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UCBerkeleyUCBerkeleyPreviouslyPublishedWorksTitleSuingthelocalstate:AdministrativelitigationinruralChinaPermalinkhttps://escholarship.
org/uc/item/4f58976dJournalChinaJournal,51(51)ISSN1324-9347AuthorsO'Brien,KJLi,LPublicationDate2004DOI10.
2307/3182147PeerreviewedeScholarship.
orgPoweredbytheCaliforniaDigitalLibraryUniversityofCaliforniaSuingtheLocalState:AdministrativeLitigationinRuralChinaKevinJ.
O'BrienDepartmentofPoliticalScienceUniversityofCaliforniaBerkeley,CA94720kobrien@uclink.
berkeley.
eduLianjiangLiDepartmentofGovernmentandInternationalStudiesHongKongBaptistUniversityKowloonTong,KowloonHongKongSAR,Chinalianli@hkbu.
edu.
hkSeptember2,20032SuingtheLocalState:AdministrativeLitigationinRuralChina1ThepromulgationoftheAdministrativeLitigationLaw(ALL)in1989washailedinChinaasa"milestoneofdemocraticandlegalconstruction".
2HopefulobserversanticipatedthattheLaw,byempoweringcitizenstodisputeunlawfuladministrativeacts,wouldcurbofficialmisconduct.
However,morethanadecadeaftertheALLcameintoforce,thebestevidencesuggeststhatitsdeterrenteffecthasbeenmodest.
Whilethenumberofcaseshasgrown(seeTable1)andabouttwo-fifthsofthemreportedlyresultinsomeformofrelief,3thelaw'simplementationhas1ThisarticlewasfirstpresentedataconferenceonLawandSocietyinChina,heldattheUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,inSeptember2002.
AdifferentversionofthepaperwillappearinabooktitledEngagingtheLawinChina:State,Society,andPossibilitiesforJustice,editedbyNeilJ.
Diamant,StanleyB.
LubmanandKevinJ.
O'Brien.
Forhelpfulcomments,wewouldliketothankAnitaChan,DonaldClarke,NeilDiamant,MarcGalanter,StanleyLubman,RandallPeerenboom,andJonathanUnger.
GenerousfinancialsupportwasprovidedbytheAsiaFoundation,theHenryLuceFoundation,theResearchandWritingProgramoftheJohnD.
andCatherineT.
MacArthurFoundation,theResearchGrantsCouncilofHongKong,theInstituteofEastAsianStudiesattheUniversityofCalifornia-Berkeley,andHongKongBaptistUniversity.
2SeeRenminribao,10April1989,p.
1;alsoYangHaikun,"Baituoxingzhengsusongzhidukunjingdechulu"(Thewayoutofthedifficultsituationintheadministrativelitigationsystem),Zhongguofaxue(ChineseLegalScience),No.
3(June1994),p.
51;MinxinPei,"Citizensv.
Mandarins:AdministrativeLitigationinChina",ChinaQuarterly,No.
152(December1997),p.
835.
3RandallPeerenboom,"Globalization,PathDependencyandtheLimitsofLaw:AdministrativeLawReformandRuleofLawinthePeople'sRepublicofChina",BerkeleyJournalofInternationalLaw,Vol.
19,No.
2(2001),p.
217;Pei,"Citizensv.
Mandarins",pp.
843-44.
Ondoubts,however,abouttherepresentativenessofPei'ssample,seeStanleyB.
Lubman,BirdinaCage:LegalReforminChinaafterMao(Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress,1999),p.
210.
Statisticsconcerningredresshingeontheinterpretationofwithdrawncases,someofwhichundoubtedlyariseduetointimidationratherthannegotiation.
Thatsaid,thelikelihoodofplaintiffsprevailing,evenifconsiderablylowerthan40percent,comparesfavorablywithratesintheUnitedStates(12percent)andTaiwanandJapan(4-8percent).
RandallPeerenboom,China'sLongMarchTowardRuleofLaw(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2002),p.
400.
3beenhoundedbyinterferenceandfeignedcompliance.
4Tothisday,thelawiswidelyregardedtobea"frailweapon"thathasnotgreatlyreducedadministrativearbitrariness.
5RealizingtheALL'spotentialhasbeenespeciallyproblematicinthecountryside,wheremanylocalofficialscontinuetomistreatvillagersinegregiouslyillegalways.
Litigatingisexpensive,gettingacaseacceptedisdifficult,andlongdelaysarecommon.
Evenwhenruralcomplainantsmanagetowinasuittheyoftenfaceuncertainenforcementorretaliation.
Manyvillagershaveunderstandablyconcludedthatitisfutileorevendangeroustocontestunfairadministrativedecisionsorunjustsanctions.
6Ina1999-2001surveyinFujian,Jiangsu,andJiangxi,forinstance,only9percentof1,368respondentssaidtheywouldconsiderfilinganadministrativelawsuitiftheydiscoveredthatthattheirtownshipgovernmenthadmadeadecisionthatdidnotaccordwithcentralpoliciesandregulations.
74Onobstaclestoimplementation,seeVeronMei-YingHung,"AdministrativeLitigationandCourtReforminthePeople'sRepublicofChina",Ph.
D.
dissertation,StanfordLawSchool,June2001;JianfuChen,ChineseLaw:TowardsanUnderstandingofChineseLaw,ItsNatureandDevelopment(TheHague:KluwerLawInternational,1999),pp.
155-56.
5Forthequotedtext,seeLubman,BirdinaCage,p.
209;alsoHung,"AdministrativeLitigation",pp.
273-74,329;RobynMarshall,"AdministrativeLawinthePeople'sRepublicofChina:AProcessofJustice",Ph.
D.
dissertation,AustralianNationalUniversity,2003,pp.
253,259.
Assessmentsthathighlightachievementsinclude,Peerenboom,"Globalization,PathDependency",pp.
161-264;Pei,"Citizensv.
Mandarins",pp.
832-62.
6Onpeoplewhodarenotsue,arenotwillingtosue,ordon'tknowhowtosue,seeHung,"AdministrativeLitigation",pp.
129-59.
7Formoreonthesamplinginthissurvey,seeLianjiangLi,"PoliticalTrustinRuralChina",ModernChina,forthcoming.
Asurveyof745villagersinShanxialsoshowedthatabout10percentoftherespondentswouldconsider"seekingassistancefromalawyerorthecourt"iftheyhadaconflictwithagovernmentagency.
ShiQinghuaandChenKai,"Xianjieduannongminfalüyishifenxi"(Ananalysisoflegalconsciousnessoftoday'sfarmers),Zhongguonongcunguancha(RuralChinaSurvey),No.
2(March2002),p.
73.
4Still,despiteawidespreadbeliefthatsuingthepowerfulislike"throwinganeggagainstastone",8hundredsofthousandsofruralpeoplehaveusedtheALLtochallengeactsbycountyandtownshipgovernments,publicsecuritybureaus,industrialandcommercialdepartments,cultural,environmental,andpublichygieneagencies,andcivilaffairsbureaus.
Chargescommonlyinvolveactionstakenagainstindividualvillagers(suchasdetention,landconfiscation,orhomedemolition),aswellasdecisionsthataffectmanypeople(suchasincreasingfees,closingvillageclinics,sellingfakeseed,ordisposingofvillageland).
Somesuitsarefiledbyindividuals;othersareorganizedeffortsthatinvolvehundreds,thousands,orevententhousandplaintiffs.
9Thesesuits,particularlycollectiveones,areoftenpreceded,accompanied,orfollowedbynon-judicialpopularaction,suchasjointletter-writing,sendingdelegationstogovernmentcompoundsormediaoutlets,andgroupappealstoPartyauthoritiesorpeople'scongresses.
10ThatsomevillagersfindtheALLtobeauseful,ifimperfecttooltocombatofficialmalfeasancesuggeststhatstate-societyrelationsinruralChinacanbefruitfullyexploredbyexaminingthedynamicsofadministrativelitigation.
Thecases8SusanFinder,"LikeThrowinganEggAgainstaStoneAdministrativeLitigationinthePeople'sRepublicofChina",JournalofChineseLaw,Vol.
3,No.
1(Summer1989),pp.
10,28.
9On12,688outof18,841villagersinaShaanxitownshipjoininganadministrativesuitconcerningexcessivefees,seeThomasP.
BernsteinandXiaoboLü,TaxationWithoutRepresentationinContemporaryRuralChina(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2003),pp.
193-95.
BenjaminLiebman,"ClassActionLitigationinChina",HarvardLawReview,Vol.
111,No.
6(April1998),pp.
1523-41,mainlydiscussesmultipartysuitsfiledundertheCivilProcedureLaw,thoughhenotes(pp.
1530-31)thatruralplaintiffshavealsofiledsimilarsuitsundertheALL.
10Onlawsuitsbeingalastresortwhenallelsehasfailedandgrievancesaregrave,seeHung,"AdministrativeLitigation",pp.
132-33.
Onalong-simmeringwaterdispute,inwhichnon-judicialformsofpressuresetthestageforacollectivesuit,seeZhangHepingandZongXuan,"Wenzhounongmingaodaobuzuoweidexianzhengfu"(FarmersinWenzhouwinalawsuitagainstcountygovernmentinaction),Minzhuyufazhi(DemocracyandLegality),No.
7(6April2001),pp.
11-13.
5recountedbelowcannotbesaidtoberepresentative,butareinsteadillustrativeofcertainproblemsthatmanyplaintiffsencounter.
Theywerechosenmainlytoshedlightonquestionssuchas:whattacticsdolitigantsandtheirtargetsemploybothinandoutofcourtHowhavevillagersfaredintheirstruggleswithlocalofficialsWhatcantheemergingsetofpracticessurroundingtheALLtellusabouttherelationshipbetweenlawandpoliticsincontemporaryChinaDynamicsofAdministrativeLitigation:GainingAccesstoCourtAlthoughthereisevidencethatChineseofficialshavebecomesomewhatmoreacceptingofbeingsued,11localofficialsgenerallydonotwelcomelegalchallenges,andoftendoeverythingpossibletopreempt,derailorundermineadministrativelitigation.
Theysometimesevenblockthelocalpopulace'saccesstoofficialdocumentsandregulations.
Whenacountygovernment,forinstance,beganabookdistributionprogram,townshipleadersorderedthatnomaterialsrelatedtolegaleducationbemadeavailablebecause"assoonasordinarypeoplelearnanythingaboutthelawthentheybecomeimpossibletogovern".
12InDangshancounty,Anhuiprovince,whenvillagerswenttoatownshiptorequestcentralandprovincialcirculars1146percentoftheofficialswhorespondedtoaHunansurveyofpublicsecurity,commercial,hygiene,constructionandgovernment(zhengfu)agenciesrecalledthattheybelievedthelawwoulddecreaseadministrativeefficiencyshortlyafteritwasenacted.
By1996,only5percentexpressedthisconcern.
JiangMing'an,Zhongguoxingzhengfazhifazhanjinchengdiaochabaogao(AnInvestigativeReportoftheCourseofChina'sAdministrativeLegalDevelopment)(Beijing:FalüChubanshe,1998),p.
348.
Ofcourse,thisreductionmayhaveoccurredpartlybecauseofficialsconcludedtheLawdoesnothaveteethandwasunlikelytoaffectthem.
Thesurveyalsoassumedthatrespondentshadbeenofficialssincetheearly1990sandcouldaccuratelyrememberwhattheythoughtthen.
On"amazinglyfew[ALL]casesrelativetothetotalnumberofspecificadministrativeacts",seePeerenboom,China'sLongMarch,p.
404;alsoHung,"AdministrativeLitigation",pp.
129-89.
12ChenLumin,"Doushipufaredehuo"(Thedisasterisallduetothelegaleducationdrive),Minzhuyufazhi,No.
11(6June2001),pp.
31-32.
6regardingthetax-for-feereform,townshipofficialssaidthattheyhadreceivednosuchdocumentsandhadonlybeennotifiedorally.
Actually,theAnhuiPartycommitteehadinstructedthatallrelevantmaterials,including"ALettertoFarmers"fromtheprovincialgovernment,aprovincialcircular,andataxcard,behand-deliveredtoeveryhousehold.
13Localofficialsmayevenusethepolicetolimitpopularknowledgeoflawsandregulationsthattheydeem"inflammatory".
InHenan,forexample,theQixiancountypublicsecuritybureaudetainedamanfor14daysin1998for"distortingfacts,spreadingrumors,andinstigatingdisturbances"simplybecausehepublicizedacentraldecisionconcerningruraltaxandfeeburdensthathehadreadaboutinHenanDaily.
14Sometimesmoreextrememeasuresareemployedtokeepvillagersinthedark.
In2000,ajournaleditorinJiangxicompiledasmallbookoflaws,regulations,andcentralpoliciesregardingthecountrysideandagriculture.
Fearingthatpublicationofthebookmightspurresistancetoillegalfees,Jiangxi'sleadersorderedthateverycopybeconfiscatedandpulped.
Countyandtownshipofficials,villagecadres,andthepoliceweremobilizedtocarryoutthisdirective.
Amongotheracts,thepoliceraidedthehomeofonevillageranddetainedanotherfor15daysformakingthecollectionavailabletohisneighbors.
1513ZhangCuiling,"Zenyangduidaizhelidenongminshangfang–AnhuiChengzhuangshijiandiaochabaogao"(HowtodealwithfarmerslodgingcomplaintsAninvestigativereportonAnhui'sChengzhuangincident),Fazhiyuxinwen(LegalityandNews),No.
1(January2002),p.
6.
14MaZhongdong,"Huangeiwo,yigegongmindequanli"(Returnmemycitizenshiprights),Fazhishijie(LegalWorld),No.
1(January2000),pp.
36-37.
15SeeWangZhiquan,"WTOnenggeinongmindailaishenmo"(WhatcanWTObringfarmers),Fazhishijie,No.
4(April2002),p.
6;YangXuewu,"Lingrentongxindezaoyu"(Deplorablemistreatment),Nanfengchuang(WindowontheSouthWind),No.
4(April2001),pp.
39.
7Partlyowingtosuchstrong-armtactics,manyvillagersremainunawareoflawsandpoliciesthatcanworktotheirbenefit,despitethenationwidecampaigntoincreasepopularlegalawareness(pufa)thathasbeenunderwaysincethe1980s.
A1997-98surveythatweconductedinsevenprovinces(Anhui,Beijing,Fujian,Hebei,Jiangsu,Jiangxi,andShandong)showedthatonlyaquarterofthe9,843respondentsknewthattownshipandvillagefeesmustnotexceedfivepercentoftheaveragevillageincome.
Whenaskedaboutaten-yearoldlawthatenablesvillagerstoelectgrassrootscadres,only3percentoftherespondentssaidtheyunderstooditfairlywell,28percentsaidtheyknewsomethingaboutit,and70percentsaidtheyknewnothingatallaboutit.
16Aggrievedvillagershavedevelopedanumberoftechniquestocircumventinformationblockades.
Sometrytoacquirelegaltextsandregulationsthroughrelativeswhoworkinthegovernment;othersbuylegalcompendiainbookstores.
Othersmayevenhirelawyers.
Localofficialscandolittletoheadoffthefirsttwotactics,buttheysometimestrytostoplawyersfromhelpingvillagersfilealawsuit.
Theymaywarnlocalattorneysnottoaidpotentiallitigantsandtheymayworktodiscreditoutsiders.
InDecember2000,becausenolocallawyerwouldassistthem,villagersinLongnancounty,Jiangxiprovince,hiredtwoattorneysfromaneighboringcountytoprepareasuitagainstthecountyforincreasingruraltaxesandfees.
TheLongnanleadershiprespondedbyhavingthelocalTVstationrepeatedlybroadcastaspeechbyacountyleader,wholabeledthetwooutsiders"illegallawyers"(bufalüshi),accusedthemof"comingtoLongnantodisruptsocialorderandpublic16Ontheextenttowhichthepufacampaignhasaidedvillagersinlearningaboutlaws,theresultswere:23percent,"veryhelpful;"53percent,"alittlehelpful",7percent,"nothelpful;"17percent,"thereisnosuchcampaigninmyvillage".
8security",andthreatenedto"subjectthemtoseverelegalpunishment".
Todefendthemselves,thetwolawyersfinallyfelttheyhadnochoicebuttosuethecountyforslander.
17Despitesuchpressure,lawyersandlegallysavvyofficialsoftenplayacriticalroleintheearlystagesoflitigation.
18InAnhuiprovince,forinstance,anelderlyvillagerwassopanickedaftercountypoliceandtownshipofficialsrushedintohishomelookingforhissonthathecommittedsuicide.
ThesonwenttotheprovincialLegalAidCenter,wherehefoundalawyerwhovolunteeredhistimetosuethecountypublicsecuritybureauforconductingasearchwithoutawarrantandalsopaidtheman'scourtfees.
19Similarly,thedirectorofacountyagriculturalstationplayedacrucialpartinalargelawsuitinLezhicounty,Sichuan.
Heinformedavillagerwhocomplainedtohimofexcessivefeesaboutthefivepercentlimitsetbya1991StateCouncilRegulation,gavehimacopyofSichuan'sRegulationsConcerningFarmers'Burdens,andadvisedhimthatthefeeswerelegallyactionable.
Thevillagerthenreturnedhomeandbeganorganizingacollectivelawsuit.
2017WangZhiquan,"WTOnenggeinongmindailaishenmo",p.
6.
Onlawyerswhohavebeendetainedforhelpingvillagerslodgecomplaints,seeHung,"AdministrativeLitigation",pp.
158-59.
18Inonesurvey,havingagoodlawyerwasratedaveryimportantdeterminantofsuccessby83percentofALLplaintiffs.
JiangMing'an,Zhongguoxingzhengfazhi,p.
430.
It,however,issometimesdifficulttoobtainlegalrepresentationbecausethereislimitedmonetaryrewardinhandlingmostALLcases.
Marshall,"AdministrativeLaw",p.
212.
19ZhuXiaokaiandChuJie,"Nongjiahanzhuanggaogonganju"(Afarmersuesthepublicsecuritybureau),Fazhidaokan(LegalGuide),No.
11(November2000),pp.
4-6.
20PengFangzhi,"Anningcundiaocha"(InvestigationofAnningvillage),inZhaoShukai,ed.
Nongcunnongmin(TheCountrysideandFarmers),mimeo,pp.
57-61.
Onsuccessful,collectivesuitsinruralSichuanagainstunlawfullocaltaxes,seePei,"Citizensv.
Mandarins",p.
851.
9Thetoughestbattlemostlitigantsfaceispersuadingacourttoacceptacase.
21Tostartwith,thereareanumberofrestrictionsonwhomvillagerscansue.
TheycannotsueanyPartycommitteeorsecretary,becausethePartyisnotsubjecttoadministrativelitigation—eventhoughthePartyandgovernmentareoftendifficulttodisentangle.
LocalauthoritiessometimestrytousethisoverlapandtheParty'simmunitytodeflectlawsuits.
AsoneChinesescholarexplained:"Insomeplacesadministrativedepartmentsemployillegitimate(buzhengdang)meanstoprecludelitigation.
WheneveranactionissubjecttotheALL,theywillhavethePartycommitteeorthePartysecretarybetheentitythatofficiallyperformsit,sothattheadministrativedepartmentcanavoidanypotentialsuits".
22Moreover,villagerscansueonlyforspecificmisdeeds,not"abstract"decisions.
AccordingtoaChineseresearcher:"courtscanonlymaneuverahandfulofso-called'concreteadministrativeacts,'anddarenotundertakebigmovesonthenumerousgeneralactionsbasedon'policies'(zhengce).
Takingintoaccountthelargenumberofillegalactions,lawsuitsfiledandacceptedamounttoonecupofwaterwhenawholecartofhayisonfire".
2321OnPartyandgovernmentinterferencebeingmostcommonbeforeacaseisaccepted,seeHung,"AdministrativeLitigation",p.
160;Marshall,"AdministrativeLaw",p.
259.
Unlikecourtsinsomecountries,Chinesecourtscanrejectlitigation.
Thedecisionissupposedtobebasedonthemeritsofthecase,buttherulesthatgovernthisarenotalwaysclearorconsistent.
Personalcommunication,Prof.
DonaldClarke,September2002.
22YangHaikun,"Baituoxingzhengsusong",p.
54.
OnavoidinglitigationbyissuingdecisionsintheParty'sname,seealsoJiangMing'an,Zhongguoxingzhengfazhi,p.
351;Peerenboom,"Globalization,PathDependency",p.
223.
ButsincePartyofficialsmustformallyactthroughgovernmentorganswhenthey,forinstance,detainaperson,thisloopholemaynotbeaslargeasitappears.
Personalcommunication,Prof.
DonaldClarke,September2002.
23YangHaikun,"Baituoxingzhengsusong",p.
52.
OnthenarrowscopeoftheALL,seeChen,ChineseLaw,pp.
156-58;Lubman,BirdinaCage,pp.
206-07.
Peerenboom,"Globalization,PathDependency",p.
212,notesthatChinaisnottheonlynationthatprohibitsreviewofabstractacts,butthatsuchcountriesareintheminority.
Marshall,"AdministrativeLaw",p.
190,findsthedistinctionbetweenabstractandspecificactstobeagrayareaamenabletoabusebyofficialswhowishtoshield10Yetanotherfactorlimitsthescopeofadministrativelitigation:Partycommitteesmayissueinternalordersforbiddingcourtstoacceptsuitsonsensitivematters.
Asaresult,insomelocations,"thepeople'scourtsimplydoesn'thavethenervetoacceptcasesrelatedto'hotissues'suchasexcessivefinancialburdens,violationsofenterpriseautonomy,unlawfulbirthcontrolenforcement,land11expropriation,andillegaldemolitionofhomes".
24Evenwhensuchprohibitionsdonotexist,alocalcourtwilloftenconsultthePartycommitteeandgovernmentatthe12samelevelbeforeitacceptslitigationonahot-buttonissue.
25One1994studyshowedthatone-thirdofjudgeswhopresidedoveradministrativelawsuitsthought13that"itisinappropriateforthecourttooffendadministrativedepartments".
26Thistactfulnessishardlysurprising,insofarastheappointmentandpromotionofjudgesaswellasthecourt'sbudgetarecontrolledbythelocalPartycommitteeand14government.
27AsadeputychairoftheHainanprovincialpeople'scongressconcluded:"Althoughcourtshavetheauthoritytoworkindependently,inrealityappointmentandpromotionofmajorcourtleadersiscontrolledbythenumberone15Partyandgovernmentofficialsinalocality.
Ifacourtoffendsthembyrulingaccording16tolawandthegovernmentloses,theconsequencesareobvious".
28Togeneratepressuretoacceptalawsuit,villagerssometimesturntodramaticacts.
InLezhicounty,Sichuanprovince,forinstance,dozensofvillagerskneltbeforeacountyjudgewhentheysubmittedtheircomplaintconcerningfinancialburdens.
Thestrategyworked.
Thecourt'sjudiciarycommitteeheldanemergencymeeting,at17whichitwasdecidedtoplacethecaseonthedocket.
29Butgettingacaseintocourttypicallyremainsahighhurdle.
Suitsoftenaresummarilyrejected.
InShanxi,for18instance,whenvillagerssuedatownshipin1993forimposingillegalfees,thecounty19courtrefusedtoacceptthecaseandrefusedtogiveanyexplanation.
30Officialsunderthreatofprosecution(ortheirprotectors)mayevenquestionwhetherthecomplainantshavearighttosue.
Thisisparticularlycommonwhenagroupofplaintiffsfileacollectivelawsuitconcerningthesaleofvillageland.
Oneroutinetacticistoinsistthatthelitigantsdonotconstitutealegalpersonandthuscannotactonbehalfofavillage.
InHainan,forinstance,overtwothousandvillagerssuedLin'gaocountyin1996forillegallysellingcollectivepropertytoarealestatecompany.
Overthenextfiveyears,aseriesofelectedvillagers'smallgroupleaders(whowererepresentingthevillage)wereeitherdetainedornotgrantedlegal20standing,ongroundsthattheirelectionhadnotbeenauthorized.
31Thelitigationwas21finallyacceptedonlyaftertheHainanProvincialPeople'sCongressintervened.
32AfteraSuitisFiled22Sometimes,acceptanceofasuitinducesthedefendantstopursuea23settlementoutofcourt.
33Inmanycases,however,thestrugglebetweenvillagersandlocalauthoritiesonlyintensifiesafterasuitisfiled.
Someofficialsgosofarasto24employunlawfulmeanstoencouragecomplainantstodropanaction.
34InGongyicounty,Henanprovince,avillagerwasdetainedin1997afteradisputewithatownshippoliceman.
Hewasconfinedinaguesthouserunbytworelativesofacountypoliceofficer,andwasgrosslyoverchargedforsub-standardfoodandlodging.
Uponhisrelease,hesuedthecountypublicsecuritybureauforillegaldetention.
Thefollowingday,thecountypolicejailedhimagainandchargedhimwithrapinghisformergirlfriend.
Thistimehewasdeniedfoodandsleepfor48hours,whilethepolicetriedtoextractaconfession.
Hisonetimebeaulatertoldajournalistthatthepolicetookhertothepublicsecuritybureau,madeherkneelonthefloor,andthreatenedtoimprisonherforthreeyearsunlesssheaccusedherformerboyfriendofrape.
Thebeleagueredvillagerwasfinallyreleasedaftertwoweeks,"at25theurgingofrelevantdepartmentsathigherlevels",whichsteppedinafterhis26relativesmaderepeatedvisitstopleadhiscase.
35Iflocalofficialscannotpersuadeacomplainanttodropasuit,theysometimesintervenedirectlyinthelegalproceedings.
Onepracticeissimplytodictateaverdict,usuallyongroundsthatcadresinjudicialdepartmentsmustobeyPartyleadership27andsupportthegovernment'swork.
36Localofficialscanalsoapplypressureonthejudgeswhopresideoveradministrativelitigation.
When1,770householdssuedatownshipin1996forsellingphonyriceseed,thecountyjudgehadtoresist"allsortsofpressure"fromthecountyPartycommitteeandgovernment.
Herejectedanunreasonablylowestimateofthelossesandspentoverayearcollectingevidencefromtheaffectedfamilies.
HeultimatelywithstoodthepressurelargelybecausehehadmanagedtoobtainsupportfromthecityPartycommitteeandPeople's28Congress.
Eventuallyheruledthatthetownshiphadtopaytheplaintiffs510,00029yuanincompensation.
37Suchconscientiousanddeterminedjudgesarenottherule,however.
JudgesoftenfinditdifficulttoresistaPartycommitteeorgovernmentdepartmentthatdecidestointervene—notleastbecausecourtsandtheirpersonnelarerankedlowerinthelocalbureaucratichierarchythanmanyotheradministrativeofficialsat30thesamelevel.
38Thisinterferencemaycomeintheformofan"inquiry"aboutacaseoran"exchangeofviews"onalegalinterpretation.
Itmaybeadirectapproachtoajudgeorbedonethroughacourt'stopleadership.
Itmayevenarriveunobtrusivelyas31ahighercourttellsalowercourtto"paymoreattentiontoacase".
39Asoneobserverexplained,mostjudgeswishtobeimpartialbutmanyeventuallycaveintooutsideforces.
Theymaybeembarrassedwhenthishappens,butalsoknowthattheymight32otherwisepaycareerconsequencesandeven"causethecourtitselftoloseits33supplyoffoodanddrink".
40Nonetheless,localofficialsbynomeansalwaysdictateverdicts,particularlywhentheevidenceisstronganditiswidelyknownwhichpartyisintheright.
Butthisdoesnotmeanthatallinterferencestops.
Instead,outsideparties(e.
g.
Party34secretaries,governmentheads)41oftenpressacourttoprocrastinate,hopingthatendlessdelayswillinducetheplaintiffstodroptheirsuit.
Onetime-testedstrategyistofailtoappearincourt.
AccordingtooneChineseresearcher:"Itisnotrarethatadministrativedepartmentsrefusetoshowupincourt,refusetoanswerquestions,35refusetopaylitigationfees,andrejectcourtrulings".
42Inover200firstinstanceALLcaseshandledbyamunicipalcourtinJiangxifrom1989to2000,95percentofthetimethedefendantagencyfailedtoappearonoccasionswhenitwasrequiredtobe36present.
43Accordingtoa1997investigationinHunan,whenpublicsecuritybureaus"meddledin"economicdisputes,thecourthadtoproceedwithoutthedefendantin37upto90percentofthecases.
44(Unfortunately,oursourcesdonotreportthefinaloutcomeofthesecases,thoughpresumablytheplaintiffoftenstilldidnotwin).
38Whenrepresentativesofaconcerneddepartmentdoshowup,45theysometimesperjurethemselvesorchallengethecourttorejecttestimonythatiswidelyheldtobefalse.
InHenanin2001,whentownshipauthoritiestriedtoconfiscatetheTVofavillagewomanwhorefusedtopayafineforhavingasecondchild,thevillageraskedforareceiptbuttheofficialsrefused.
Abrawlbrokeoutandatownshipstaffmemberwrestledhertotheground,injuringher.
Duringtheensuingtrial,however,theofficialswhohadbeenatthescenealltestifiedthatthewomanhadfallenherself,althoughanumberofvillagerswhohadwitnessedtheincidentall39disagreed.
46Inasimilarcase,whenaHebeivillagersuedacountypublicsecuritybureauforillegaldetention,atownshippolicemanwasinstructedtogivefalse40testimonyandthecountycourtreadilyacceptedthis.
Theplaintiffhadtoappealto41theShijiazhuangcitycourt,whichoverruledthecountyverdict.
47MobilizingSupportManyvillagersunderstandhowthelegalsystemworks,sotheyrefusetogiveupwhenaverdictgoesagainstthem.
Theyknow,inotherwords,thatultimateauthoritydoesnotrestwithlocalcourts.
Thisencouragesthemtodotwothings.
First,theyfrequentlyappealtoahighercourt,hopingthatthehighertheygo,thebetterthechanceoflocatingajudgewhocanignorethepleasoftheirlocal42adversaries.
48Thisstrategysometimesworks.
Highercourtsaremorelikelytorenderfavorableverdicts,notleastbecausetheeffectsoflocalprotectionismareless43pronouncedathigherlevels.
49AfterasearchwithoutawarrantledtotheAnhuisuicidementionedabove,theHuangshanmunicipalcourtruledthatthecountypolicewere"undertakingacriminalinvestigation"andwerenotsubjecttolitigation.
Italsodeterminedthatthetownshipwasnotliablebecauseitwassimplyfulfillingitsdutyofdispatchingrepresentativestoassistinaninvestigation.
Theplaintiffappealed.
The44Anhuiprovincialcourtthenruledthatthepolicehadnotbeenengagedinacriminal45investigationbutratherina"concreteadministrativeaction"50liabletolitigation.
Thesecondstrategyistoseekahelpinghandfromsympatheticleaders—sometimesthroughpersonalconnectionsorthroughbureaucraticallieswhohaveastakeinupholdingagivenpolicy.
Largelybasedonfaithinthegoodintentionsof46Beijing,51someruralresidentsbelievethathighly-placedbackerscanbefoundsomewhere.
Sincetheyareoftennotpreciselysurewheresuchalliesmightbe,villagerstypicallycasttheirnetwidebyappealingtoalldepartmentstheycanthinkof,includingPartycommittees,disciplinaryinspectioncommissions,anti-corruptionbureaus,lettersandvisitsoffices,andpeople'scongresses.
Theyalsoseekto47exposeofficialmalfeasancethroughmediaoutletssuchasTVstations,magazines,48andnewspapers,hopingthatsuchattentionwilldrawinhigherlevelauthorities.
5249Overthelastdecade,lettersandvisitsofficesandthemediahaveshownan50increasedwillingnesstorespondtopopularappeals.
53Whatismorenotable,however,isthatpeople'scongresseshavealsobecomemoreassertiveinoverseeingthedispositionofadministrativelitigation.
Inanefforttocontroljudicialcorruption,inthelate1990sanumberofprovincialpeople'scongresses(e.
g.
Sichuan,Yunnan)issuedregulationsthatboostedtheirroleinsupervisingspecificcourtcases.
TheinvolvementofcongressesinreopeningmisjudgedALLcaseshascommonlytakenthreeforms.
Sometimesacaseattractstheattentionofpublic-spiritedlegislators.
InYi'ancounty,Heilongjiangprovince,forinstance,33villagersfiledsuitonbehalfoftwothousandpeopleagainstaneighboringcountyforrefusing51topaythemfortree-plantingafteralargefirein1987.
54Boththeprefecturalcourtandtheprovincialcourtruledagainstthecountygovernment.
Insteadofremittingtheoverduewages,however,thecountyplacedthetwoprincipalorganizersofthelawsuitunderdetentiononatrumped-upchargeoffraud.
Afterangryvillagersmobilizedalargecollectivecomplaint,aprovincialcongressdeputyagreedtotakeittohiscongress,solongasthevillagerspostponedtheirplanstogotoHarbin,the52provincialcapital.
ThedeputychairoftheHeilongjiangcongressthenpromptlycalled53ontheprovincialpublicsecuritybureautoconductaninvestigation.
55Mediareportshavealsoproddedpeople'scongressestointervenedirectlyinlitigation.
InHenan,threevillagerswhoorganizedacollectivecomplaintagainstacorruptvillagePartysecretarywerejailedbytheWuzhicountycourtin1998fordisruptingtheworkofthecountygovernment,andtheirappealwasrejectedbytheJiazuocitycourt.
Justwhentheirsituationlookedhopeless,LegalWorld,amagazineaffiliatedwithHenan'sjudicialbureau,objected.
Themagazine'sofficialcommentatorpointedoutthatallowingcomplaintstobelodgedhadalwaysbeenameansbywhichthePartymaintainedclosecontactwiththemasses,andthatjudicialauthoritieshadtodistinguishbetweenminorviolationsoftheregulationsonlettersandvisitsand54"disruptingsocialorder".
56Thecommentatorwarnedthatifthelettersandvisitschannelwasblocked,atemporarypeacemightbeachievedbyscaringoffpotentialcomplainants,butthelong-termconsequenceswere"inconceivable".
ThisanalysisattractedtheattentionoftheHenanPeople'sCongress,whichurgedtheprovincial55courttoreopenthecase.
InOctober1999,thehighcourtoverruledtheoriginal56verdict,andfreedthethreevillagers.
ThevillagePartysecretarywasalsoremoved.
57Villagersalsofindwaysontheirowntodrawinpeople'scongresses.
InMay1999,agroupofcomplainantswenttotheHaikouCityCongressafterthecitycourthandeddownaverdicttheyfeltwasunjust.
Sixmonthslater,thecongress'sstandingcommitteereviewedthecaseandunanimouslydecidedtoissuea"supervisionletter"(jianduhan)thatrequestedthattheHaikoucourthandlethelitigationthroughan57opentrial,58makeajudgementaccordingtolaw,andbeimpartial.
Inanunusualstep,58thecongresseveninvitedseveralofthecomplainantstoattendthestanding59committeemeetingatwhichtheirappealwasdiscussed.
59Complainantsmayalsocontactpeople'scongressesthroughwrittenpetitions.
IntheHainanlandsalecasediscussedearlier,villagersappealedtovariousgovernmentdepartmentswithoutsuccess.
In2000,theyfinallywrotetothedeputychairoftheprovincialpeople'scongress.
Thecongressagreedtointercede,andatitsurging,theHainancourtacceptedthesuitbutthenhandeddownastrangelymixedverdict.
Ontheonehand,itruledagainstthevillagers,butnonethelessitorderedthecountytopaythemcompensationof170,000yuan.
Thevillagersrejectedtheverdict60andappealedtotheprovincialcongress.
Thecongresssteppedinyetagainandthe61Hainancourtin2001finallyruledunambiguouslyintheirfavor.
60Largelybecauseofficialsathigherlevelstendtobelesssusceptibletopressure,accesstothemhasbecomeasourceoffrictionbetweenvillagersandlocalleaders.
Effortsbylitigantstofindasympatheticearathigherlevelsareoftenobstructedinthelocalpowerstructure.
Inthelastfewyears,officialsinmanyplaceshave,amongothertactics,usedaselectivereadingofthe1995Regulationon62LettersandVisitsWorktoprohibitcollectivecomplaintsandbypassinglevels.
61InDangshancounty,Anhuiprovince,forinstance,grassrootsleadersplasteredtheirvillage'swallswithpostersannouncing"itisillegaltosendmorethanfivepeopleto63lodgeacomplaint"and"itisillegaltoinstigatethemassestolodgeacomplaint".
62VillagersthensoughtcounselfromamagazineaffiliatedwiththenewspaperLegalDaily,whichclarifiedthatthe1995regulationsprescribedproceduresforbutdidnot64outlawcollectivecomplaints.
63LocalofficialsinHenansimilarlyputupbig-characterpostersthatdeclared:"bypassinglevelswhenlodgingcomplaintsistobeseverelypunished".
VillagersinthiscasesoughtclarificationfromtheStateCouncil'sBureau65ofLettersandVisits,whichinstructedtheposter-writerstotakedowntheir66misinterpretationoftheRegulation.
64Wemustnot,ofcourse,overestimatetheeffectofintercessionbyofficialsathigherlevels.
ThefateofthetwoorganizersofthecollectivelawsuitintheHeilongjiangtree-plantingcaseisinstructive.
Theprovincialpublicsecuritybureau,attheurgingoftheprovincialpeople'scongress,examinedthefilessubmittedbytheprefecturalandcountypublicsecuritybureaus,concludedthatthechargesagainstthetwovillagersweregroundless,andorderedtheirimmediaterelease.
Mostlikelybecausethedirectivedidnotcomefromasuperiorwhodirectlycontrolledtheircareers,thecountyleadershipfeignedcompliance.
Immediatelyafterthepublicsecuritybureaureleasedthetwomen,thecountyprocuratorchargedthemwithbriberyanddetainedthemagain.
Whentheprefecturalprocuratorintervenedinresponsetocomplaintsfromothervillagers,thecountyprocuratordroppeditscharges.
Butinsteadoffreeingthemen,ithandedthembacktothecountypublicsecuritybureau,whichagainchargedthemwithfraudandagainaskedthecountyprocuratortoapprovetheirarrest.
Asthecasedraggedon,theprovincialdeputywho67initiallyreportedthecasebecameincreasinglyfrustrated,andremarkedthatinthis68county"lawsaretreatedwithdisrespect".
65Evenwhenvillagersemergevictoriousfromthecourtroom,itdoesnotmeanthattheirgrievanceswillberedressed;inmanycasesafavorableverdictisjustthebeginningofanotherroundofstruggle.
Rulingsforplaintiffssometimesgo69unexecutedwhenlocalgovernmentseitherignorethemorsubvertthem.
66InruralHenan,severaltownshipleadersengineeredthedismissalofadirectorofalettersandvisitsofficebecausetheysuspectedhehadexposedtheircorruptiontothecountydisciplineinspectioncommissionandanti-corruptionbureau.
Theyaccusedthedirectorofusingthetownship'ssealwithoutauthorizationandinstructedastaffmembertotestifyagainsthim.
Althoughthedirectorultimatelywonalawsuitagainstthecorruptofficials,thetownshipsimplyrefusedtoacceptthecourt'sordertorehirehim.
Finally,insomecaseswherevillagersprevailandtheverdictisdulyexecuted,theirgainsaresoonlostwhenofficialsretaliate.
AlthoughtwostudiesbyChineseresearchershavequotedratesofretaliation,respectively,ofone-tenthofonepercent70andfivepercent,wefindthesefigurestobeimprobablylow.
67Inourexperience,localcadrestypicallymakelittleattempttohidetheircontemptforthevillagerswhosuethem,andtheyoftenstrikebackwhentheattentionofhigherlevelsmovesonto71othermatters.
68Inonesuchcase,avillagerwonasuitagainstatownshipwhichhadillegallyfinedhim.
ThetownshipPartysecretarythenopenlyannounced:"ifwearerequiredtocarryoutthecourt'sruling,wearegoingtoteachthevillageralesson.
Wewillneverpermithimtoobtainanycompensation".
Thevillagerswasterrifiedand72darednotpursueenforcementofthecourt'sdecision.
69Likewise,inHengyangcounty,Hunan,ahotbedofruralactivism,anumberof"peasantleaders"(nongminlingxiu)toldusinearly2003thattheyhadwonlawsuitsconcerningunlawfulfees,illegaldetentionandtheuseofexcessiveforcebytownshipofficials,butfewifanyoftherulingshadbeenenforced.
AsoneChineseresearcherconcluded:"evenwhenafewpeasantswhoknowhowtouselawsfilesuitsorlodgecomplaintstoprotecttheirlegalrightsandinterests,onlyafewgetresults,andthisoftenstartsalongjourneyin73whichtheyfaceretaliation,suffermuchhardship,andultimatelyloseeverythingthey74have".
70OutcomesThefactthatinmanycasesjusticeiseitherdeniedordelayedcan,ofcourse,bedemoralizing.
Longwaits,inparticular,drainacomplainant'smoney,energy,and75time.
71AYunnanvillagerwhosuedatownshipforconfiscatinghistelevisionsetendedupspendingwellovertenthousandyuantowinhissuit,withwhichhecouldhaveboughttencolorTVs.
AsalegalanalystinHenanputit,"endlessdelayisakind76of'judicialcorruption;'itseriouslyunderminespeople'strustandconfidenceinthe77legalsystem".
72Yetthevictoriesthatplaintiffshavewonareequallysignificant;successfullitigationsometimesresultsincompensationformiscarriagesofjustice,relief(thoughoftentemporary)fromexcessivefees,whilealsorestoringalitigant'ssenseofself-respect.
Involvementinalegalcasealsoteachesvillagershowtousethelaw,astheyworktheirwaythroughacomplexandhithertounfamiliarlegalandpolitical78thicket.
73TheYunnanvillagerwholosthisTVlearnedsomuchaboutlegalaffairsthathewasabletoactashisownlawyer,andatvariouspointsinhistrialhecameupwithargumentsthatthecounselforthetownshipcouldnotcounter.
Furthermore,successfulsuitscanenhanceavillager'ssenseofefficacy,aslitigantswhowinone79casefeelabletogoafterbiggerfishthenexttime.
74Lastly,victoriousplaintiffsmayalsogainstatureinthecommunity.
TheYunnanmanwhotookthetownshiptotaskwonsomuchrespectfromhisfellowvillagersthattheynowcometoconsulthim80whenevertheyhavelegalquestions.
75Theorganizerofthecollectivesuitagainst81excessivefeesinLezhicounty,Sichuan,waslaterelectedasmallgroupleader.
76Administrativelitigationisoftenalearningexperienceforbothparties.
Localofficialsalsolearnlessons,particularlyiftheylose.
Somecadreshaverealizedthat82suitscanbringthemnotonly"embarrassmentandinsult",77butthreatstotheircareer.
Inresponse,someofthemundoubtedlyratchetupeffortstopreventvillagersfromfilingorwinningtheircases.
Butothersmaydrawadifferentconclusion,andtakemorecarenottobreakthelaw.
Infact,inonerecentsurveyinJiangsu,73percent83ofofficialssaidthattheALLhadledthemtobemoreattentivetotheirdutiesandhad84increasedtheirawarenessofrulebylaw.
78Finally,administrativelitigationmayplayapartinenlargingthestillsmallbundleofrightsvillagerspossess.
Legalknowledgeandassertivenessisgrowingnationwide,andwhereasa1992surveyshowedthat65percentofover1000respondentsinHarbinhadneverheardoftheALL,bythelate1990s,97percentof85thosepolledinJiangsuhadheardofpeoplesuingofficials.
79Eveninthecountryside,inour1997-98survey,14percentofthevillagersqueriedinAnhui,Beijing,Hebei,Fujian,Jiangsu,Jiangxi,andShandongjudgedtheALLtobe"veryuseful".
InaSichuancasethatmayportendthingstocome,avillagersuedthetownshippoliceforfailingtotakeactionagainstamentallyunstablemanwhowasharassinghim.
Thestalkerrepeatedlydemandedmoneyfromthevillagerandeventuallydrovehimtoleapfromthesecondfloorofhishome,therebyinjuringhimself.
Whenthecasewasturnedovertothecitycourt,ithaltedtheproceedingsbecausetherewasnoregulationthatstipulatedapublicsecuritybureaucouldberequiredtopaycompensationforitsinaction.
Afterreceivinganaccountofthecasefromthemunicipalcourt,Sichuan'sprovincialcourtreportedittotheSupremeCourtandaskedforaninterpretation.
TheSupremeCourtruledthatpublicsecuritybureausshouldbearresponsibilityforcompensationif,owingtoafailuretofulfilltheirduties,citizens,legalpersons,orotherorganizations'legalrightsareviolated.
On17July862001theSupremeCourtissuedthisdecisiontothenationasalegalinterpretation.
80Thisrulinghasalreadypavedthewayforotherplaintiffstofilesimilarsuits.
WhenJiangxivillagersfiledtwolawsuitsin2002againstacountypublicsecuritybureaufor87inaction,theynolongerhadtoappealallthewaytotheSupremeCourttoestablish88theirclaimtocompensation.
81ConclusionChina'sjudicialsystemremainsdeeplyembeddedinpolitics.
Forrurallitigants,astronglegalargumentisindispensable,butevencompellingevidencecanfailtoproduceafavorableverdict.
Justasimportantasalegalcasepersearethepoliticalresourcesvillagersmobilizeinthecourseoffilingsuitsandnavigatingtheirwaythroughthecourts.
Tooffsetthemanyadvantagesdefendantsenjoy,including89thepropensityofjudgesandotherofficialstoprotectoneanother,82plaintiffsoftenneedtosecuresupportfromadvocateswithinofficialdomorinthemedia.
Collectiveaction,orthethreatofit,canalsoincreasethelikelihoodofwinning,solongaslitigantsframetheirdemandsandactinawaythatdoesnotalienatepotentialallies,someofwhomalsohavetheirownstakeinseeingtheALLimplemented.
Consequently,inmanycases,pursuingacomplaintentailsseekingredressthroughthecourtsandthroughotherinstitutions(e.
g.
people'scongresses,lettersandvisitsoffices,high-rankingofficials,themedia)–simultaneouslyorinsequence.
(Defendantsalsoofcourserallywhateverextra-judicialsupporttheycanmusterthroughouttheprocess).
Inadministrativelitigation,atleast,mobilizationseldom90involvesachoicebetweenrecoursetothelawortootherstrategies,butrecourseto91thelawandtootherstrategies.
83Theevidencepresentedinthisarticlealsoprovidesawindowonstate-societyrelationsinChina.
Inparticular,focusingontheinterplayofplaintiffs,defendants,andthirdpartiesputscourtsinabroad,politicalcontextanddrawsattentiontotheinnerworkingsofafar-flung,many-layeredstate.
Thatcomplainantscansometimeslocatebackersamongtheauthoritiesencouragesustoabandondichotomiessuchasstate-versus-societyandus-against-themandtoexaminehowspecificpartsofthestateinteractwith(andprovideopportunitiesfor)particularsocialforces.
Whatemergesisastatethatislessamonoliththanahodgepodgeofdisparateactors,someofwhom92havemultipleidentitiesandconflictinginterests.
84DisaggregatingtheChinesestatehighlightsitssegmented,layeredstructure,helpsusunderstandhowlitigantsworktheterritorybetweencourtsandpeople'scongresses,orlowercourtsandhighercourts,andenablesustoseehowvillagers'strategiesadapttothecontoursofa93reformingregimeastheydiscoverwhichopeningscanbeexploitedandwheretheir94bestopportunitieslie.
85Itisstillfartooearlytogaugethelong-termimpactoftheALLinruralChina.
Manyvillagersundoubtedlycontinuetoassociate"law"withadutytoobeyrather95thanrightsagainstthestate.
Forsuchpeople,lawsexisttopunish,nottoprotect;86theyareinstrumentsofdomination,notweaponstobedeployedindisputeswith96localofficials.
Evenso,somevillagers,particularlythebetter-educatedandbetter97off,87haveadoptedaviewthatlawscanbeusedto"name,blame,andclaim"88andthattheyprovideameanstocheckimproperofficialconduct.
Astimepasses,theALLmaytakeonalifeofitsownasruralpeoplewithdeepgrievances,alittlelegalknowledge,andoutsidesupport,persistinlitigating.
Theseindividualsmaychoosetoignorethedefectsofexistinglegalinstitutionsandtousethelawstheyfindathandtopressfortheirlegalrightsandinterests.
About100,000administrativesuitshavebeenfiledannuallyinrecentyearsandtherearesignsthatrightsconsciousnessis98ontherise.
89ShouldconfidenceintheALLspread,areformdesignedtoextendthelifeofanauthoritarianregimemayplayapartinnudgingChinaastepclosertotheruleoflaw.
Table1:First-InstanceALLCasesbyDisposition,1990-2001YEARACCEPTEDCONCLUDEDUPHELDRESCINDEDMODIFIEDREFUSEDWITHDRAWNOTHERADMINISTRATIVECOMPENSATIONONLY199013,00612,0404,3372,0123984346947199125,66725,2027,9694,7625929,3172,562199227,12527,1167,6285,7804802,11610,261851199327,91127,9586,5875,27043011,5504,121199435,08334,5677,1286,54736915,3175,206199552,59651,3708,9037,73339525,9908,349theirdecisionmakingfrompopularscrutiny.
24YangHaikun,"Baituoxingzhengsusong",p.
52.
AlsoInterviewwitharesearcherattheDevelopmentResearchCenteroftheStateCouncil,Beijing,1999.
AccordingtoanassistantjudgeintheadministrativedepartmentoftheSupremeCourt,courtsinsomeplacesareparticularlyhesitanttoacceptcasesinvolving1)birthcontrol,owingtotheirsensitivityandresistancefromtownshipgovernmentsandpublicsecuritybureaus,and2)ruraltaxesandfees,becausetheyofteninvolvelargenumbersofplaintiffsandjudicialofficialsfearthatacceptingthesecaseswillproduceafloodofsimilarsuits.
GanWen,"Woguoxingzhengsusongzhidufazhanjinchengdiaochabaogao"(Investigativereportonthedevelopmentcourseofourcountry'sadministrativelitigationsystem),inYingSongnianandYuanShuhong(eds.
),Zouxiangfazhizhengfu(TowardGovernmentbyLaws),(Beijing:FalüChubanshe,2001),p.
466.
25Onlocationsinwhichallsuitsrelatedtobirthcontrolandfeesareconsidered"highvoltagelines"andarerejectedinthenameofdefendingnationalpolicyandfacilitatinggovernmentwork,orwherecourtsmusthavetheapprovalofthePartycommittee,governmentandpeople'scongresstoacceptsuchcases,seeJiangMing'an,Zhongguoxingzhengfazhi,pp.
351-52.
26YangHaikun,"Baituoxingzhengsusong",p.
55.
27FanJinxue,"LunfalüxinyangweijiyuZhongguofazhihua"(OnthecrisisoffaithinlawandChina'sefforttobuildtheruleoflaw),Shandongshehuikexue(ShandongSocialSciences),No.
6(November1997),p.
49.
SeealsoWangBinglu,"Yingxiangxiangzhenganbufalüyishixingchengdezhuyaoyinsu"(Primaryfactorsthataffecttheformationoftownshipofficials'legalconsciousness),Zhongguonongcunguancha(RuralChinaSurvey),No.
1(January1999),p.
63.
Hung,"AdministrativeLitigation",p.
179,arguesthatthe"heavyrelianceonlocalfundsexertstremendouspressureonjudges".
28LiChao,"Mingaoguan,kankeqizailiushen,guanbaisu,yuanyurendajiandu"(Anadministrativelawsuitlastssevenyearsandhassixtrials,thegovernmentlosesduetothesupervisionofapeople'scongress),Minzhuyufazhi,No.
5(A)(6March2002),p.
41.
Onjudgesfeelingbeholdentolocalgovernmentsthatprovidecourtssalaries,housing,andbenefits,seePeerenboom,"Globalization,PathDependency",pp.
214-15.
29ZhaoChangfan,"Jianqingnongminfudanyaokaofalü"(Reducingfarmers'burdensmustrelyonthelaw),Minzhuyufazhi,No.
2(February1993),pp.
28-29.
30Fazhiribao(LegalDaily),16March1993.
12199679,99679,53711,54911,8311,21442,91512,028199790,55788,54211,23012,2797177,50150,7356,080199898,35098,39013,03615,21410,57047,8179,3762,377199997,56998,75914,67215,25111,83744,3959,4913,113200085,76086,61413,43113,63511,14631,82214,0782,5022001100,92195,98415,94112,94311,51631,08321,7362,765Sources:StanleyB.
Lubman,BirdinaCage(Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress,1999),p.
208;ZhongguoFalüNianjian(LawYearbookofChina),1999,p.
1023;2000,p.
1211;2001,p.
1258;2002,p.
1240.
31Onconstruinglegalstandingnarrowly,seePeerenboom,"Globalization,PathDependency",p.
235.
32LiChao,"Mingaoguan",pp.
40-41.
Supportwithinthevillageandthethreatofcollectiveactioncanalsobecritical.
Onrepresentativesfrom134householdssigningorthumb-printingapetitionthatdenouncedatownshipdecisiontocloseavillageclinic(andthevillageleadershipendorsingit),seeLiJihong,"Xiangzhengfuweifaxiaonüzibuqushanggao"(Atownshipbrokethelawandayoungwomanrefusedtogiveinandsued),Fazhiyuekan(LegalityMonthly),No.
1(January2002),pp.
34-36.
33Onsuchsettlements,seePei,"Citizensv.
Mandarins",pp.
839,843;Onresolvingcasesthroughdisguisedformsofmediation(e.
g.
xietiao),seeHung,"AdministrativeLitigation",pp.
260-65.
Marshall,"AdministrativeLaw",p.
211,preferstheterm"pre-end-of-trialsettlement"becausejudgesareoftenintimatelyinvolvedintheprocess.
34Ineachoftheyearsfrom1997to2000,between37percentand56percentofsuitsfiledundertheALLwerewithdrawn.
SeeTable1.
Onwithdrawncasesoftenrepresentingout-of-courtsettlements(ratherthanofficialpressure),seePei,"Citizensv.
Mandarins",pp.
843-44.
Reasonsforwithdrawalincludeanadministrativeorganrealizesitisinthewrongandaltersitsact;plaintiffscometorealizeasuitisgroundless;thepartiessettleoutofcourt.
SeeHung,"AdministrativeLitigation",pp.
258-59.
AlthoughsomeofthejudgesHunginterviewedsaidthatpressuretodropasuitwasnotaproblemoraproblemofthepast,otherintervieweesandaninternalinvestigationconductedinGuangdongfoundthatmanyplaintiffswerepressuredtowithdrawtheircasesbyadministrativeorgans.
Foranalysisofthemanyreasonsbehindwithdrawal,seeMarshall,"AdministrativeLaw",pp.
233-38;JiangMing'an,Zhongguoxingzhengfazhi,pp.
336-37.
35HuZhenjie,"Gongyi:nongmingaodaogonganju"(AfarmerfromGongyiwinsalawsuitagainstthepublicsecuritybureau),Fazhiyuxinwen,No.
12(December1998),pp.
8-10.
36Peerenboom,"Globalization,PathDependency",pp.
195,215,224,arguesthatdirectinterventionbythePartyinspecificcasesistheexceptionandisdeclining.
Othershavedetailedsubstantialinterference.
SeeHung,"AdministrativeLitigation".
37JinKunping,HuJieandLiangJian,"Fayuanwei7000nongminchengqibaohusan"(Thecourtraisesaprotectiveumbrellafor7,000ruralpeople),Zhengfufazhi(GovernmentandLegality),No.
11(November1998),pp.
39-41.
Ondefendantswininganddiningjudicialpersonnel,andseekingoutleadersathigherlevelstoapplypressureoncourts,seeJiangMing'an,Zhongguoxingzhengfazhi,p.
352.
338Thepresidentofaprovincialhighcourt,forinstance,hasthesamerankasadeputyprovincialgovernorratherthanagovernor.
Marshall,"AdministrativeLaw",p.
206.
39Hung,"AdministrativeLitigation",pp.
162-63.
Sheconcludes(p.
274)thatjudgesremainsusceptibletobriberyandinterference,anddespiterecentimprovements,manylocalofficialsstilllackathoroughunderstandingandrespectforlaws.
40YangHaikun,"Baituoxingzhengsusong",p.
51.
AlsoseeWangBinglu,"Yingxiangxiangzhenganbu",p.
63.
Onthreatstoimpartialityarisingfromoutsidecontroloffundsandmaterialresources,seeFinder,"LikeThrowinganEggAgainstaStone",p.
23;Marshall,"AdministrativeLaw",pp.
198-99.
Oncountyleadersretaliatingagainstacountycourtbywithholdingjudges'salaries,andonpeople'scongressdeputiesbeingmobilizedtovoteagainstcourtheadswhoruledagainstthegovernment,seeJiangMing'an,Zhongguoxingzhengfazhi,pp.
344-45.
41InasurveyofAnhuijudges,respondentsnotedthatinterferenceinALLcases,whenitappeared,camemainlyfromadministrativeorgans(72percent),Partyorgans(52percent),people'scongresses(23percent)andunspecifiedoutsideparties(38percent).
JiangMing'an,Zhongguoxingzhengfazhi,p.
444.
Tobefair,whenlocalprotectionism,judicialcorruption,orintra-agencydisputesappear,Partyorgansmayintervenetoensurethatafinaloutcomeisinaccordwiththelaw.
Personalcommunication,RandallPeerenboom,August2003.
42YangHaikun,"Baituoxingzhengsusong",p.
52.
AlsoseeLiChao,"Mingaoguan",p.
41;WangZhiquan,"Daguansinanzainali"(Whyissuingdifficult),Fazhishijie,No.
10(October2000),p.
10.
Onofficialswhoprefernotto"condescend"togotocourtwithordinarycitizens,seeFinder,"LikeThrowinganEggAgainstaStone",p.
18.
Althoughcourtsarefreetoproceedwithoutthedefendant,courtsnonethelesssometimesallowdefendantstofrustrateproceedingsinthisway.
43YangBingsheng,LuoLaidong,andLuChunlai,"Xingzhenglingdaochutingweiheshanshanlaichi(Whyareadministrativeleaderssoslowincomingtocourt),Fazhiribao,24October2000.
CitedinHung,"AdministrativeLitigation",pp.
161-62.
44JiangMing'an,Zhongguoxingzhengfazhi,p.
352.
45Thismaybecomemorecommon.
A2002SupremeCourtinterpretation(art.
36)requiresacourttoinvalidateallevidenceprovidedbydefendantswhofailtorespondtoasubpoena"withoutalegitimate(zhengdang)reason".
"Zuigaorenminfayuanguanyuxingzhengsusongzhengjuruoganwentideguiding"(ASupremeCourtmeasureconcerningcertainquestionsonevidenceinadministrativelitigation),promulgated24July2002.
446LuoShui,"Qiangzhengfakuanshangren,xiangzhengfubaisupeiqian"(Atownshipgovernmentlosesalawsuitandpayscompensationforextortingfinesbyforceandinjuringavillager),Fazhishijie,No.
4(April2002),pp.
17-18.
47XiaoMing,"Nongmingaodaogonganju"(Afarmerwinsalawsuitagainstthepublicsecuritybureau),Minzhuyufazhi,No.
3(6February2001),pp.
50-51.
48Peerenboom,China'sLongMarch,p.
399,notesthatlowercourtsmayevenencouragesuchactionsbyrulingforanagencybutthentellingtheplaintifftoappealtoahighercourtthatislesssubjecttolocalprotectionism.
49Pei,"Citizensv.
Mandarins",p.
847,argues:"Giventhehigherprofessionalqualificationsofjudgesandlegalstaffintheappellatecourtsandtheirrelativeinsulationfromlocalgovernmentagenciesinvolvedinthelawsuits,itisreasonabletoassumethatChineseappellatecourtsexerciseahigherlevelofimpartialityandautonomyinjudicialreview".
TheHunanHighCourt,forone,hasnotedthatasmanyas80percentofinitialrulingsbysomelowercourtsarereversedbecausethelawwasnotenforcedimpartially.
GanWen,"Woguoxingzhengsusong",p.
468.
50ZhuXiaokaiandChuJie,"Nongjiahanzhuanggaogonganju",pp.
4-6.
51SeeLi,"PoliticalTrust";KevinJ.
O'Brien,"NeitherTransgressivenorContained:Boundary-SpanningContentioninChina",Mobilization,Vol.
8,No.
1(February2003),pp.
51-64;KevinJ.
O'Brien,"RightfulResistance",WorldPolitics,Vol.
49,No.
1(October1996),pp.
31-55.
52SeeBernsteinandLü,TaxationWithoutRepresentation,chap.
6.
KevinJ.
O'Brien,"CollectiveActionintheChineseCountryside",ChinaJournal,No.
48(July2002),pp.
151-53.
53Onthemuck-rakingtelevisionshow"Focus",seeAlexChan,"FromPropagandatoHegemony:JiaodianFangtanandChina'sMediaPolicy",JournalofContemporaryChina,Vol.
11,No.
30(February2002),pp.
35-51.
Butitisalsocommonforlocalauthoritiestodelay,censororblockmediacoverageofALLcases.
SeeHung,"AdministrativeLitigation",pp.
115-123.
On"lettersandvisits",seeLauraM.
Luehrmann,"FacingCitizenComplaintsinChina",AsianSurvey,forthcoming;IsabelleThireauandHuaLinshan,"TheMoralUniverseofAggrievedChineseWorkers:Workers'AppealstoArbitrationCommitteesandLettersandVisitsOffices",ChinaJournal,No.
50(July2003):83-103.
54Forajournalist'saccountofthisfire,seeHarrisonE.
Salisbury,TheGreatBlackDragonFire:AChineseInferno(Boston:LittleBrown,1989).
55PengFei,"Shinongminzhapian,haishizhengfukengnong"(Dofarmerscheatthegovernment,ordoesthegovernmentframefarmers),Fazhiyuxinwen,No.
125(December2000),pp.
4-7.
56Ontheseregulations,seeLuehrmann,"FacingCitizenComplaints".
57WangZhiquan,"Shangfangnongminbeicuopan,rujinwuzuifanjiayuan"(Ruralcomplainantsarewrongfullyconvicted,nowtheyreturnhomeacquitted),Fazhishijie,No.
2(February2000),p.
33.
58OnthewidediscretioncourtsenjoyundertheALLtojustifynonpublichearings,seePitmanB.
Potter,"TheAdministrativeLitigationLawofthePRC:JudicialReviewandBureaucraticReform",inPitmanB.
Potter(ed.
),DomesticLawReformsinPost-MaoChina(Armonk,N.
Y.
:M.
E.
Sharpe,1994),p.
286;Hung,"AdministrativeLitigation",pp.
114-15.
59LianJimin,"Mingaoguanrendajianduzuohoudun"(People'scongresssupervisionsupportsordinarypeoplesuingofficials),Minzhuyufazhi,No.
7(6April2000),pp.
28-30.
On,however,chairsoflocalpeople'scongressstandingcommitteesusingtheirinstitutionalpowertoobstructadministrativelitigation,seeMarshall,"AdministrativeLaw",p.
250.
60LiChao,"Mingaoguan",pp.
40-41.
61On"skippinglevels"(yueji),seeKevinJ.
O'BrienandLianjiangLi,"ThePoliticsofLodgingComplaintsinRuralChina",ChinaQuarterly,No.
143(September1995),p.
778;LianjiangLiandKevinJ.
O'Brien,"VillagersandPopularResistanceinContemporaryChina",ModernChina,Vol.
22,No.
1(January1996),p.
43.
Onthispracticeinearliertimes,seeJonathanK.
Ocko,"I'llTakeItAlltheWaytoBeijing:CapitalAppealsintheQing",TheJournalofAsianStudies,Vol.
47,No.
2(May1988),pp.
291-315.
62ZhangCuiling,"Zenyangduidai",pp.
4-8.
63LiuWujun,"Shandaishumindeshangfang"(Treatvillagerswholodgecomplaintswell),Fazhiyuxinwen,No.
1(January2002),p.
9.
64WangZiruiandWangSongmiao,"Yuejishangfangqinengyancheng"(Howcanthegovernmentseverelypunishthosewhobypasslevelswhenlodgingcomplaints),Renminxinfang(People'sVisitsandLetters),No.
12(December2001),p.
31.
65PengFei,"Shinongminzhapian",pp.
4-7.
66Fortypicalenforcementproblems,seeHung,"AdministrativeLitigation",pp.
270-72;YangHaikun,"Baituoxingzhengsusong",p.
52.
67CitedinPeerenboom,China'sLongMarch,p.
442.
68HaoFu,"Xinfangbanzhurenbianchengshangfangren"(Adirectorofthelettersandvisitsofficebecomesacomplainant),Fazhishijie,No.
4(April2002),pp.
12-15.
69JiangMing'an,Zhongguoxingzhengfazhi,p.
353.
670YouZhanhong,"Nongminwentiheshijie"(Whenwillthepeasantproblemberesolved),Zhengfufazhi,No.
3(March1999),p.
11.
71AvillagerinJiangxistressedthatmostruralpeoplewereinnopositiontoengageinprotractedlegalstruggles.
Hecomparedthelawtoaknifeandinsistedthatofficialshelditsentirehandle,sothatpeoplelikehimselfwouldhavetograbitbyitsbladeiftheywishedtosue.
Interview,Jiangxi,1999.
72WangZhiquan,"Daguansinanzainali",p.
10.
73SeealsoThireauandHua,"MoralUniverse",O'Brien,"RightfulResistance",pp.
52-55;MichaelW.
McCann,RightsatWork(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1994).
74PengFangzhi,"Anningcundiaocha",pp.
57-61.
75ZhangJinming,"NongminChenHaiquandejiannankangzheng,zhima"(IsChenHaiquan'sdifficultbattleworthwhile),Renyufa(ManandLaw),No.
8(August1999),pp.
18-21.
76PengFangzhi,"Anningcundiaocha",pp.
57-61.
77WangBinglu,"Yingxiangxiangzhenganbu",p.
62.
78ReportedinPeerenboom,China'sLongMarch,p.
404.
A1992pollalsofoundthat74percentofgovernmentofficialssaidthattheyhadbeguntoexercisegreatercautionintheirworkowingtotheALL.
ReportedinPei,"Citizensv.
Mandarins",p.
860.
79ReportedinPeerenboom,China'sLongMarch,p.
405.
Awarenessinruralareasislower.
Our1997-98surveyintheJiangsucountrysideshowedthat59percentoftherespondentsknewnothingabouttheALL,whileour1999-2001surveyinfourcountiesinthreeprovincesshowedthat68percentofruralrespondentshadneverheardofthelaw.
80XiaoWanqing,"Bashunongmin'mingaoguan'"(ASichuanfarmersuedthegovernment),Lüshiyufazhi(LawyersandLegality),No.
3(March2002),pp.
16-20.
81LuChengjian,"XieandiechushouhairenjiashuzhuanggaoTongguxiangonganjubuzuowei"(FamiliesofmurdervictimssuetheTonggucountypublicsecuritybureauforinaction),Minzhuyufazhi,No.
2(A)(6February2002),pp.
37-39.
82Formanyvillagers,acourtisjustanothergovernmentdepartmentandjudgesarejustanothergroupofofficials.
"Intheunderstandingofmanyruralpeople,judges(faguan)arenonethelessofficials(guan)".
TianChengyouandLiYixiong,"Xiangtushehuiminjianfayujicengfaguanjiejuejiufendecelue"(Customsinruralcommunitiesandstrategiesofconflictresolutionadoptedbygrassrootsjudges),Xiandaifaxue(ModernLawScience),Vol.
24,No.
1(February2002),p.
121;also7JiangMing'an,Zhongguoxingzhengfazhi,p.
336.
Ontheperceptionthatofficialsprotecteachother,seeGanWen,"Woguoxingzhengsusong",p.
468.
Inasurveyof5673respondentsfromelevencities,40percentdeemedjudges,incompetent,unfair,orcontrolledbyadministrativeagenciesandtheParty.
SeeHung,"AdministrativeLitigation",p.
138.
83ThisisnotuniquetoChina.
See,forexample,McCann,RightsatWork.
84Keyorganizersofacollectivelawsuitthatinvolvedtwo-thirdsofthevillagersinaShaanxitownranthegamutfromretiredcountyandtownshipofficialstoformerandsittingvillagecadrestoincumbentdeputiesinthecountypeople'scongress.
WangHaian,"Shangwannongminweiheshangfating"(Whydidovertenthousandruralpeoplegotocourt),Zhengfufazhi,No.
11(November1998),pp.
15-17.
85OndisaggregatingtheChinesestate,seeElizabethJ.
Perry,"TrendsintheStudyofChinesePolitics:State-SocietyRelations",ChinaQuarterly,No.
139(September1994),pp.
704-13:O'Brien,"RightfulResistance",pp.
31-33;NeilJ.
Diamant,"MakingLove'Legible'inChina:PoliticsandSocietyduringtheEnforcementofCivilMarriageRegistration,1950-1966",Politics&Society,Vol.
29,No.
3(September2001),pp.
453,473.
86SeeFanJinxue,"Lunfalüxinyangweiji",p.
49;LiChangqi,"Nongcunfazhijiansheruoganjibenwentidesikao"(Reflectionsonsomebasicquestionsregardingbuildingruleoflawinthecountryside),Xiandaifaxue,Vol.
23,No.
2(April2001),p.
34.
AccordingtoaChineseanalyst,"foralongtime,manyChinesehavenotdistinguishedbetween'laws'and'penalties';theyone-sidedlythinkthatonlycriminallawislaw".
WangJunying,"Qianxichuantongfalüwenhuayufazhixiandaihuadechongtu"(Apreliminaryanalysisoftheconflictbetweentraditionallegalcultureandlegalmodernization),Zhongzhouxuekan(AcademicJournalofZhongzhou),No.
1(January1998),p.
61.
Hung,"AdministrativeLitigation",pp.
130-31,citeslong-standingfearsofencounteringthelegalsystem,embodiedinsuchproverbsas"don'tgotocourtswhenalive,don'tgotohellafterdeath".
87Our1997-98surveyshowedthatsuchpeopleweremorelikelytoratetheALL"veryuseful"or"somewhatuseful",andour1999-2001surveyshowedthattheywerealsomorelikelytofilesuitsundertheALL.
88WilliamFelstiner,RichardAbel,andAustinSarat,"TheEmergenceandTransformationofDisputes:Naming,BlamingAndClaiming",LawandSocietyReview,Vol.
15(1980/81),pp.
631-55.
89Ongrowingrightsconsciousnessinthecountryside,seeDavidZweig,"TheExternalitiesofDevelopment:CanNewPoliticalInstitutionsManageRuralConflict",8inElizabethJ.
PerryandMarkSelden(eds.
),ChineseSociety(NewYork:Routledge,2000),pp.
120-42;BernsteinandLü,TaxationWithoutRepresentation;KevinJ.
O'Brien,"Villagers,ElectionsandCitizenshipinContemporaryChina",ModernChina,Vol.
27,No.
4(October2001),pp.
407-35;O'Brien,"RightfulResistance",Liebman,"ClassActionLitigation".
Onrulesconsciousnesspriorto1949,however,seeR.
BinWong,ChinaTransformed(Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversityPress,1997),pp.
235-37.

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