian'rootsofhissystemofHuna,hearrivedinHonolulusometimeinlate1920orearly1921,makingabarelivingworkinginaphotographicshop(Chai2011:104).
Fromhisearliesttimethere,hespenthissparetimetryingtotalktoasmanypeopleashecould,learningwhathecouldofHawaiianlife.
ChaiquotesapersonalcorrespondencewithauthorandformerresearcherattheBishopMuseum,PaliJaeLee,whosuggests,'Everymomenthecouldgetawayfromworkandtrytofindsomethingoutfromsomeone,hedidso'(quotedinChai2011:115).
Intheprocess,hetriedtofindakahunawhowouldsharesecretswithhim,tonoavail.
1AfterreturningtothemainlandUnitedStatesfrom1939to1941,LongwroteanumberofmysterynovelssetinHawai'i,drawingfromhisexperiencesandhisrichimagination.
Butfromthemid-1930s,healsowroteaseriesofbooksonHunaclaimingknowledgeof'ancientHawaiiansecrets'.
PaliJaeLee,inresearchconductedinthe1970s,carefullytracedBrigham'spersonaljournalsovertheperiodofLong'sresidenceinHonolulu.
Asshedemonstrates,fromthemanwhokeptadetailedaccount'eventothelistsandreceiptsofgrocerieshepurchased,thelaundryhesentoutandreceivedback',thereisnonoteofBrighameverhavingmetwithorspokentoLong(Lee2007:92).
AsChaisuggests,basedonBrigham'scharacterandhisconsciousnessofhissuperiorclass,itishighlyunlikelyhewouldeverhavedeignedtomeetwithLong,andlesssothathewouldhavetakeninLongasastudent(Chai2011:105).
NorarethestoriesLongsharesinhisworks,whichheclaimedtohavesourcedfromBrigham,reflectedinBrigham'swritings(Chai2011:106–108).
Interestingly,ChaisuggeststhatitispossibleLongmayhaveneverthelesshadsomelegitimatesourcesforhiswritingsonHawai'i.
Inparticular,shepointstotheroleofLahilahiWebb,aHawaiianwomanfromachieflyfamily,whohadparticipatedinthecoronation1ThisishardlysurprisinggivenLong'sbrieftimeinHawai'iandstatusasanoutsider,and,asLeepointsout,evenlesssoconsideringtheclimateoffear,suspicionandlegalprohibitionsagainstuseoftheHawaiianlanguageandcultureamongKanakaMaoliatthistime(Lee2007:90).
NewMana288ofKalakauaandservedaslady-in-waitingandnursetoQueenLili'uokalani.
DuringtheperiodofLong'sstayinHonolulu,WebbworkedasaguideintheBishopMuseum,andmetLongduringhisvisitsthere.
Webbwassorespectedduringhertimeatthemuseumthatshebecametheinformantofmanyofitsresidentscholars.
WebbwasasourceofmuchinformationonHawaiiantraditions,includingonhealing,traditionalwisdomandkahuna.
However,accordingtomuseumworkersinterviewedbyPaliJaeLee,shewasalsoinclinedto'tellthehaolelotsoffoolishness'(Chai2011:116).
ChaisuggeststhatitispossiblethatWebbwasthesourceofmanyofthestoriesLongattributedtoBrigham,whichshedescribesas'relativelyaccuratedescriptionsofHawaiiantraditions'albeitcontainingsomeerrors,possiblyasaresultof'littlejokes[Webb]playedonhim'(Chai2011:116).
DespitethesesometimesaccuratedepictionsdottingLong'swork,LongleftHawai'iwithlittlemoreinsourcematerialforhisHunasystemthanthesefewstoriesandthe'oldHawaiiandictionary'ofLorrinAndrews,whichheporedoverintentlytogleanfromitwhathecould(Long1981:38;seealsoLee2007:92,foracritiqueofLong'sdictionarymethodoflearningaboutHawaiianconcepts).
ThemostsympatheticHawaiianaccount,fromscholarandLivingTreasureofHawai'iCharlesKenn,highlightsthelimitationsofagenuinelyHawaiianinfluenceinLong'swork.
Kennwasafriendandlong-timecorrespondentofLong,whospentsometimeasoneofhisHunaResearchAssociates(HRA)inLosAngelesinthelate1940s.
In1949,havingreturnedtoHawai'i,hewroteinalettertoamemberoftheHRAthat,'IhavenodoubtaboutLong'ssincerity,buthemayhaveintroducedsomenon-hunafactorsonaccountofhiswhite-man'smind'(Chai2011:109).
Tenyearslater,hewrotetohisfriend,authorandscholarLeinaniMelvilleJones,that'MaxLongwas"auana"[tostraymorallyormentally].
Itoocannotswallowhis"huna"stuff,andItoldhimso…Maxmeanswellbut,beingahaole…isunabletocomprehendtheinnermeaningofthekahunaphilosophy'(quotedinRodman1979:131).
FarfrombeingabletolearnofHawaiianspiritualtraditions,whichitseemsheoriginallyhopedtodo,intheendtheHunamethodthatLongdevelopedwasawesternesotericsystemdressedupwithafewHawaiiantermsandsomescatteredstoriesandimagery.
Hedrewhiscoreideasalmostwholesalefromthetraditionsof28911.
ManaforaNewAgeearlytwentieth-centuryspiritualism,andinparticularthoseoftheTheosophicalSociety,withwhomhehadtrainedpriortohistimeinHawai'i(Long1981:1).
OtherwesternphilosophiesthatpervadedtheintellectuallandscapeoftheearlytwentiethcenturycanalsobetracedinLong'swritings.
Inparticular,Longintroducedaconceptof'threeselves',whichheclaimedaspartofkahunalore,butwhichinsteaddrewclearinfluencesfromFreudianpsychology:The'unihipili'(akintoFreud'sid),whichhedescribesasthe'loworanimalspiritinus'which'hasinferiorpowersofreason'The'uhane'or'consciousmindspirit'(akintoFreud'sego),which'cannotrememberforitselfbutcanusethefullpowerofinductivereasoning'The'aumakua'(akintoFreud'ssuperego),whichhedescribesasthe'superconscious'or'parentalspirit',the'oldestandmosthighlyevolvedofmen'sthreespiritselves'(Long1954:47).
2InTheKeytoTheosophy,HelenaBlavatskyhadwrittenin1889thattheconsciousnessiscomprisedoffourcomponents:theLowerorPersonalEgo,including'animalinstincts,passions,desires,etc.
';theInnerEgoor'permanentIndividuality';theSpiritualSoul;andtheHigherSelfor'inseparablerayoftheUniversal'(Blavatsky2006:99).
InLong'smodel,Blavatsky'slattertwoselvesweremergedintothe'aumakua'or'superconscious',whichtakesonamoreFreudianflavourinhissomewhatsuperciliousnotionofa'parentalspirit'.
ThusLongadaptedtheseTheosophicalnotionsintoatripartitemodeloftheself(remouldingtheminawaythatmorecloselyresemblesSigmundFreud'sframework);helenteachaspectaHawaiianname,butretainedanessentiallyTheosophicalunderpinning.
32MaryPukuiKawenaandSamuelH.
Elbert'sHawaiiandictionarygivethefollowingtranslationoftheseterms:'unihi.
pili:Spiritofadeadperson,sometimesbelievedpresentinbonesorhairofthedeceasedandkeptlovingly(PukuiandElbert1986:372)'uhane:Soul,spirit,ghost(363)'au.
makua:Familyorpersonalgods,deifiedancestorswhomightassumetheshapeofsharks…owls…hawks…[otherformslisted](32).
3Indeed,Freud'sideasthemselveswereheavilyinfluencedbythefermentofspiritualisminthelatenineteenthcentury,andbythepracticesofMesmerism,whichservedasaprecursortobothTheosophyandpsychoanalytictheory(Crews1996).
NewMana290TheconceptofmanainHunaTheconceptofmanaaselaboratedbyLonglikewisehasitsrootsinTheosophy.
BlavatskyhadearlieridentifiedthewordPranawiththenotionof'lifeorvitalprinciple':'"Prana,"or"Life,"is,strictlyspeaking,theradiatingforceorEnergyofAtma[theUniversalLife]—ITSlowerorrather(initseffects)morephysical,becausemanifesting,aspect.
PranaorLifepermeatesthewholebeingoftheobjectiveUniverse'(Blavatsky2006:99).
Openingadiscussiononmana,Longwrites:Inthepsycho-religions,bothancientandmodern(withtheexceptionofHuna)thereislittletobefoundthatgivesusaclearideaofthePOWERthatturnsthewheelsoflifeorthatmovesthemachineryofprayer…InthebeliefsofIndia,muchissaidofprana(whichmayhavebeenanideadrawnfromasourcesimilartothatfromwhichHunawasdrawn).
PranawasheldupasatoolofvalueintheearlyTheosophicalwritings…Theshiningexampleofaforceofthiskindwasfoundinthelegendary'serpentforce'supposedlyrisingatthebaseofthespineinresponsetocertainexercises…andrisinginspiralsalongthespineuntilthetopoftheheadwasreached.
Theretheforcecausedthe'openconsciousness'andone'sawGod'…Ispentseveralmonthstryingtogetproofofthesemechanismswhenyoungandamemberofthe[TheosophicalSociety].
Ialsotriedforsomeyearstofindanypersonwhogaveevidenceofhavinglearnedtoarouseandusethisforce,butwithoutsuccess.
(Long1981:1)Itisthis'vitalforce'oressenceoflifethatLongidentifiesasmanainhiswritings.
Imagesofflowingwaterareoftenusedtoexpresshisunderstandingofmana.
InoneofLong'smostinfluentialworks,TheSecretScienceBehindMiracles,hestates:They[kahunas]knewtheforceasathingwhichhadtodowithallthoughtprocessesandbodilyactivity.
Itwastheessenceoflifeitself.
Thekahunasymbolforthisforcewaswater.
Waterflows,sodoesthevitalforce.
Waterfillsthings.
Sodoesthevitalforce.
Watermayleakaway—somayvitalforce.
(Long1954:31)29111.
ManaforaNewAgeInthiscontext,then,manaissomethingthatexistswithinthenaturalworld,independentofthehumanactivitythatmightdirectitorexpressit.
Ithasapseudo-substantivequality,withthecapacitytoflow,filluporleakaway.
Aswiththespiritualisttraditionsofthenineteenthcentury,this'flow'isalsooftendescribedinmetaphorsofelectricityandmagnetism:Wesupposethatgravityisakintomagnetism,andthatmagnetismistobefoundwherethereisacurrentofanelectricalnature…Thekahunasrecognisedthemagneticandtheopposite,repulsive,natureofvitalforceormotricitybut,unfortunately,theyleftnodetailedexpositionofthesubject.
(Long1954:31)Developingthiselectromagneticimageryfurther,Longsuggeststhatmanahasthreelevelsor'voltages',whichconnectwithandoperatethroughthethreeselves:Thevitalforceormanaofthekahunashasthreestrengths.
Ifitiselectricalinnature,asmodernexperimentshavedemonstrated,wemaysafelysaythatthethreestrengthsofmanaknowntothekahunasequalthreevoltages.
Thekahunawordsforthethreevoltagesweremana,forthelowvoltageusedbythesubconsciousspirit,andmana-manaforthehighervoltageusedbytheconsciousspiritas'will'orhypnoticforce.
Therewasastillhighervoltageknownasmana-loa4or'strongestforce,'andthiswasthoughttobeusedonlybyasuperconsciousspiritassociatedwiththetwolesserspiritstocompletethetriuneman.
(Long1954:52)Thepopularityofelectromagneticimageryinspiritualtraditionsreflectsanineteenthcenturycross-fertilisationoflanguagebetweentheemergingsciencesofelectromagnetismandspiritualistideas,whichtracebackatleasttoFranzMesmer'snotionsof'animalmagnetism':whathethoughtofasauniversal,permeatingmagneticfluid.
Bythetwentiethcentury,manylikeLongwithinterestsintheesotericviewedthemselvesasengagedinexperimentsaimedatestablishingthescientificbasisfortheirideasaboutsuchauniversal,potentsubstance,nowoftenreferredtoas'vitalforce',anddescribedtheseideasinlanguageborrowedheavilyfromthesesciences.
4PukuiandElbertincludemana.
manaasareduplicatedformofmana;noformofmanaloaisrecognisedamongtheirtranslations;loatranslatesas:distance,length,height;distant,long,tall,far,permanent(PukuiandElbert1986:236,209).
NewMana292Despiteitsqualityasauniversalsubstance,theimplicationsofrecognisingthissubstanceinNewAgemovementscentrelargelyaroundtheperson,andinparticulartheindividual,whoisabletoengagewiththisforcetotransformher-orhimself.
AgreatdealofLong'swritingsarededicatedtowhathedescribesasprocessesof'accumulatingagoodsurchargeofmanaandsendingittotheHighSelf'forhealing,personalgoalsorotherpurposes(Long1981:38).
Thepsychoanalyticallyorientedthree-partselfpointstoHuna'sfocusasaspiritualityofself-transformation,afactthathighlightsoneofthemostimportantpointsofdepartureinhowmanahascometobeunderstoodwithinNewAgemovements:thatitisprimarilyaboutindividualtransformation,asourceofpowerfromwithin.
BuildingonthebaseofLong'swritings,manyauthorsfromthecontinentalUnitedStateshaveexpandeduponthetraditionofHunaandcoreconceptssuchasmana.
ChiefamongthesecontemporaryproponentsofHunaisSerge'Kahili'King,aprolificwriterandteacherofHunainNewAgeworkshops,includinginHawai'i.
KingisAnglo-AmericanandaformerstudentofLong's,whoclaimstohavebeenadoptedintotheHawaiianKahilifamilybyhisHawaiianteacher(King1992),althoughthishasbeendisputed(K.
L.
Walker2005).
HedescribesHunaas'thePolynesianphilosophyandpracticeofeffectiveliving'(Kingn.
d.
),demonstratingthewayinwhichtheideasofHunafitwiththebroaderNewAgemovementinfocusingfirstandforemostonself-improvementoftheindividual.
Thisindividualisationisclearinthe'sevenprinciples'ofHunaidentifiedbyKing,andwidelylistedamongauthorsofHunabooksandwebsites.
Theseare:1.
IKE–theworldiswhatyouthinkitis2.
KALA–therearenolimits,everythingispossible3.
MAKIA–energyflowswhereattentiongoes4.
MANAWA–nowisthemomentofpower5.
ALOHA–toloveistobehappywith29311.
ManaforaNewAge6.
MANA–allpowercomesfromwithin7.
PONO–effectivenessisthemeasureoftruth(King2009:53–57).
5Bythetwenty-firstcentury,theseprincipleswerebeingreproducedinimagespostedontheFacebookpageoftheKalaniRetreatCenter,whichclaimstobe'thelargestretreatcenterinHawai'i'(Kalani2010).
Intheposterforthesixthprinciple,'Mana:Allpowercomesfromwithin',thewordsaresuperimposeduponanimageofawomanholdingayogaposeonacliffoverlookingtheocean.
Kalaniisawell-loveddestinationforyoga,wellness,andHawaiianculture,personalretreats,andvolunteervacations.
In2011,thecentreranaHunaworkshop,whichwaspromotedasfollows:AccordingtotheancientHawaiianHunaphilosophy,allillnessisaresultofstress.
Modernmedicalresearchcontinuestoprovethisrelationship—linkingstresstoeverythingfromhighbloodpressuretoweightgain.
Ifyouknowhowtorelievetension,thebody'shealingenergycanflowandyoucanachieve'instanthealing.
'Thisworkshoprevealsancientsecretstomanagingstressaswellasthelatestinformationonachievingoptimalhealth.
(Kalani2011)65PukuiandElbertgivethefollowingtranslationsfortheseterms:'ike:Tosee,know,feel,greet,recognize,perceive,experience,beaware,understand;toknowsexually;toreceiverevelationsfromthegods;knowledge,awareness,understanding,recognition,comprehensionandhencelearning;sense,asofhearingorsight;sensory,perceptive,vision.
(PukuiandElbert1986:96)kala:Toloosen,untie,free,release,remove,unburden,absolve,letgo,acquit,takeoff,undo;toproclaim,announce;toforgive,pardon,excuse;…prayertofreeonefromanyevilinfluence(120)mā.
kia:Aim,motto,purpose;toaimorstrivefor,toconcentrateon(229)manawa:Time,turn,season,date,chronology,periodoftime(237)aloha:Aloha,love,affection,compassion,mercy,sympathy,pity,kindness,sentiment,grace,charity…(21)mana:Supernaturalordivinepower,mana,miraculouspower;apowerfulnation,authority;togivemanato,tomakepowerful;tohavemana,power,authority;authorization,privilege;miraculous,divinelypowerful,spiritual;possessedofmana(235)pono:Goodness,uprightness,morality,moralqualities,correctorproperprocedure,excellence,well-being,prosperity,welfare,benefit,behalf,equity,sake,trueconditionornature,duty;…inperfectorder,accurate,correct,eased,relieved;should,ought,must,necessary(340).
6Thefeefortheworkshopwasover$US2,000,althoughthisincludedaccommodations,mealsanduseoftheresort'sluxuryaccommodations.
NewMana294Thefocusonphysicalandpsychologicalhealingthroughallowingthebody'shealingenergytoflow,andtheideathattheconceptofmanatellsusthat'allpowercomesfromwithin',pointscriticallytohowthefocusonindividualtransformationinNewAgesettingslikewiseindividualisestheconceptofmana.
Atthesametime,mana,forKing,asforotherHunaauthors,existsobjectivelywithinthenaturalorderofthecosmos.
BuildingontheexperimentsinorgoneenergyconductedbyfollowersofWilhelmReich,7Kingelaboratedmethodsformeasuringandcollectingmana,usingobjectsknownasmanaplatesandmanaboxes.
Hisworkinthisfieldbeganintheearly1970s,andalthoughheclaimshisideasstemmedfromvisitingWestAfricaand'studyingthelifeforcethatsomeAfricanscallmungo',itistellingthataroundthistimehealsobeganstudyingtheworksofReich(King1999),whoseunusualpsychologicaltheoriesgainedtractionwithesotericandalternativespiritualmovementsinthe1970s(Clifton2006:62–64).
Kingdescribeshowhelearnttobuildplatesthatgiveoff'energy'frommetalsheetssuchascopperandinsulatingmaterialsuchasacrylic.
Althoughheexperimentedwithdifferentshapesandarrangements,hedescribeshisbreakthroughinthisareaininterspersingthemetalandinsulatingmaterial.
Helikensthesetoacapacitor,withmorefoldsorlayersincreasingthecharge(King1992:70–71).
Byusingthesetoconstructplates,boxesorothershapes,hesuggests,itispossibletobuilddevicesthatsharpenrazorblades,clarifyandpurifywater,chargebatteriesandprovidephysicalandspiritualhealing(King1992:72–83).
AswithLong'swritings,theseearlyexperimentsofKing'srevealaconceptofmanaasacosmicenergy,understoodthroughelectricalmetaphorsofcharge,voltageandcapacitance.
King'slaterwritingsreflectagrowingawarenessofthecritiquesofsuchaconceptof'mana'beingsubsumedalongsideothernon-westernconceptsunderthegenericrubricoflifeforce.
Perhapsinfluencedbyemergentanthropologicalcritiquesofearlierconceptionsofmanainethnographicwritings,particularlythatofRogerKeesing(1984),in1992Kingwrote:7OrgonewasatermcoinedbyReich,apsychoanalystengagedinexperimentsinalternativehealingduringthemiddleofthetwentiethcentury,todescribewhathesawasasubstanceofinnatelifeforcewithinthecosmos,andparticularlylivingbeings,whichmovedthroughallthingsandcouldbepassedthroughobjectsandfrompersontopersonforthepurposesofhealing.
29511.
ManaforaNewAgeManybooksthatdealwithesotericenergytendtolistch'i,ki,pranaandmanatogetherasiftheyarethesamething.
Whilethepairsdorhymenicely,itmustbestatedthatmanadoesnotbelonginthelist.
ManaisaPolynesianwordthatbasicallymeansdivineorspiritualpowerandauthorityorinfluence.
Itistheabilitytodirectenergy,ratherthantheenergyitself.
(King1992:12)Kingaccountsforhisearlierwritingsthatequatemanawith'lifeforce',forexampleinhisdiscussionsofmanaplatesandmanaboxes,bystatingthattheywerewrittenatatime'whenIwasstillequatingtheword"mana"tolifeenergyinordertosimplifytheintroductionofHawaiianconceptstothegeneralpublic'(King1999).
Nevertheless,behindthisconceptionofmanaashumancapacity,Kingretainsanotionthatthereisan'energy'thatcanbedirectedinthisway,reflectingthewidespreadinfluenceoftheseideasinwesternesoterictraditions.
ThisremainsthehegemonicunderstandingofmanawithinNewAgespirituality.
ManainneopaganismTheconceptofmanahasenteredintocontemporaryPaganisminNorthAmericaprimarilythroughtheinfluenceofVictorandCoraAnderson'sFeritradition.
Feriwasfoundedinthelate1940sinasimilarperiodtotheemergenceofWiccainBritain.
TheAndersonsclaimedtheirtraditionsrepresentanindependentNorthAmericanwitchcraftpracticepre-datingBritishWicca,aclaimwhichhistorianChasCliftonsuggests,inconclusively,ispossible,althoughitisclearthattheAndersonscorrespondedwithGeraldGardner,thefounderofBritishWicca,andreadhisbooks,incorporatingmanyWiccanelementsintotheirpractice(Clifton2006:130–32).
Nevertheless,FerihasdrawnsomeofitsinspirationfromsourcesapartfromWicca,includingtheincorporationof'Hawaiian'elements.
ManyclaimsaremadeaboutVictorAnderson'sknowledgeofHawaiianbeliefs.
OneWiccanpractitionersuggeststhat'duringhisyouthVictoralsohadmanynativeHawaiianteachersandthroughhistrainingwiththem,hegrewuptobecomeanexpertinancientHawaiianbeliefs,aKahuna'(Knowles2009).
Somewhatmoreplausibly,aFeriinitiateandstudentofCoraAndersonwritesonawebsitededicatedtoFeri:'CoraAndersonmentionedthatVictorhadaHawaiiangirlfriendNewMana296whenhewasinhisearlyteens(towhomoneofthepoemsinThornswasdedicated),andwaspresumablyexposedtoHunaatthattime'(V.
Walkern.
d.
).
WhileitispossiblethatsuchanearlyassociationcouldhavesparkedAnderson'sinterest,itisclearthatVictorAndersondrewhis'Hawaiian'ideasfromLong'swork.
ThisisparticularlyclearinFeri'sthreesoulsmodelofconsciousness,whichmirrorsLong'ssystem,andwassometimestaughtusingthenamesattributedbyLong.
SinceFeriisanorallytransmittedinitiatorytradition,theAndersonsneversystematisedtheirideasinwritings,butrathertransmitteddifferentteachingsatdifferenttimes.
InterviewsIconductedwithFeripractitionersinSanFranciscoin2013thereforedisplaysomewhatdisparateunderstandingsofFericoncepts,includingFeriideasonmana.
Nevertheless,likethethreesoulsmodelofconsciousness,manyofthecharacteristicsseeninLong'swritingsonmanaformconsistentthreadsthroughthedescriptionsoftheseFeriinitiates.
AsinHuna,manainFericanbemovedonthebreathor'ha'.
8OneofthemostfundamentalexercisesinFeriisthe'HaPrayer',designedtodrawinmanatoalignthethreesouls.
Similarly,the'KalaRite'drawsmanaintoabowlofwaterheldbetweenthehandstopurifythewater,whichcanthenbedrunktocleansethesoul.
Cress,anewinitiate,explainedthesecommonplaceexercisesthatshehasbeentaught,throughwhichmanaisdeployed:So,you'rebreathinginthemana[intheHaPrayer]…ItworksbetterformeifIopenmyheartandgo'hhhh'.
BecausethenitcreatesthoseblessingskindofjustrainingdownonmeandtheEarthandeverybodygetsit.
AndI'mbringingitfromeverything,andI'msendingitbacktoeverything,chargedwithwhoIamandwhatI'mdoing.
…Butthere'salsomakingkala,whichisanotherwaytoalign…There'sa…blowingintotheegg,andthenchangingit,blessingit,drinkingit,which…itseemstomethatit'susedforthesameclearingandalignment,butitalsoseemstometobeusedalittledifferentlyinmypractice.
MostlybecausewhenI'mdoingthis,Ihavestufftoletgoof.
There'sacleansingthatneedstohappenbeforeIcanalign.
Soit'smuchmorefocusedonthatthanonbringingitinfrommysurroundings.
(SanFranciscoBayArea,31August2013)8Hā:Tobreathe,exhale;tobreatheupon…breath,life(PukuiandElbert1986:44).
29711.
ManaforaNewAgeWhileCress'sdescriptionoftheKalaRiteismorepersonallyfocused,bothofthesepracticesreflectthefundamentalidea,drawnfromHuna,that'mana',or'lifeforce',canbebreathedinorotherwisedrawnfromitspervasivepresenceinthecosmos,andusedforspiritualeffect.
Intheseinterviews,'mana','lifeforce'and'energy'weregenerallyusedinterchangeablytodescribethefundamentalforceusedtoworkmagic.
Starhawk,aFeriinitiatewholaterbecameafounderandleadingpriestessintheReclaimingcommunity,wroteintheearly1980s:Thisiswhereourlanguagebeginstobreakdown…Evenifweweretospeakofch'iorkiormana,ortheforce…perhapsanyname,anynoun,wouldbealie,becauseenergycannotbeseparated…SoIwillnowspeakinthesemetaphors,asifenergywereathingratherthanmovingrelationships,untilweevolvethenounlesslanguagethatwouldletusspeakmoretruly.
(1988:29)Mana,then,isinterchangeableinStarhawk'swritingsforthecomplexoftermsappropriatedfromarangeofreligiousandspiritualtraditionsworldwide,yetwhichcannotquitecapturethesenseof'movingrelationships'sheseesastheessenceofspiritualactivity.
Nevertheless,shealsowroteoftheseinsubstantiveterms:NomodernEnglishwordquiteconveysthemeaningofenergyinthesenseI'musingit.
TheChinesech'i,theHinduprana,andtheHawaiianmanaareclearertermsfortheideaofanunderlyingvitalenergythatinfuses,creates,andsustainsthephysicalbody;itmovesinouremotions,feelingsandthoughts,andistheunderlyingfabricofallthematerialworld.
(1988:51)Inthisdescription,manasignifiesanalmosttangiblesubstancethatpermeatesthecosmos.
Speakingtomeinaninterview,Starhawkstated:There'stheconceptthatkindofgoesthroughwesternesotericismofenergyanddifferentethericbodiesandastralbodies.
AndIthinkthatissimilartomoretheHunaideaofmana.
Butit'sthisideaofsomekindofsubtleenergythatyou'removingandshaping,andthatmovesthroughtheuniverse.
Andthatritualisaprocessofkindoforchestratingamovementofthatenergytowardanintentionthat'sembodiedusuallyinanimageorsomesensualimagetomakethingshappen.
NewMana298It'slikeafluidinaway,inthatitisarealthing,youknow.
Youfeelit,youcanfeelitaroundsomebody,youcandirectit,youcanshapeit.
(SanFranciscoBayArea,27August2013)Thisattributionofsubstantivequalitiestomanaiscommonplace,echoingLong'sunderstandingofmanaasasubstancewhichflowslikewater.
Feripractitionersdescribearangeofsensoryexperiencesthroughwhichtheydetectthepresenceofmana.
Aurora,whoatthetimeofourinterviewhadbeenstudyingFeriforapproximatelysixyearsundermultipleteachers,explainedhowshesensesmanavisually:WeusuallyseemtodrawBlueFiremana,9soit'slikewetakealensofmana,andwepullonetypeofenergy…we'rejusttakingonesliceofthepie.
…oh,myhealing,whenIdomassage,we'ddoalotoflikebringinginthegoldenlight.
Ithinkthat'sverygoodforhealing…it'sveryprotectiveand—howdoesitfeelIt'slike—IthinkofApollo,itjustfeelsverywarmand—yeahthat'sagoodone,it'sagoodoneforhealing.
And—ororangeis—someofitrelatestochakras—maybeit'sbecauseofmyownexperienceofbeingtrainedinchakraenergies…butIdofeelliketheorangewasmoresexual,andthevioletasbeingmoreetherandspirit.
Whenweweredoingworkinetherandspiritrealms,Ididbreatheinandconnectalotwithvioletandpurple,and—yeah.
Yellow'sverygoldenandtheEastandbright.
Oh,andlimegreen,lightgreen—thecolorofbrightbladesofgrassissuper-fey…thefey,likethelittlepeople.
(SanFranciscoBayArea,29August2013)Amorecommonwayofsensingmanaisthroughfeelingitwithone'sinnerfeelings.
AsThibautdescribeshisexperience:SothewaythatIfeelit,breathisthetooltobringin…AndthenIfeelitinmybelly,likeIfeelmybellyfillingup,andthenitexpandsoutsideofmybelly,likeittakesmorespace,andsoIhavethisexternalmanabelly,ifyouwish,it'skindofthishugething.
AndthenIfeelmovement.
9InFeriTradition,manausedforritualsandspellcastingiswidelyimagedasblue,aconceptionthatpre-datestheimagingofmanaasblueorblue-greeningamingcontexts(seeGolubandPeterson,thisvolume).
Itisunclearthatthereisanydirectrelationshipbehindthissamechoiceofcoloursbetweenthesetwosettings,butnotablethatanattributionofcolourtomana,withitsimplicationsfortheconceptionofmanaasafluidsubstance,isconsistentbetweenthem.
29911.
ManaforaNewAge…Soit'sveryphysicalfeelingoflikeenergymoving.
It'slike,youknowwhenyoubreathein,andyoupushyourbreathintoalimb,there'sthatfeelingofsomethingmoving,it'skindof—that'sthewaytodescribeit.
Anditcanpoolatextremities.
LikeIcanfeelitpoolhere[inhishands].
OrIcangatheritinballs,andthenIfeeltheseballsatmyextremities,anduseit.
Yeah,likehere[hisgut],orinmyhands.
LikewhenIdothekala,Istoretheenergyinmyhands,goingintothewater,likeit'svery—somepeoplesayit's'heat',somepeoplesayit's'pressure'.
(SanFranciscoBayArea,29August2013)Manathencanbefeltwithinnerfeelings,orseenwithaninnereye,orindeed(thoughmorerarely)detectedwithacracklingintheearorasmellintheair.
Inthisway,manaissomethingborderingontangibleandphysicallysubstantive,discernablethroughanarrayofsupersensorymodalities.
ManyoftheexplanationsgivenofmanainFeriareexpressedthroughsimilarmetaphorsofelectricitywhichLongusedinhiswork.
Gwydiontoldthestoryofthefirsttimehehadseenwhathecalleda'physicalmanifestation'ofworkingwithmana,beyondhisowninternalperceptionoffeelingit'energetically'.
Asayoungpractitioner,atarestaurantinBerkeley,hismentorwasexplainingtohimtheprocessofchargingwaterintheKalaRite:IthinkIsaidsomethinglike,'Doesthatwork'Youknow,somenavequestion.
Andshe'slike,'Wellyeah,watchthis!
'Andshechargedtheglassofwaterandthenjuststeppedbackandshewaslike,'watch'.
Andthewaitercameoverandpickeduptheglasstogoandrefillitandgotashock.
Andsetitbackdown.
(SanFranciscoBayArea,25August2013)Likewise,StarhawkgavethefollowingdescriptionofherteachingpracticeinReclaiming,whenIaskedheraboutwhethershesawmanaaspotentiallydangerous:CertainlyinReclaiming,whatwetrytodoisencouragepeopletobegrounded,andstaygrounded.
Soit'swhenyou'regrounded,it'slikeyouhavealightningrod.
Soifthere'stoomuchenergyfloatingaround,thenitgoesintotheearth,anditsortofpassesthroughyou.
(SanFranciscoBayArea,27August2013)NewMana300AswithLong'swork,thesemetaphorsofelectricityspeaktoideasofthepowerorforceseentoliebehindparticularmagicalorritualacts.
AsAuroraexplained,thispowerisrelatedtotheamountofmanaaccessed:Partofbeingabletochargeyourintentionsorchargeyourspells,orbeproactiveishowmuchoomphyouhavebehindit.
Ifyou'reraisingaconeofpower,10yourjuju,11it'sveryrelatedtoit.
Imeanpartofitisthestructureofhowyou'recastingthespell,orputtingyourintention,sayingorwritingthecorrectthingthat'sactuallywhatyoumeantosayisreallyimportant…Andthestructureofthatritualorspell,soit'showyoucontainthevessel.
Butyoustillneedthebattery.
Thebatteryisveryimportant.
Andyoucanuseotherbatteries…likeacandleorcreateaservitor12todotheworkforyou,likethere'sotherwaystocreatebatteries.
Butifyou'retheonechargingthespell,youknow,absolutely…themoreenergyyouhave,themorepoweryouhavetodothethingsyouwanttodo.
(SanFranciscoBayArea,29August2013)Inmanyoftheseinterviews,respondentsswitchedfreelybetween'mana'andtermstheyseeasrelated,particularly'energy'and'lifeforce'.
ManahasthuscometobeassociatedintheseNewAgeandcontemporaryPagansystemsofthoughtwithaconceptthatholdsaverycentralplaceinwesternesoterictraditions:asubstantivevitalessencethatinfusesthewholecosmosandservesasthesourceofpowerinprayerorritual.
SinceMesmer'sworkfromthelateeighteenthcentury,andemergingasaspiritualistconceptinparallelwiththescienceofelectromagnetism,themetaphors,imageryandideasofelectricityandmagnetismhavebecomecentralmeansforexplainingandapprehendingthisvitalessence.
Thelanguageofelectricforces,voltages,groundingandbatterieshasthusbecomefamiliarforthoseseekingtoexplaintheworkingsoftheirmagic.
Astheconceptofmanahasbeendrawnintothistheoreticalschema,ittoohascometobeunderstoodthroughsimilarmetaphorsofsubstance,flowandelectromagneticpower.
10Aconeofpowerisanenergeticfieldseenasbeingraisedattheheartofritualsandspellsanddirectedtowardsaparticular,focusedpurpose.
11JujuisusedinformallyamongPaganstodescribetheirmagicaldriveorvitality.
12Aservitorisanenergyformcreatedtocarryoutaparticulartask.
30111.
ManaforaNewAgeAsinHuna,manainFericanbedirectedtowardtheself,usedforhealing,'alignment'orotherspellwork.
Thibautdescribedhowhedirectsthemanahefeelswithinhimself,inaversionofthesoulalignmentexercise:SoIputitinmyFetch[theanimalself],andthenImoveitsoIfeelthisconduitbeingcreated.
AndthenwhenIpushittoaligntheGoddess-self,itkindofthere'sthisrushofenergygoingthrough,thatgoesupandthenfeedstheGod-self,theHolydemon,theGoddess-self,andthatfallsdown,andIfeelitfallingdown.
(SanFranciscoBayArea,29August2013)Butbecauseitisunderstoodaspermeatingeverycornerofthecosmos,forFeripractitioners,manacanalsobeusedtoconnectwithone'ssurroundingsandinfuseitwithblessings.
Usingasimilarnotionofcreatingaconduitthroughwhichmanacanmove,CressdescribedthisprocessoffeedingmanabackintothesurroundingsataFericampsheattended:Weweredoingacone[ofpower],andwewerefeedingthespirits,andfeedingthelandwithit,andwewerealsocollectingitupandsendingitbackupagain,andmakinganothercone.
Anditseemsthattheenergyandtheblessingsthatcomefromthat—thatconnectionbetweenspiritandland.
(SanFranciscoBayArea,31August2013)Suchprocessesexpressasenseofinterconnectionwiththecosmos,and,moreimmediately,withthelandoftheimmediateenvironmentanditsattendantspirits.
ThusmanainFeriisseenasarelationalphenomenon.
Yet,insharpcontrasttothemanaofHawai'iandmanyotherregionsofOceania,therelationshipsmanaencapsulatesinFeri(orinHuna)arerarelylocatedatasociallevel.
AtellingcontrastcanbefoundinthewritingsofWendeElizabethMarshallinPotentMana,wheresheexploresthecentralityofHawaiianideasofhealingforaKanakaMaolipopulationsufferingfrompoverty,illnessandtheeffectsofcolonisationanddispossession:Thehealingpracticesandepistemologiesoflate-twentieth-centuryNativeHawaiiansinvigoratedandappliedmethodsandwaysofunderstandingillnessfromtheancestralpast…Byexpandingthemeaningofhealthtoincludetheimpactofpolitics,economics,andcultureonthebodiesofthecolonized,healthandpoliticalpowerweredecisivelylinked.
(2011:7)NewMana302Marshallthensituatesthereclaimingofmanatakingplacethroughthishealingworkaspartofthebroadersovereigntymovementaimedatdecolonisation:'ReclaimingmanaasontologyiscrucialfordecolonizationandisanexigencyforthesurvivalofindigenousHawaiians'(2011:6).
VerydifferentfromthatofNewAgeandPaganconceptions,themanaofKanakaMaolihealingevokesacollectivepowermobilisedforthepurposesoftransformingawholecommunity.
WhilemanyNewAgeandPaganpractitionersareconcernedaboutthealienatingeffectsofoppressivesocialstructures,rarelywouldonefindthemanaofhealingspokenaboutinsuchexpresslysocialterms.
ConcludingremarksLisaKahaleoleHall,inascathingcritiqueofappropriationofKanakaMaolitraditionbynon-Hawaiians,writes:'Hawaiiansatheart'arejoinedby'Hawaiiansofthespirit'intheNewAgespiritualindustry'smarketingof'huna'practices…Theyareaneclecticbunch,however;Huna.
comnotes,'WealsoofferTraininginNeuro-LinguisticProgramming,Hypnosis,TimeLineTherapy,TheSecretofCreatingYourFuture,&AncientHawaiianHuna.
'Theproblemwiththis,ofcourse,isthatitbearsabsolutelynoresemblancetoanyHawaiianworldvieworspiritualpractice.
SomeoftheseHunapractitioners,includingtheextremelypopularSerge'Kahili'King,claimalineagethatcomesfrom'StarmenfromthePleiades',whichwouldbefineiftheywouldjustleaveHawaiiansoutofit…Thedisrespect,exploitation,andculturaldistortionandappropriationofHawaiiancultureandidentitywouldbehardenoughtodealwithinthebestoftimes—butthesearenotthebestoftimesforHawaiians.
(Hall2005:411–12)TheideaofHunaasaHawaiiantraditionhasasignificantimpactonKanakaMaoliandtheirunderstandingsofHawaiiantradition,asthefoundersofthewebsiteandFacebookpage'HunaisnotHawaiian'suggest.
Inaninterviewexplainingwhytheystartedthisproject,KeleaLevydescribedattendingaclassatcollegeinwhichshewasshownavideotheyweretoldrepresentedHawaiiantraditionalhealingpractices:Rightaway,whenIsawinthatvideoinclasswhattheladywasdoing,somethingdidn'tseemright.
IgotreallyturnedoffwhenIhadtoturninapaperonthevideoandIsaidthatHunawasnotHawaiian30311.
ManaforaNewAgeandfromthismadetheanalysisthatmaybenothinginthevideowasrealandcouldbeusedasabasisfordeterminingauniversalwayofdiagnosingandtreatingdiseaseintheworld—andIwasgradeddownforthis.
(Levy,Ka'upenamana,ChaiandAuvil2012)MakanaRisserChai,acontributortothewebsite,statesasoneofthemainreasonsforherinvolvement:'Iwishthatpeople,especiallyHawaiians,wouldrealizetheHuna[sic]isinsidiouslydestroyingHawaiianculture.
TherearesomanyHawaiianstodaywhoareusingHunawordsand/orconcepts,thinkingtheyareHawaiian'(Levy,Ka'upenamana,ChaiandAuvil2012).
Hallusestheterm'PlasticShamans'todescribepractitionersofHuna,adoptingLisaAldred's(2000)termcritiquingwidespreadappropriationofAmericanIndianculturebyNewAgemovements.
Itiscertainlytruethatappropriationofindigenousspiritual,religiousandtraditionalconceptsisrife,andoftenuncritical,inNewAgeandcontemporaryPagancontexts.
Thereareexceptionstotherule.
Duringmyinterviews,Cressstatedthatmostofherteachersusedtheterm'life-force'ratherthan'mana'.
Insomecasesatleast,thisavoidancemaybeadeliberaterecognitionofproblemsofappropriation,arecognitionIhaveheardexpressedbyasmallminorityofpractitionersinothercontexts.
WithregardtotheideasofHunainFeritradition,Cresswentontoreflect:I'venoideahowthatrelatestowhatthePacificIslandersdo.
Iknowthat—youknow,Iknowthat—what'shisname–Anderson,Victor,studiedthesomebodyinHawaii…otherpeoplecanclearlydelineate,andIdon'tknowwhetherhestoleabunchofstuff,whetherhereadabunchofstuffandputitinhispractice,Idon'tknow.
(SanFranciscoBayArea,29August2013)TheconceptofmanainFeriisnowatmanystepsremovedfromLong'sappropriationofHawaiian-languageterms,withmostpractitionersunawareofthisgenealogy.
Thustheconceptofmana,andrelatedideas,hascometotakeonanewformwithinthesewesternesoterictraditions,notcompletelydisconnectedfrom,butcertainlygenerallyapartfrom,howtheirmeaningstakeshapeandtransforminOceania.
ManyNewAgeandcontemporaryPaganpractitionershaveaverydeepblindspotaroundissuesofappropriation,andcontinuetousetermssuchasmanaunawareofthepotentialimpactthismisappropriationhasonthosefromwhomtheideaswereoriginallyadopted.
ItisalsoNewMana304thecasethatsomenon-Nativepractitionersaremakingsubstantialmoneyfromtheperpetuationoftheseideasas'nativewisdom'.
Nevertheless,Iwouldsuggestthattheterm'plasticshaman'—implyinginauthenticity,pretenceandcommercialisation—doesnotcapturewellthefullspectrumofthoseengagingwiththeideasandpracticesexploredhere.
ManyNewAgeandPaganpractitionersarealsooftenveryseriousintheirspiritualpractices,dedicatingagreatdealofthought,timeandexperiencetotheirtraditions.
Itmaywellbehopedthatamuchgreaterlevelofcriticalawarenessandcautionbeseenintheadoptionoflanguage,conceptsandpracticeswithinthesemovements,butinmyresearch,Iwouldsuggestthatthosewhoadoptconceptsofmanaaredeeplycommittedandgenuineintheirpursuitofspiritualpractices.
Theyarenot'fakes'.
Theconceptof'mana',forbetterorworse,hasthusbeentransformedthroughitsadoptionintoNewAgeandcontemporaryPaganspiritualtraditions.
Oneofthekeyideasinthistransformationisthatofmanaasaforceofthecosmos,likenedtoelectricalandmagneticforcesandflows.
Suchanidea,asRogerKeesingpointedoutinhis1984paper'Rethinking"Mana"',hasalsobeencentraltointerpretationsofmanaastheyhaveappearedinethnographicliteraturesincethefoundationalwritingsoftheReverendRobertHenryCodrington.
KeesingsuggeststhatCodringtonwasinfluencedinhisconceptionofmanabywesternmetaphors,inparticularbythescienceofthenineteenthcentury(compareKolshus,thisvolume).
Hestatesthat'manaasinvisiblemediumofpowerwasaninventionofEuropeans,drawingontheirownfolkmetaphorsofpowerandthetheoriesofnineteenth-centuryphysics'(Keesing1984:148),elaboratingthat:Becauseofthewaywemetaphoricallysubstantivize'power',thetermwasadoptedtolabelquantifiableelectricalenergyasamediumwhoseflowcouldbechanneledthroughcablesanddirectedtohumanends.
Thisphysicalistconceptionofelectricalenergyaspower…hasaffectedcharacterizationsofmana.
(Keesing1984:150)Suchphysicalistmetaphorshavealsohadapowerfulbearingonwesternesotericism,informingideasaboutcosmic'energy'and'lifeforce'thattookshapethroughthespiritualtraditionsofthenineteenthcentury.
ThisinturnseemstohaveaffectedLong'sinterpretationof'mana',echoedinthemetaphorsofmanaas'voltage'and'power'andtheideathatmana'flows'and'charges'objects,canbestoredandchannelled.
AsLongwrote:30511.
ManaforaNewAgeInthebulkyliteraturewhichhasgrownuparoundpsychicphenomenaandspiritualismduringthecenturyjustpast,scatteredpostulationsaretobefoundcoveringthepossiblepartmagnetismmayhaveintheactionofmotricityonobjects.
Thisisamostexcitingandpromisinglineofthoughtand,becauseoftheunexploredterritorywhichitstillsurrounds,itisrecommendedtothereaderasafineplacetobeginworkingwithaviewtohelpingtoforwardthegeneralinvestigationofmagic.
(Long1954:31)InNewAgeconceptions,thisideaofmanaasaforceorflowgoeshandinhandwithitsperceivedroleinspiritualhealingandindividualtransformation.
Whatisnotablyabsentinthisconceptionismuchemphasisonmanaasacollectiveattribute,orontheroleofothersinattributingmanatothoseseenasmosteffectiveorpowerful.
IntheNewAgeandPagancontexts,manaisaspiritualsubstancethatexistsindependentlyofhumanactivity,andcantherebybeaccessedbyindividualsfortheirownhealing,influenceorspiritualwork.
Ithassubstantivequalitiesthatcanbesensedthroughtouch,breath,colour,andinmanyotherways,andcanbeusedtoenhancepersonalpower.
Butitsrelationshiptothesocialworldisatoneremove;itisnotsomuchpartofasocialsystem,asakeycomponentofacosmicsystemtowhichallpeoplepotentiallyhaveaccessasindividuals,regardlessoftheirsocialcontext.
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ThistextistakenfromNewMana:TransformationsofaClassicConceptinPacificLanguagesandCultures,editedbyMattTomlinsonandTyP.
KāwikaTengan,published2016byANUPress,TheAustralianNationalUniversity,Canberra,Australia.
WhilecontinentalNativeAmericanandAsianinfluencesareperhapsmostfamiliarassourcinggroundsforNewAgematerial,thetraditionsofPacificIslanders,particularlyHawaiians,havenotescapedNewAgeattention.
Inparticular,themovementknownas'Huna'hasintroducedHawaiian-soundingwordsandconceptstotheNewAgevocabulary.
Chiefamongtheseistheconceptof'mana',controversiallysubsumedwithinwhatisoftenalargelaundrylistofnon-westernreligiousandphilosophicalnomenclature,underthegenericcategoryof'energy'or'lifeforce'.
ContinuallyadaptedthroughsucceedinggenerationsofHunateachings,andfurtheradoptedintosectionsoftherelatedcontemporaryPaganmovementthroughthetraditionknownas'Feri',theconceptof'mana'displayssomeconsistentthemesacrossthesetraditions,quitedifferentfromitsmeaninginHawaiiancontexts.
Inbeingadoptedintothesemovements,ithasbeentransformedtofitwithinafieldofideasthathavedevelopedinwesternesoterictraditionsfromatleastthelateeighteenthcentury.
Inthischapter,ItracesomeoftheideasthathavecometobeattachedtotheconceptofmanathroughseveraliterationsofNewAgemovementsinNorthAmerica.
BeginningwiththefoundationalNewMana286worksofMaxFreedomLong,IlookatthespiritualpracticeknownasHuna,popularisedfromthelate1930sthroughaseriesofLong'stextsandhisHunaResearchorganisation.
IthengoontoexaminehowtheseideashavebeendevelopedintheworksofoneofHuna'smostinfluentialcontemporaryteachers,Serge'Kahili'King,whonotonlysubstantiallyexpandedtheconceptualvocabularyconnectedwiththenotionofmanainHuna,butwhosespiritualandhealingmethodshavebeen're'-introducedintoHawai'ithroughsitessuchastheKalaniRetreatCenter,locatedontheislandofHawai'i.
Finally,IexplorehowmanahasbeenadoptedintothecontemporaryPaganmovementthroughthetraditionknownasAndersonFeri.
Feritradition,createdbyVictorandCoraAndersoninCaliforniaduringthemiddledecadesofthetwentiethcentury,drewonideasdrawnfromHunaincludingtheconceptofmanaasithadbeenwrittenaboutbyLong.
Asanorallytransmittedtradition,Fericonceptsandpracticesarepotentiallysubjecttomanysometimescontradictoryinterpretationsamongthosefromdifferentlineages,taughtbydifferentteachers,orbythesameteachersatdifferenttimes,suggestingthatthereislikelytobenosingle,unifiedunderstandingofmanawithinFeri.
MyresearchherefocusesoninterviewswithagroupofFeripractitionersinSanFranciscowhoalsohavetiestothecloselyrelatedReclaimingmovement,withwhomIhavealong-standingresearchrelationship.
WhiletheirideasmaybeidiosyncraticinsomerespectscomparedwithotherFerilineages,certainthreadscanneverthelessbeidentifiedinhowmanaisunderstoodandspokenaboutthatareconsistentwithHunaideas,pointingtoawidespreadadoptionofparticularconceptionsofmanaacrossNewAgeandcontemporaryPaganmovements.
Here,Itracetheseideasbacktocosmologicalconceptionsthathavealonggenealogywithinwesternesoterictraditions,particularlysincetheworkofFranzMesmerinthelateeighteenthcenturyandthatoftheTheosophicalSocietyestablishedinthelaterdecadesofthenineteenthcentury.
MaxFreedomLongandHuna'Mana'enteredtheNewAgemovementprimarilythroughthespiritualpracticeknownasHuna,theinventionofwhiteAmericanteacherandwriterMaxFreedomLong.
LongclaimedtohavemetwiththeCurator28711.
ManaforaNewAge(laterDirector)oftheBishopMuseuminHonolulu,WilliamBrigham,suggestingBrighamwasthemainsourceofhisinsightsonHawaiiantradition.
LongworkedasateacherontheislandofHawai'ifrom1917to1920.
AccordingtothehistoricalworkofMakanaRisserChai,whohasexaminedtheevidenceofLong'stimeinHonolulu,assessinghisclaimsforthe'Hawaiian'rootsofhissystemofHuna,hearrivedinHonolulusometimeinlate1920orearly1921,makingabarelivingworkinginaphotographicshop(Chai2011:104).
Fromhisearliesttimethere,hespenthissparetimetryingtotalktoasmanypeopleashecould,learningwhathecouldofHawaiianlife.
ChaiquotesapersonalcorrespondencewithauthorandformerresearcherattheBishopMuseum,PaliJaeLee,whosuggests,'Everymomenthecouldgetawayfromworkandtrytofindsomethingoutfromsomeone,hedidso'(quotedinChai2011:115).
Intheprocess,hetriedtofindakahunawhowouldsharesecretswithhim,tonoavail.
1AfterreturningtothemainlandUnitedStatesfrom1939to1941,LongwroteanumberofmysterynovelssetinHawai'i,drawingfromhisexperiencesandhisrichimagination.
Butfromthemid-1930s,healsowroteaseriesofbooksonHunaclaimingknowledgeof'ancientHawaiiansecrets'.
PaliJaeLee,inresearchconductedinthe1970s,carefullytracedBrigham'spersonaljournalsovertheperiodofLong'sresidenceinHonolulu.
Asshedemonstrates,fromthemanwhokeptadetailedaccount'eventothelistsandreceiptsofgrocerieshepurchased,thelaundryhesentoutandreceivedback',thereisnonoteofBrighameverhavingmetwithorspokentoLong(Lee2007:92).
AsChaisuggests,basedonBrigham'scharacterandhisconsciousnessofhissuperiorclass,itishighlyunlikelyhewouldeverhavedeignedtomeetwithLong,andlesssothathewouldhavetakeninLongasastudent(Chai2011:105).
NorarethestoriesLongsharesinhisworks,whichheclaimedtohavesourcedfromBrigham,reflectedinBrigham'swritings(Chai2011:106–108).
Interestingly,ChaisuggeststhatitispossibleLongmayhaveneverthelesshadsomelegitimatesourcesforhiswritingsonHawai'i.
Inparticular,shepointstotheroleofLahilahiWebb,aHawaiianwomanfromachieflyfamily,whohadparticipatedinthecoronation1ThisishardlysurprisinggivenLong'sbrieftimeinHawai'iandstatusasanoutsider,and,asLeepointsout,evenlesssoconsideringtheclimateoffear,suspicionandlegalprohibitionsagainstuseoftheHawaiianlanguageandcultureamongKanakaMaoliatthistime(Lee2007:90).
NewMana288ofKalakauaandservedaslady-in-waitingandnursetoQueenLili'uokalani.
DuringtheperiodofLong'sstayinHonolulu,WebbworkedasaguideintheBishopMuseum,andmetLongduringhisvisitsthere.
Webbwassorespectedduringhertimeatthemuseumthatshebecametheinformantofmanyofitsresidentscholars.
WebbwasasourceofmuchinformationonHawaiiantraditions,includingonhealing,traditionalwisdomandkahuna.
However,accordingtomuseumworkersinterviewedbyPaliJaeLee,shewasalsoinclinedto'tellthehaolelotsoffoolishness'(Chai2011:116).
ChaisuggeststhatitispossiblethatWebbwasthesourceofmanyofthestoriesLongattributedtoBrigham,whichshedescribesas'relativelyaccuratedescriptionsofHawaiiantraditions'albeitcontainingsomeerrors,possiblyasaresultof'littlejokes[Webb]playedonhim'(Chai2011:116).
DespitethesesometimesaccuratedepictionsdottingLong'swork,LongleftHawai'iwithlittlemoreinsourcematerialforhisHunasystemthanthesefewstoriesandthe'oldHawaiiandictionary'ofLorrinAndrews,whichheporedoverintentlytogleanfromitwhathecould(Long1981:38;seealsoLee2007:92,foracritiqueofLong'sdictionarymethodoflearningaboutHawaiianconcepts).
ThemostsympatheticHawaiianaccount,fromscholarandLivingTreasureofHawai'iCharlesKenn,highlightsthelimitationsofagenuinelyHawaiianinfluenceinLong'swork.
Kennwasafriendandlong-timecorrespondentofLong,whospentsometimeasoneofhisHunaResearchAssociates(HRA)inLosAngelesinthelate1940s.
In1949,havingreturnedtoHawai'i,hewroteinalettertoamemberoftheHRAthat,'IhavenodoubtaboutLong'ssincerity,buthemayhaveintroducedsomenon-hunafactorsonaccountofhiswhite-man'smind'(Chai2011:109).
Tenyearslater,hewrotetohisfriend,authorandscholarLeinaniMelvilleJones,that'MaxLongwas"auana"[tostraymorallyormentally].
Itoocannotswallowhis"huna"stuff,andItoldhimso…Maxmeanswellbut,beingahaole…isunabletocomprehendtheinnermeaningofthekahunaphilosophy'(quotedinRodman1979:131).
FarfrombeingabletolearnofHawaiianspiritualtraditions,whichitseemsheoriginallyhopedtodo,intheendtheHunamethodthatLongdevelopedwasawesternesotericsystemdressedupwithafewHawaiiantermsandsomescatteredstoriesandimagery.
Hedrewhiscoreideasalmostwholesalefromthetraditionsof28911.
ManaforaNewAgeearlytwentieth-centuryspiritualism,andinparticularthoseoftheTheosophicalSociety,withwhomhehadtrainedpriortohistimeinHawai'i(Long1981:1).
OtherwesternphilosophiesthatpervadedtheintellectuallandscapeoftheearlytwentiethcenturycanalsobetracedinLong'swritings.
Inparticular,Longintroducedaconceptof'threeselves',whichheclaimedaspartofkahunalore,butwhichinsteaddrewclearinfluencesfromFreudianpsychology:The'unihipili'(akintoFreud'sid),whichhedescribesasthe'loworanimalspiritinus'which'hasinferiorpowersofreason'The'uhane'or'consciousmindspirit'(akintoFreud'sego),which'cannotrememberforitselfbutcanusethefullpowerofinductivereasoning'The'aumakua'(akintoFreud'ssuperego),whichhedescribesasthe'superconscious'or'parentalspirit',the'oldestandmosthighlyevolvedofmen'sthreespiritselves'(Long1954:47).
2InTheKeytoTheosophy,HelenaBlavatskyhadwrittenin1889thattheconsciousnessiscomprisedoffourcomponents:theLowerorPersonalEgo,including'animalinstincts,passions,desires,etc.
';theInnerEgoor'permanentIndividuality';theSpiritualSoul;andtheHigherSelfor'inseparablerayoftheUniversal'(Blavatsky2006:99).
InLong'smodel,Blavatsky'slattertwoselvesweremergedintothe'aumakua'or'superconscious',whichtakesonamoreFreudianflavourinhissomewhatsuperciliousnotionofa'parentalspirit'.
ThusLongadaptedtheseTheosophicalnotionsintoatripartitemodeloftheself(remouldingtheminawaythatmorecloselyresemblesSigmundFreud'sframework);helenteachaspectaHawaiianname,butretainedanessentiallyTheosophicalunderpinning.
32MaryPukuiKawenaandSamuelH.
Elbert'sHawaiiandictionarygivethefollowingtranslationoftheseterms:'unihi.
pili:Spiritofadeadperson,sometimesbelievedpresentinbonesorhairofthedeceasedandkeptlovingly(PukuiandElbert1986:372)'uhane:Soul,spirit,ghost(363)'au.
makua:Familyorpersonalgods,deifiedancestorswhomightassumetheshapeofsharks…owls…hawks…[otherformslisted](32).
3Indeed,Freud'sideasthemselveswereheavilyinfluencedbythefermentofspiritualisminthelatenineteenthcentury,andbythepracticesofMesmerism,whichservedasaprecursortobothTheosophyandpsychoanalytictheory(Crews1996).
NewMana290TheconceptofmanainHunaTheconceptofmanaaselaboratedbyLonglikewisehasitsrootsinTheosophy.
BlavatskyhadearlieridentifiedthewordPranawiththenotionof'lifeorvitalprinciple':'"Prana,"or"Life,"is,strictlyspeaking,theradiatingforceorEnergyofAtma[theUniversalLife]—ITSlowerorrather(initseffects)morephysical,becausemanifesting,aspect.
PranaorLifepermeatesthewholebeingoftheobjectiveUniverse'(Blavatsky2006:99).
Openingadiscussiononmana,Longwrites:Inthepsycho-religions,bothancientandmodern(withtheexceptionofHuna)thereislittletobefoundthatgivesusaclearideaofthePOWERthatturnsthewheelsoflifeorthatmovesthemachineryofprayer…InthebeliefsofIndia,muchissaidofprana(whichmayhavebeenanideadrawnfromasourcesimilartothatfromwhichHunawasdrawn).
PranawasheldupasatoolofvalueintheearlyTheosophicalwritings…Theshiningexampleofaforceofthiskindwasfoundinthelegendary'serpentforce'supposedlyrisingatthebaseofthespineinresponsetocertainexercises…andrisinginspiralsalongthespineuntilthetopoftheheadwasreached.
Theretheforcecausedthe'openconsciousness'andone'sawGod'…Ispentseveralmonthstryingtogetproofofthesemechanismswhenyoungandamemberofthe[TheosophicalSociety].
Ialsotriedforsomeyearstofindanypersonwhogaveevidenceofhavinglearnedtoarouseandusethisforce,butwithoutsuccess.
(Long1981:1)Itisthis'vitalforce'oressenceoflifethatLongidentifiesasmanainhiswritings.
Imagesofflowingwaterareoftenusedtoexpresshisunderstandingofmana.
InoneofLong'smostinfluentialworks,TheSecretScienceBehindMiracles,hestates:They[kahunas]knewtheforceasathingwhichhadtodowithallthoughtprocessesandbodilyactivity.
Itwastheessenceoflifeitself.
Thekahunasymbolforthisforcewaswater.
Waterflows,sodoesthevitalforce.
Waterfillsthings.
Sodoesthevitalforce.
Watermayleakaway—somayvitalforce.
(Long1954:31)29111.
ManaforaNewAgeInthiscontext,then,manaissomethingthatexistswithinthenaturalworld,independentofthehumanactivitythatmightdirectitorexpressit.
Ithasapseudo-substantivequality,withthecapacitytoflow,filluporleakaway.
Aswiththespiritualisttraditionsofthenineteenthcentury,this'flow'isalsooftendescribedinmetaphorsofelectricityandmagnetism:Wesupposethatgravityisakintomagnetism,andthatmagnetismistobefoundwherethereisacurrentofanelectricalnature…Thekahunasrecognisedthemagneticandtheopposite,repulsive,natureofvitalforceormotricitybut,unfortunately,theyleftnodetailedexpositionofthesubject.
(Long1954:31)Developingthiselectromagneticimageryfurther,Longsuggeststhatmanahasthreelevelsor'voltages',whichconnectwithandoperatethroughthethreeselves:Thevitalforceormanaofthekahunashasthreestrengths.
Ifitiselectricalinnature,asmodernexperimentshavedemonstrated,wemaysafelysaythatthethreestrengthsofmanaknowntothekahunasequalthreevoltages.
Thekahunawordsforthethreevoltagesweremana,forthelowvoltageusedbythesubconsciousspirit,andmana-manaforthehighervoltageusedbytheconsciousspiritas'will'orhypnoticforce.
Therewasastillhighervoltageknownasmana-loa4or'strongestforce,'andthiswasthoughttobeusedonlybyasuperconsciousspiritassociatedwiththetwolesserspiritstocompletethetriuneman.
(Long1954:52)Thepopularityofelectromagneticimageryinspiritualtraditionsreflectsanineteenthcenturycross-fertilisationoflanguagebetweentheemergingsciencesofelectromagnetismandspiritualistideas,whichtracebackatleasttoFranzMesmer'snotionsof'animalmagnetism':whathethoughtofasauniversal,permeatingmagneticfluid.
Bythetwentiethcentury,manylikeLongwithinterestsintheesotericviewedthemselvesasengagedinexperimentsaimedatestablishingthescientificbasisfortheirideasaboutsuchauniversal,potentsubstance,nowoftenreferredtoas'vitalforce',anddescribedtheseideasinlanguageborrowedheavilyfromthesesciences.
4PukuiandElbertincludemana.
manaasareduplicatedformofmana;noformofmanaloaisrecognisedamongtheirtranslations;loatranslatesas:distance,length,height;distant,long,tall,far,permanent(PukuiandElbert1986:236,209).
NewMana292Despiteitsqualityasauniversalsubstance,theimplicationsofrecognisingthissubstanceinNewAgemovementscentrelargelyaroundtheperson,andinparticulartheindividual,whoisabletoengagewiththisforcetotransformher-orhimself.
AgreatdealofLong'swritingsarededicatedtowhathedescribesasprocessesof'accumulatingagoodsurchargeofmanaandsendingittotheHighSelf'forhealing,personalgoalsorotherpurposes(Long1981:38).
Thepsychoanalyticallyorientedthree-partselfpointstoHuna'sfocusasaspiritualityofself-transformation,afactthathighlightsoneofthemostimportantpointsofdepartureinhowmanahascometobeunderstoodwithinNewAgemovements:thatitisprimarilyaboutindividualtransformation,asourceofpowerfromwithin.
BuildingonthebaseofLong'swritings,manyauthorsfromthecontinentalUnitedStateshaveexpandeduponthetraditionofHunaandcoreconceptssuchasmana.
ChiefamongthesecontemporaryproponentsofHunaisSerge'Kahili'King,aprolificwriterandteacherofHunainNewAgeworkshops,includinginHawai'i.
KingisAnglo-AmericanandaformerstudentofLong's,whoclaimstohavebeenadoptedintotheHawaiianKahilifamilybyhisHawaiianteacher(King1992),althoughthishasbeendisputed(K.
L.
Walker2005).
HedescribesHunaas'thePolynesianphilosophyandpracticeofeffectiveliving'(Kingn.
d.
),demonstratingthewayinwhichtheideasofHunafitwiththebroaderNewAgemovementinfocusingfirstandforemostonself-improvementoftheindividual.
Thisindividualisationisclearinthe'sevenprinciples'ofHunaidentifiedbyKing,andwidelylistedamongauthorsofHunabooksandwebsites.
Theseare:1.
IKE–theworldiswhatyouthinkitis2.
KALA–therearenolimits,everythingispossible3.
MAKIA–energyflowswhereattentiongoes4.
MANAWA–nowisthemomentofpower5.
ALOHA–toloveistobehappywith29311.
ManaforaNewAge6.
MANA–allpowercomesfromwithin7.
PONO–effectivenessisthemeasureoftruth(King2009:53–57).
5Bythetwenty-firstcentury,theseprincipleswerebeingreproducedinimagespostedontheFacebookpageoftheKalaniRetreatCenter,whichclaimstobe'thelargestretreatcenterinHawai'i'(Kalani2010).
Intheposterforthesixthprinciple,'Mana:Allpowercomesfromwithin',thewordsaresuperimposeduponanimageofawomanholdingayogaposeonacliffoverlookingtheocean.
Kalaniisawell-loveddestinationforyoga,wellness,andHawaiianculture,personalretreats,andvolunteervacations.
In2011,thecentreranaHunaworkshop,whichwaspromotedasfollows:AccordingtotheancientHawaiianHunaphilosophy,allillnessisaresultofstress.
Modernmedicalresearchcontinuestoprovethisrelationship—linkingstresstoeverythingfromhighbloodpressuretoweightgain.
Ifyouknowhowtorelievetension,thebody'shealingenergycanflowandyoucanachieve'instanthealing.
'Thisworkshoprevealsancientsecretstomanagingstressaswellasthelatestinformationonachievingoptimalhealth.
(Kalani2011)65PukuiandElbertgivethefollowingtranslationsfortheseterms:'ike:Tosee,know,feel,greet,recognize,perceive,experience,beaware,understand;toknowsexually;toreceiverevelationsfromthegods;knowledge,awareness,understanding,recognition,comprehensionandhencelearning;sense,asofhearingorsight;sensory,perceptive,vision.
(PukuiandElbert1986:96)kala:Toloosen,untie,free,release,remove,unburden,absolve,letgo,acquit,takeoff,undo;toproclaim,announce;toforgive,pardon,excuse;…prayertofreeonefromanyevilinfluence(120)mā.
kia:Aim,motto,purpose;toaimorstrivefor,toconcentrateon(229)manawa:Time,turn,season,date,chronology,periodoftime(237)aloha:Aloha,love,affection,compassion,mercy,sympathy,pity,kindness,sentiment,grace,charity…(21)mana:Supernaturalordivinepower,mana,miraculouspower;apowerfulnation,authority;togivemanato,tomakepowerful;tohavemana,power,authority;authorization,privilege;miraculous,divinelypowerful,spiritual;possessedofmana(235)pono:Goodness,uprightness,morality,moralqualities,correctorproperprocedure,excellence,well-being,prosperity,welfare,benefit,behalf,equity,sake,trueconditionornature,duty;…inperfectorder,accurate,correct,eased,relieved;should,ought,must,necessary(340).
6Thefeefortheworkshopwasover$US2,000,althoughthisincludedaccommodations,mealsanduseoftheresort'sluxuryaccommodations.
NewMana294Thefocusonphysicalandpsychologicalhealingthroughallowingthebody'shealingenergytoflow,andtheideathattheconceptofmanatellsusthat'allpowercomesfromwithin',pointscriticallytohowthefocusonindividualtransformationinNewAgesettingslikewiseindividualisestheconceptofmana.
Atthesametime,mana,forKing,asforotherHunaauthors,existsobjectivelywithinthenaturalorderofthecosmos.
BuildingontheexperimentsinorgoneenergyconductedbyfollowersofWilhelmReich,7Kingelaboratedmethodsformeasuringandcollectingmana,usingobjectsknownasmanaplatesandmanaboxes.
Hisworkinthisfieldbeganintheearly1970s,andalthoughheclaimshisideasstemmedfromvisitingWestAfricaand'studyingthelifeforcethatsomeAfricanscallmungo',itistellingthataroundthistimehealsobeganstudyingtheworksofReich(King1999),whoseunusualpsychologicaltheoriesgainedtractionwithesotericandalternativespiritualmovementsinthe1970s(Clifton2006:62–64).
Kingdescribeshowhelearnttobuildplatesthatgiveoff'energy'frommetalsheetssuchascopperandinsulatingmaterialsuchasacrylic.
Althoughheexperimentedwithdifferentshapesandarrangements,hedescribeshisbreakthroughinthisareaininterspersingthemetalandinsulatingmaterial.
Helikensthesetoacapacitor,withmorefoldsorlayersincreasingthecharge(King1992:70–71).
Byusingthesetoconstructplates,boxesorothershapes,hesuggests,itispossibletobuilddevicesthatsharpenrazorblades,clarifyandpurifywater,chargebatteriesandprovidephysicalandspiritualhealing(King1992:72–83).
AswithLong'swritings,theseearlyexperimentsofKing'srevealaconceptofmanaasacosmicenergy,understoodthroughelectricalmetaphorsofcharge,voltageandcapacitance.
King'slaterwritingsreflectagrowingawarenessofthecritiquesofsuchaconceptof'mana'beingsubsumedalongsideothernon-westernconceptsunderthegenericrubricoflifeforce.
Perhapsinfluencedbyemergentanthropologicalcritiquesofearlierconceptionsofmanainethnographicwritings,particularlythatofRogerKeesing(1984),in1992Kingwrote:7OrgonewasatermcoinedbyReich,apsychoanalystengagedinexperimentsinalternativehealingduringthemiddleofthetwentiethcentury,todescribewhathesawasasubstanceofinnatelifeforcewithinthecosmos,andparticularlylivingbeings,whichmovedthroughallthingsandcouldbepassedthroughobjectsandfrompersontopersonforthepurposesofhealing.
29511.
ManaforaNewAgeManybooksthatdealwithesotericenergytendtolistch'i,ki,pranaandmanatogetherasiftheyarethesamething.
Whilethepairsdorhymenicely,itmustbestatedthatmanadoesnotbelonginthelist.
ManaisaPolynesianwordthatbasicallymeansdivineorspiritualpowerandauthorityorinfluence.
Itistheabilitytodirectenergy,ratherthantheenergyitself.
(King1992:12)Kingaccountsforhisearlierwritingsthatequatemanawith'lifeforce',forexampleinhisdiscussionsofmanaplatesandmanaboxes,bystatingthattheywerewrittenatatime'whenIwasstillequatingtheword"mana"tolifeenergyinordertosimplifytheintroductionofHawaiianconceptstothegeneralpublic'(King1999).
Nevertheless,behindthisconceptionofmanaashumancapacity,Kingretainsanotionthatthereisan'energy'thatcanbedirectedinthisway,reflectingthewidespreadinfluenceoftheseideasinwesternesoterictraditions.
ThisremainsthehegemonicunderstandingofmanawithinNewAgespirituality.
ManainneopaganismTheconceptofmanahasenteredintocontemporaryPaganisminNorthAmericaprimarilythroughtheinfluenceofVictorandCoraAnderson'sFeritradition.
Feriwasfoundedinthelate1940sinasimilarperiodtotheemergenceofWiccainBritain.
TheAndersonsclaimedtheirtraditionsrepresentanindependentNorthAmericanwitchcraftpracticepre-datingBritishWicca,aclaimwhichhistorianChasCliftonsuggests,inconclusively,ispossible,althoughitisclearthattheAndersonscorrespondedwithGeraldGardner,thefounderofBritishWicca,andreadhisbooks,incorporatingmanyWiccanelementsintotheirpractice(Clifton2006:130–32).
Nevertheless,FerihasdrawnsomeofitsinspirationfromsourcesapartfromWicca,includingtheincorporationof'Hawaiian'elements.
ManyclaimsaremadeaboutVictorAnderson'sknowledgeofHawaiianbeliefs.
OneWiccanpractitionersuggeststhat'duringhisyouthVictoralsohadmanynativeHawaiianteachersandthroughhistrainingwiththem,hegrewuptobecomeanexpertinancientHawaiianbeliefs,aKahuna'(Knowles2009).
Somewhatmoreplausibly,aFeriinitiateandstudentofCoraAndersonwritesonawebsitededicatedtoFeri:'CoraAndersonmentionedthatVictorhadaHawaiiangirlfriendNewMana296whenhewasinhisearlyteens(towhomoneofthepoemsinThornswasdedicated),andwaspresumablyexposedtoHunaatthattime'(V.
Walkern.
d.
).
WhileitispossiblethatsuchanearlyassociationcouldhavesparkedAnderson'sinterest,itisclearthatVictorAndersondrewhis'Hawaiian'ideasfromLong'swork.
ThisisparticularlyclearinFeri'sthreesoulsmodelofconsciousness,whichmirrorsLong'ssystem,andwassometimestaughtusingthenamesattributedbyLong.
SinceFeriisanorallytransmittedinitiatorytradition,theAndersonsneversystematisedtheirideasinwritings,butrathertransmitteddifferentteachingsatdifferenttimes.
InterviewsIconductedwithFeripractitionersinSanFranciscoin2013thereforedisplaysomewhatdisparateunderstandingsofFericoncepts,includingFeriideasonmana.
Nevertheless,likethethreesoulsmodelofconsciousness,manyofthecharacteristicsseeninLong'swritingsonmanaformconsistentthreadsthroughthedescriptionsoftheseFeriinitiates.
AsinHuna,manainFericanbemovedonthebreathor'ha'.
8OneofthemostfundamentalexercisesinFeriisthe'HaPrayer',designedtodrawinmanatoalignthethreesouls.
Similarly,the'KalaRite'drawsmanaintoabowlofwaterheldbetweenthehandstopurifythewater,whichcanthenbedrunktocleansethesoul.
Cress,anewinitiate,explainedthesecommonplaceexercisesthatshehasbeentaught,throughwhichmanaisdeployed:So,you'rebreathinginthemana[intheHaPrayer]…ItworksbetterformeifIopenmyheartandgo'hhhh'.
BecausethenitcreatesthoseblessingskindofjustrainingdownonmeandtheEarthandeverybodygetsit.
AndI'mbringingitfromeverything,andI'msendingitbacktoeverything,chargedwithwhoIamandwhatI'mdoing.
…Butthere'salsomakingkala,whichisanotherwaytoalign…There'sa…blowingintotheegg,andthenchangingit,blessingit,drinkingit,which…itseemstomethatit'susedforthesameclearingandalignment,butitalsoseemstometobeusedalittledifferentlyinmypractice.
MostlybecausewhenI'mdoingthis,Ihavestufftoletgoof.
There'sacleansingthatneedstohappenbeforeIcanalign.
Soit'smuchmorefocusedonthatthanonbringingitinfrommysurroundings.
(SanFranciscoBayArea,31August2013)8Hā:Tobreathe,exhale;tobreatheupon…breath,life(PukuiandElbert1986:44).
29711.
ManaforaNewAgeWhileCress'sdescriptionoftheKalaRiteismorepersonallyfocused,bothofthesepracticesreflectthefundamentalidea,drawnfromHuna,that'mana',or'lifeforce',canbebreathedinorotherwisedrawnfromitspervasivepresenceinthecosmos,andusedforspiritualeffect.
Intheseinterviews,'mana','lifeforce'and'energy'weregenerallyusedinterchangeablytodescribethefundamentalforceusedtoworkmagic.
Starhawk,aFeriinitiatewholaterbecameafounderandleadingpriestessintheReclaimingcommunity,wroteintheearly1980s:Thisiswhereourlanguagebeginstobreakdown…Evenifweweretospeakofch'iorkiormana,ortheforce…perhapsanyname,anynoun,wouldbealie,becauseenergycannotbeseparated…SoIwillnowspeakinthesemetaphors,asifenergywereathingratherthanmovingrelationships,untilweevolvethenounlesslanguagethatwouldletusspeakmoretruly.
(1988:29)Mana,then,isinterchangeableinStarhawk'swritingsforthecomplexoftermsappropriatedfromarangeofreligiousandspiritualtraditionsworldwide,yetwhichcannotquitecapturethesenseof'movingrelationships'sheseesastheessenceofspiritualactivity.
Nevertheless,shealsowroteoftheseinsubstantiveterms:NomodernEnglishwordquiteconveysthemeaningofenergyinthesenseI'musingit.
TheChinesech'i,theHinduprana,andtheHawaiianmanaareclearertermsfortheideaofanunderlyingvitalenergythatinfuses,creates,andsustainsthephysicalbody;itmovesinouremotions,feelingsandthoughts,andistheunderlyingfabricofallthematerialworld.
(1988:51)Inthisdescription,manasignifiesanalmosttangiblesubstancethatpermeatesthecosmos.
Speakingtomeinaninterview,Starhawkstated:There'stheconceptthatkindofgoesthroughwesternesotericismofenergyanddifferentethericbodiesandastralbodies.
AndIthinkthatissimilartomoretheHunaideaofmana.
Butit'sthisideaofsomekindofsubtleenergythatyou'removingandshaping,andthatmovesthroughtheuniverse.
Andthatritualisaprocessofkindoforchestratingamovementofthatenergytowardanintentionthat'sembodiedusuallyinanimageorsomesensualimagetomakethingshappen.
NewMana298It'slikeafluidinaway,inthatitisarealthing,youknow.
Youfeelit,youcanfeelitaroundsomebody,youcandirectit,youcanshapeit.
(SanFranciscoBayArea,27August2013)Thisattributionofsubstantivequalitiestomanaiscommonplace,echoingLong'sunderstandingofmanaasasubstancewhichflowslikewater.
Feripractitionersdescribearangeofsensoryexperiencesthroughwhichtheydetectthepresenceofmana.
Aurora,whoatthetimeofourinterviewhadbeenstudyingFeriforapproximatelysixyearsundermultipleteachers,explainedhowshesensesmanavisually:WeusuallyseemtodrawBlueFiremana,9soit'slikewetakealensofmana,andwepullonetypeofenergy…we'rejusttakingonesliceofthepie.
…oh,myhealing,whenIdomassage,we'ddoalotoflikebringinginthegoldenlight.
Ithinkthat'sverygoodforhealing…it'sveryprotectiveand—howdoesitfeelIt'slike—IthinkofApollo,itjustfeelsverywarmand—yeahthat'sagoodone,it'sagoodoneforhealing.
And—ororangeis—someofitrelatestochakras—maybeit'sbecauseofmyownexperienceofbeingtrainedinchakraenergies…butIdofeelliketheorangewasmoresexual,andthevioletasbeingmoreetherandspirit.
Whenweweredoingworkinetherandspiritrealms,Ididbreatheinandconnectalotwithvioletandpurple,and—yeah.
Yellow'sverygoldenandtheEastandbright.
Oh,andlimegreen,lightgreen—thecolorofbrightbladesofgrassissuper-fey…thefey,likethelittlepeople.
(SanFranciscoBayArea,29August2013)Amorecommonwayofsensingmanaisthroughfeelingitwithone'sinnerfeelings.
AsThibautdescribeshisexperience:SothewaythatIfeelit,breathisthetooltobringin…AndthenIfeelitinmybelly,likeIfeelmybellyfillingup,andthenitexpandsoutsideofmybelly,likeittakesmorespace,andsoIhavethisexternalmanabelly,ifyouwish,it'skindofthishugething.
AndthenIfeelmovement.
9InFeriTradition,manausedforritualsandspellcastingiswidelyimagedasblue,aconceptionthatpre-datestheimagingofmanaasblueorblue-greeningamingcontexts(seeGolubandPeterson,thisvolume).
Itisunclearthatthereisanydirectrelationshipbehindthissamechoiceofcoloursbetweenthesetwosettings,butnotablethatanattributionofcolourtomana,withitsimplicationsfortheconceptionofmanaasafluidsubstance,isconsistentbetweenthem.
29911.
ManaforaNewAge…Soit'sveryphysicalfeelingoflikeenergymoving.
It'slike,youknowwhenyoubreathein,andyoupushyourbreathintoalimb,there'sthatfeelingofsomethingmoving,it'skindof—that'sthewaytodescribeit.
Anditcanpoolatextremities.
LikeIcanfeelitpoolhere[inhishands].
OrIcangatheritinballs,andthenIfeeltheseballsatmyextremities,anduseit.
Yeah,likehere[hisgut],orinmyhands.
LikewhenIdothekala,Istoretheenergyinmyhands,goingintothewater,likeit'svery—somepeoplesayit's'heat',somepeoplesayit's'pressure'.
(SanFranciscoBayArea,29August2013)Manathencanbefeltwithinnerfeelings,orseenwithaninnereye,orindeed(thoughmorerarely)detectedwithacracklingintheearorasmellintheair.
Inthisway,manaissomethingborderingontangibleandphysicallysubstantive,discernablethroughanarrayofsupersensorymodalities.
ManyoftheexplanationsgivenofmanainFeriareexpressedthroughsimilarmetaphorsofelectricitywhichLongusedinhiswork.
Gwydiontoldthestoryofthefirsttimehehadseenwhathecalleda'physicalmanifestation'ofworkingwithmana,beyondhisowninternalperceptionoffeelingit'energetically'.
Asayoungpractitioner,atarestaurantinBerkeley,hismentorwasexplainingtohimtheprocessofchargingwaterintheKalaRite:IthinkIsaidsomethinglike,'Doesthatwork'Youknow,somenavequestion.
Andshe'slike,'Wellyeah,watchthis!
'Andshechargedtheglassofwaterandthenjuststeppedbackandshewaslike,'watch'.
Andthewaitercameoverandpickeduptheglasstogoandrefillitandgotashock.
Andsetitbackdown.
(SanFranciscoBayArea,25August2013)Likewise,StarhawkgavethefollowingdescriptionofherteachingpracticeinReclaiming,whenIaskedheraboutwhethershesawmanaaspotentiallydangerous:CertainlyinReclaiming,whatwetrytodoisencouragepeopletobegrounded,andstaygrounded.
Soit'swhenyou'regrounded,it'slikeyouhavealightningrod.
Soifthere'stoomuchenergyfloatingaround,thenitgoesintotheearth,anditsortofpassesthroughyou.
(SanFranciscoBayArea,27August2013)NewMana300AswithLong'swork,thesemetaphorsofelectricityspeaktoideasofthepowerorforceseentoliebehindparticularmagicalorritualacts.
AsAuroraexplained,thispowerisrelatedtotheamountofmanaaccessed:Partofbeingabletochargeyourintentionsorchargeyourspells,orbeproactiveishowmuchoomphyouhavebehindit.
Ifyou'reraisingaconeofpower,10yourjuju,11it'sveryrelatedtoit.
Imeanpartofitisthestructureofhowyou'recastingthespell,orputtingyourintention,sayingorwritingthecorrectthingthat'sactuallywhatyoumeantosayisreallyimportant…Andthestructureofthatritualorspell,soit'showyoucontainthevessel.
Butyoustillneedthebattery.
Thebatteryisveryimportant.
Andyoucanuseotherbatteries…likeacandleorcreateaservitor12todotheworkforyou,likethere'sotherwaystocreatebatteries.
Butifyou'retheonechargingthespell,youknow,absolutely…themoreenergyyouhave,themorepoweryouhavetodothethingsyouwanttodo.
(SanFranciscoBayArea,29August2013)Inmanyoftheseinterviews,respondentsswitchedfreelybetween'mana'andtermstheyseeasrelated,particularly'energy'and'lifeforce'.
ManahasthuscometobeassociatedintheseNewAgeandcontemporaryPagansystemsofthoughtwithaconceptthatholdsaverycentralplaceinwesternesoterictraditions:asubstantivevitalessencethatinfusesthewholecosmosandservesasthesourceofpowerinprayerorritual.
SinceMesmer'sworkfromthelateeighteenthcentury,andemergingasaspiritualistconceptinparallelwiththescienceofelectromagnetism,themetaphors,imageryandideasofelectricityandmagnetismhavebecomecentralmeansforexplainingandapprehendingthisvitalessence.
Thelanguageofelectricforces,voltages,groundingandbatterieshasthusbecomefamiliarforthoseseekingtoexplaintheworkingsoftheirmagic.
Astheconceptofmanahasbeendrawnintothistheoreticalschema,ittoohascometobeunderstoodthroughsimilarmetaphorsofsubstance,flowandelectromagneticpower.
10Aconeofpowerisanenergeticfieldseenasbeingraisedattheheartofritualsandspellsanddirectedtowardsaparticular,focusedpurpose.
11JujuisusedinformallyamongPaganstodescribetheirmagicaldriveorvitality.
12Aservitorisanenergyformcreatedtocarryoutaparticulartask.
30111.
ManaforaNewAgeAsinHuna,manainFericanbedirectedtowardtheself,usedforhealing,'alignment'orotherspellwork.
Thibautdescribedhowhedirectsthemanahefeelswithinhimself,inaversionofthesoulalignmentexercise:SoIputitinmyFetch[theanimalself],andthenImoveitsoIfeelthisconduitbeingcreated.
AndthenwhenIpushittoaligntheGoddess-self,itkindofthere'sthisrushofenergygoingthrough,thatgoesupandthenfeedstheGod-self,theHolydemon,theGoddess-self,andthatfallsdown,andIfeelitfallingdown.
(SanFranciscoBayArea,29August2013)Butbecauseitisunderstoodaspermeatingeverycornerofthecosmos,forFeripractitioners,manacanalsobeusedtoconnectwithone'ssurroundingsandinfuseitwithblessings.
Usingasimilarnotionofcreatingaconduitthroughwhichmanacanmove,CressdescribedthisprocessoffeedingmanabackintothesurroundingsataFericampsheattended:Weweredoingacone[ofpower],andwewerefeedingthespirits,andfeedingthelandwithit,andwewerealsocollectingitupandsendingitbackupagain,andmakinganothercone.
Anditseemsthattheenergyandtheblessingsthatcomefromthat—thatconnectionbetweenspiritandland.
(SanFranciscoBayArea,31August2013)Suchprocessesexpressasenseofinterconnectionwiththecosmos,and,moreimmediately,withthelandoftheimmediateenvironmentanditsattendantspirits.
ThusmanainFeriisseenasarelationalphenomenon.
Yet,insharpcontrasttothemanaofHawai'iandmanyotherregionsofOceania,therelationshipsmanaencapsulatesinFeri(orinHuna)arerarelylocatedatasociallevel.
AtellingcontrastcanbefoundinthewritingsofWendeElizabethMarshallinPotentMana,wheresheexploresthecentralityofHawaiianideasofhealingforaKanakaMaolipopulationsufferingfrompoverty,illnessandtheeffectsofcolonisationanddispossession:Thehealingpracticesandepistemologiesoflate-twentieth-centuryNativeHawaiiansinvigoratedandappliedmethodsandwaysofunderstandingillnessfromtheancestralpast…Byexpandingthemeaningofhealthtoincludetheimpactofpolitics,economics,andcultureonthebodiesofthecolonized,healthandpoliticalpowerweredecisivelylinked.
(2011:7)NewMana302Marshallthensituatesthereclaimingofmanatakingplacethroughthishealingworkaspartofthebroadersovereigntymovementaimedatdecolonisation:'ReclaimingmanaasontologyiscrucialfordecolonizationandisanexigencyforthesurvivalofindigenousHawaiians'(2011:6).
VerydifferentfromthatofNewAgeandPaganconceptions,themanaofKanakaMaolihealingevokesacollectivepowermobilisedforthepurposesoftransformingawholecommunity.
WhilemanyNewAgeandPaganpractitionersareconcernedaboutthealienatingeffectsofoppressivesocialstructures,rarelywouldonefindthemanaofhealingspokenaboutinsuchexpresslysocialterms.
ConcludingremarksLisaKahaleoleHall,inascathingcritiqueofappropriationofKanakaMaolitraditionbynon-Hawaiians,writes:'Hawaiiansatheart'arejoinedby'Hawaiiansofthespirit'intheNewAgespiritualindustry'smarketingof'huna'practices…Theyareaneclecticbunch,however;Huna.
comnotes,'WealsoofferTraininginNeuro-LinguisticProgramming,Hypnosis,TimeLineTherapy,TheSecretofCreatingYourFuture,&AncientHawaiianHuna.
'Theproblemwiththis,ofcourse,isthatitbearsabsolutelynoresemblancetoanyHawaiianworldvieworspiritualpractice.
SomeoftheseHunapractitioners,includingtheextremelypopularSerge'Kahili'King,claimalineagethatcomesfrom'StarmenfromthePleiades',whichwouldbefineiftheywouldjustleaveHawaiiansoutofit…Thedisrespect,exploitation,andculturaldistortionandappropriationofHawaiiancultureandidentitywouldbehardenoughtodealwithinthebestoftimes—butthesearenotthebestoftimesforHawaiians.
(Hall2005:411–12)TheideaofHunaasaHawaiiantraditionhasasignificantimpactonKanakaMaoliandtheirunderstandingsofHawaiiantradition,asthefoundersofthewebsiteandFacebookpage'HunaisnotHawaiian'suggest.
Inaninterviewexplainingwhytheystartedthisproject,KeleaLevydescribedattendingaclassatcollegeinwhichshewasshownavideotheyweretoldrepresentedHawaiiantraditionalhealingpractices:Rightaway,whenIsawinthatvideoinclasswhattheladywasdoing,somethingdidn'tseemright.
IgotreallyturnedoffwhenIhadtoturninapaperonthevideoandIsaidthatHunawasnotHawaiian30311.
ManaforaNewAgeandfromthismadetheanalysisthatmaybenothinginthevideowasrealandcouldbeusedasabasisfordeterminingauniversalwayofdiagnosingandtreatingdiseaseintheworld—andIwasgradeddownforthis.
(Levy,Ka'upenamana,ChaiandAuvil2012)MakanaRisserChai,acontributortothewebsite,statesasoneofthemainreasonsforherinvolvement:'Iwishthatpeople,especiallyHawaiians,wouldrealizetheHuna[sic]isinsidiouslydestroyingHawaiianculture.
TherearesomanyHawaiianstodaywhoareusingHunawordsand/orconcepts,thinkingtheyareHawaiian'(Levy,Ka'upenamana,ChaiandAuvil2012).
Hallusestheterm'PlasticShamans'todescribepractitionersofHuna,adoptingLisaAldred's(2000)termcritiquingwidespreadappropriationofAmericanIndianculturebyNewAgemovements.
Itiscertainlytruethatappropriationofindigenousspiritual,religiousandtraditionalconceptsisrife,andoftenuncritical,inNewAgeandcontemporaryPagancontexts.
Thereareexceptionstotherule.
Duringmyinterviews,Cressstatedthatmostofherteachersusedtheterm'life-force'ratherthan'mana'.
Insomecasesatleast,thisavoidancemaybeadeliberaterecognitionofproblemsofappropriation,arecognitionIhaveheardexpressedbyasmallminorityofpractitionersinothercontexts.
WithregardtotheideasofHunainFeritradition,Cresswentontoreflect:I'venoideahowthatrelatestowhatthePacificIslandersdo.
Iknowthat—youknow,Iknowthat—what'shisname–Anderson,Victor,studiedthesomebodyinHawaii…otherpeoplecanclearlydelineate,andIdon'tknowwhetherhestoleabunchofstuff,whetherhereadabunchofstuffandputitinhispractice,Idon'tknow.
(SanFranciscoBayArea,29August2013)TheconceptofmanainFeriisnowatmanystepsremovedfromLong'sappropriationofHawaiian-languageterms,withmostpractitionersunawareofthisgenealogy.
Thustheconceptofmana,andrelatedideas,hascometotakeonanewformwithinthesewesternesoterictraditions,notcompletelydisconnectedfrom,butcertainlygenerallyapartfrom,howtheirmeaningstakeshapeandtransforminOceania.
ManyNewAgeandcontemporaryPaganpractitionershaveaverydeepblindspotaroundissuesofappropriation,andcontinuetousetermssuchasmanaunawareofthepotentialimpactthismisappropriationhasonthosefromwhomtheideaswereoriginallyadopted.
ItisalsoNewMana304thecasethatsomenon-Nativepractitionersaremakingsubstantialmoneyfromtheperpetuationoftheseideasas'nativewisdom'.
Nevertheless,Iwouldsuggestthattheterm'plasticshaman'—implyinginauthenticity,pretenceandcommercialisation—doesnotcapturewellthefullspectrumofthoseengagingwiththeideasandpracticesexploredhere.
ManyNewAgeandPaganpractitionersarealsooftenveryseriousintheirspiritualpractices,dedicatingagreatdealofthought,timeandexperiencetotheirtraditions.
Itmaywellbehopedthatamuchgreaterlevelofcriticalawarenessandcautionbeseenintheadoptionoflanguage,conceptsandpracticeswithinthesemovements,butinmyresearch,Iwouldsuggestthatthosewhoadoptconceptsofmanaaredeeplycommittedandgenuineintheirpursuitofspiritualpractices.
Theyarenot'fakes'.
Theconceptof'mana',forbetterorworse,hasthusbeentransformedthroughitsadoptionintoNewAgeandcontemporaryPaganspiritualtraditions.
Oneofthekeyideasinthistransformationisthatofmanaasaforceofthecosmos,likenedtoelectricalandmagneticforcesandflows.
Suchanidea,asRogerKeesingpointedoutinhis1984paper'Rethinking"Mana"',hasalsobeencentraltointerpretationsofmanaastheyhaveappearedinethnographicliteraturesincethefoundationalwritingsoftheReverendRobertHenryCodrington.
KeesingsuggeststhatCodringtonwasinfluencedinhisconceptionofmanabywesternmetaphors,inparticularbythescienceofthenineteenthcentury(compareKolshus,thisvolume).
Hestatesthat'manaasinvisiblemediumofpowerwasaninventionofEuropeans,drawingontheirownfolkmetaphorsofpowerandthetheoriesofnineteenth-centuryphysics'(Keesing1984:148),elaboratingthat:Becauseofthewaywemetaphoricallysubstantivize'power',thetermwasadoptedtolabelquantifiableelectricalenergyasamediumwhoseflowcouldbechanneledthroughcablesanddirectedtohumanends.
Thisphysicalistconceptionofelectricalenergyaspower…hasaffectedcharacterizationsofmana.
(Keesing1984:150)Suchphysicalistmetaphorshavealsohadapowerfulbearingonwesternesotericism,informingideasaboutcosmic'energy'and'lifeforce'thattookshapethroughthespiritualtraditionsofthenineteenthcentury.
ThisinturnseemstohaveaffectedLong'sinterpretationof'mana',echoedinthemetaphorsofmanaas'voltage'and'power'andtheideathatmana'flows'and'charges'objects,canbestoredandchannelled.
AsLongwrote:30511.
ManaforaNewAgeInthebulkyliteraturewhichhasgrownuparoundpsychicphenomenaandspiritualismduringthecenturyjustpast,scatteredpostulationsaretobefoundcoveringthepossiblepartmagnetismmayhaveintheactionofmotricityonobjects.
Thisisamostexcitingandpromisinglineofthoughtand,becauseoftheunexploredterritorywhichitstillsurrounds,itisrecommendedtothereaderasafineplacetobeginworkingwithaviewtohelpingtoforwardthegeneralinvestigationofmagic.
(Long1954:31)InNewAgeconceptions,thisideaofmanaasaforceorflowgoeshandinhandwithitsperceivedroleinspiritualhealingandindividualtransformation.
Whatisnotablyabsentinthisconceptionismuchemphasisonmanaasacollectiveattribute,orontheroleofothersinattributingmanatothoseseenasmosteffectiveorpowerful.
IntheNewAgeandPagancontexts,manaisaspiritualsubstancethatexistsindependentlyofhumanactivity,andcantherebybeaccessedbyindividualsfortheirownhealing,influenceorspiritualwork.
Ithassubstantivequalitiesthatcanbesensedthroughtouch,breath,colour,andinmanyotherways,andcanbeusedtoenhancepersonalpower.
Butitsrelationshiptothesocialworldisatoneremove;itisnotsomuchpartofasocialsystem,asakeycomponentofacosmicsystemtowhichallpeoplepotentiallyhaveaccessasindividuals,regardlessoftheirsocialcontext.
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