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RedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategoryChineseRedemptiveSocietiesandSalvationistReligion:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategoryDavidA.
PalmerAssistantProfessorUniversityofHongKongDept.
ofSociologyandCentreforAnthropologicalResearch1PRE-PUBLICATIONVERSIONPublishedinJournalofChineseTheatre,RitualandFolklore/MinsuQuyi172(2011),pp.
21-72.
AbstractThispaperoutlinesaconceptualframeworkforresearchonChineseredemptivesocietiesandsalvationistreligion.
IbeginwithareviewofpastscholarshiponRepublican-erasalvationistmovementsandtheircontemporarycommunities,comparingtheirtreatmentinthreebodiesofscholarlyliteraturedealingwiththehistoryandscripturesof"sectarianism"inthelateimperialera,thehistoryof"secretsocieties"oftherepublicanperiod,andtheethnographyof"popularreligion"inthecontemporaryChineseworld.
IthenassessPrasenjitDuara'sformulationof"redemptivesocieties"asalabelforaconstellationofreligiousgroupsactiveintherepublicanperiod,and,aftercomparingthecharacteristicsofthemaingroupsinquestion(suchastheTongshanshe,Daoyuan,Yiguandaoandothers),arguethatananayticaldistinctionneedstobemadebetween"salvationistmovements"asasociologicalcategory,whichhaveappearedthroughoutChinesehistoryanduntiltoday,andredemptivesocietiesasonehistoricalinstanceofawaveofsalvationistmovements,whichappearedintherepublicanperiodandbeartheimprintofthesocio-culturalconditionsandconcernsofthatperiod.
Finally,Idiscussissuesforfutureresearchandthesignificanceofredemptivesocietiesinthesocial,politicalandintellectualhistoryofmodernChina,andinthemodernhistoryofConfucianism,Daoism,andBuddhism.
Keywords:Redemptivesocieties,salvationism,sectarianism,newreligiousmovements,Chinesereligion.
1IwouldliketogratefullyacknowledgetheEcolefranaised'Extrême-Orient,theInstituteofHistoryandPhilologyoftheAcademiaSinica,andtheFrenchCentreforResearchonContemporaryChinaforthegrantsandsupportfortheresearchleadingtothisarticle.
MythanksarealsoextendedtoPrasenjitDuara,VincentGoossaert,WangChien-ch'uan,FanChun-wu,DavidOwnby,CaoXinyu,PhilipClart,PaulKatzandChenJin'guofortheinspiringdiscussionsandsuggestionswhichhaveshapedtheideasinthisarticle.
RedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategoryIntroductionIntheconfusedpoliticalatmosphereofthefirsttwodecadesoftheChineseRepublic(1911-1949),awaveofreligiousgroupswhich,undertheQing,wouldhavebeenbannedas'WhiteLotus'白蓮教or'heterodoxsects'邪教emergedfromobscurityorformedthemselvesanew,openlyexpandingandevendominatingthereligiouslandscapeinsomecitiesandregions.
2ShortlyafterthefirstgenerationofformallyregisteredreligiousassociationswasestablishedinChinain1912,3severalofthesegroupsalsofoundednationalmodern-styleorganizationswhichregisteredwiththestateasreligious,philanthropic,orpublicinterestassociations,withaheadoffice,anationalorganizationwithprovincialandmunicipalbranches,andadoctrinewhichattemptedtomodernisethetraditionalnotionoftheUnionoftheThreeTeachings三教合一withtheaidofamoremodern,academiclanguageandbyincorporatingChristianityandIslamtothetraditionalThree.
TheyreveredthefoundersoftheFiveTeachings(Laozi,Confucius,Buddha,Jesus,andMohammad),andheldritualstoaverttheworldapocalypseoftheendoftheThreeKalpas三期末劫.
Thesegroupsoftenhadtheirownscriptures,philosophicalsystems,liturgies(simplifiedfromConfucian,BuddhistandTaoistsources),congregationalmodesofparticipation,andhierarchicalnationalorganizations.
Assuch,theyactuallyconformedasmuch,ifnotmore,tothemodeloftheChristianchurchwhichhadbecomethenewparadigmof'religion'inChina,thanthetraditionalBuddhist,TaoistorConfucianinstitutions:itisnotsurprising,then,thatseveralofthemofficiallyregisteredasreligiousassociationsinthefirstyearsoftheRepublic,andwererarelytargetedinthepolemicsagainstsuperstitionbeforetheNankingdecade(1929-1939).
2ForahistoricaldiscussionofredemptivesocietiesinthecontextofthepoliticalandreligiouschangesofRepublicanChina,seeVincentGoossaertandDavidA.
Palmer,TheReligiousQuestioninModernChina,Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2011,chapter4;seealsoRebeccaNedostup,SuperstitiousRegimes:ReligionandthePoliticsofChineseModernity,Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,2010,pp.
56-66.
3VincentGoossaert,"RepublicanChurchEngineering.
TheNationalReligiousAssociationsin1912China.
"inChineseReligiosities:AfflictionsofModernityandStateFormation,MayfairMei-huiYang,ed.
,Berkeley,UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2008,pp.
209-232.
RedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategoryThelargestandmostsophisticatedofthesegroups4–whichhavebeendesignatedas"redemptivesocieties"intherecentscholarshipdiscussedinthisarticle--includedtheZailijiao在理教(TeachingoftheAbidingPrinciple),incorporatedin1913astheAll-ChinaAssociationforPromotingAbstentionfromOpiumandAlcohol;5followedbytheDaodexueshe道德學社(MoralStudiesSociety)in1916,6theTongshanshe同善社(FellowshipofGoodness)in1917,7theWushanshe悟善社(SocietyofAwakeningtoGoodness,laterrenamedtheJiushixinjiaohui救世新教會,NewReligiontoSavetheWorld)in1919;theWanguodaodehui萬國道德會(WorldEthicalSociety)8andtheDaoyuan道院(SchooloftheTao)in1921,9theXiantiandao(WayofAnteriorHeaven),whichregisteredastheZhongguosanjiaoshengdaozonghui中國三教聖道總會(GeneralAssociationoftheSagelyWayoftheThreeTeachings)in1924,10the4SeeShaoYong邵雍,Zhongguohuidaomen中國會道門,Shanghai:Shanghairenminchubanshe,1997,pp.
165-194.
5OnZailijiao,seeVincentGoossaert,TheTaoistsofPeking,1800-1949.
ASocialHistoryofUrbanClerics.
Cambridge(Mass.
):HarvardUniversityAsiaCenter,2007,pp.
297-317;"TaoistsintheModernSelf-cultivationMarket:theCaseofPeking,1850-1949,"inDavidA.
PalmerandXunLiu,Daoisminthe20thCentury:BetweenEternityandModernity,Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,forthcoming2011;ThomasDavidDuBois,SacredVillage:SocialChangeandReligiousLifeinRuralNorthChina,Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,2005.
6SeeFanChun-wu'scontributiontothisissue,alsohis"Confucian'Religion'intheEarlyRepublicanPeriod:HistoricalQuestionsConcerningDuanZhengyuanandtheMoralitySociety",ChineseStudiesinHistory44:1-2(2010-2011),pp132-155.
7OntheTongshanshe,seeWangChien-chuan'scontributiontothisissue,aswellashis"Tongshanshedezaoqilishi(1912-1945)chutan同善社的早期歷史(1912-1945)初探,Minjianzongjiao1(1995)pp.
57-82,translatedinChineseStudiesinHistory44:1-2(2010-2011),pp.
121-131;alsoDeKorne,JohnCornelius,"TheFellowshipofGoodness:AStudyinContemporaryChineseReligion,"Ph.
D.
Diss.
,KennedySchoolofMissionsandHartfordSeminaryFoundation,1934.
8OntheWanguodaodehui,seeXiaMingyu夏明玉,"Minguoxinxingzongjiaojieshe:Wanguodaodehuizhisixiangyubianqian(1921-1949)"民國新興宗教結社:萬國道德會之思維與變遷(1921-1949),MAthesis,Donghaidaxuelishiyanjiusuo,2001;TianHailin田海林,"Wanguodaodehuidelishikaocha"万国道德会的历史考察,MAThesis,ShandongNormalUniversity,2008.
9OntheDaoyuanandRedSwastikaSociety,seeThomasDuBois'contributiontothisissue;alsoSakaiTadao酒井忠夫,"Daoyuandeyange"道院的沿革,Minjianzongjiao3(1997):93-150;DuJingzhen杜景珍,"LuelunDaoyuanjin(1928)houdedongxiang"略論道院遭禁(1928)後的動向,Minjianzongjiao3(1997:227-233);threearticlesbySongGuangyu宋光宇inSongGuangyuzongjiaowenhualunwenji宋光宇宗教文化論文集,Yilan:Foguangrenwenshehuixueyuan,2002,pp.
487-618;RichardFoxYoung,"SanctuaryoftheTao:ThePlaceofChristianityinaSino-JapaneseUnitySect(TaoYüan)"JournalofChineseReligions17(1989):1-26;LiGuangwei李光伟,Daoyuan,DaodesheShijiehongwanzihui—xinxingzongjiaocishanzuzhidelishikaocha(1916-1954)道院·道德社·世界红卍字会——新兴民间宗教慈善组织的历史考察(1916—1954),MAthesis,ShandongNormalUniversity,2008.
10OnXiantiandao,seetheforthcomingcontributionsbyShigaIchiko,YauChi-onandWeiDingmingtoissue173ofthisjournal;seealsoJ.
J.
M.
DeGroot,SectarianismandReligiousPersecutioninChina:APageintheHistoryofReligions(ReprintedbyCh'engWenPublishingCo.
Taipei,1976),vol.
1,pp.
176-196;MarjorieTopley,"ChineseWomens'VegetarianHousesinSingapore",JournaloftheMalaysianBranchoftheRoyalSociety,vol.
XXVI(pt.
1,1954):51-69;MauriceFreedmanandMarjorieTopley,"ReligionandSocialRealignmentamongtheChineseinSingapore"JournalofAsianRedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategoryJiugongdao九宮道(WayofNinePalaces),whichregisteredastheJingshipujifojiaohui京師普濟佛教會(BuddhistAssociationforUniversalSalvation)11in1926,theGuiyidaoyuan皈依道院(CourtoftheWayofInitiation)in1927,theTiandeshengjiao天德聖教(SagelyTeachingsofHeavenlyVirtue),registeredastheZongjiaozhexueyanjiushe宗教哲學研究社(SocietyfortheStudyofReligiousPhilosophy)in1930;12theYixintiandaolonghuashengjiaohui一心天道龍華聖教會(HolyDragonFlowerAssemblyoftheHeavenlyWayoftheOneHeart),registeredasthePuhuajiushifojiaohui普化救世佛教會(BuddhistAssociationforUniversalSalvationandTransformation)in1932,Yiguandao一貫道(WayofPervasiveUnity),which,afterextraordinarygrowthinthe1930'sand40's,registeredastheZhonghuadaodecishanhui中華道德慈善會(ChineseSocietyforMoralityandCharity)in1947,13theZhenkongjiao真空教(TeachingsofStudiesvol.
XXIno.
1:3-23(1963);MarjorieTopley,"TheGreatWayofFormerHeaven:AGroupofChineseSecretReligiousSects"BulletinoftheSchoolofOrientalandAfricanStudies,UniversityofLondonv.
26,part2,1963,pp.
363-392translatedinMinjianzongjiao2(1996):19-50;MarjorieTopleyandJamesHayes.
"NotesonSomeVegetarianHallsinHongKongBelongingtotheSectofHsien-T'ienTao:(TheWayofFormerHeaven)".
JournaloftheHongKongBranchoftheRoyalAsiaticSocietyv.
8(1968):135-148;LinWanchuan林萬傳,Xiantiandaoxitongyanjiu先天大道系統研究,台南,青靝書局,1986.
11SeeKongSimeng孔思孟andLuZhongwei陸仲偉,"Wanqingshidaijiugongdaoyanjiu"晚清時代九宮道研究,Minjianzongjiao3(1997):1-25;WangChien-chuan王見川,"Qingmo-MinchuWutaishandePujijiqijiaotuan"清末民初五台山的普濟及其教團,inWangChien-chuan,Hanrenzongjiao,minjianxinyangyuyuyanshudetansuo漢人宗教、民間信仰與預言書的探索.
Taipei,Boyangwenhua,2008,pp.
127-169.
12OnTiandeshengjiao,seeHolmesWelchandChün-FangYü,"TheTraditionofInnovation:AChineseNewReligion"NumenXXVII,2(1980):222-246;YuHuiren葉惠仁,"TiandejiaozaiTaiwandefazhan(1926-2001)天德教在台灣的發展(1926-2001),MAThesis,DanjiangUniversity,2003;PanShuren潘樹仁,Lihaishengge–XiaodazongshiChangmingchuanqiyisheng歷海笙歌-簫大宗師昌明傳奇一生,HongKong:Boxuechubanshe,2007;DavidA.
Palmer,"TaoandNation.
LiYujie:MayFourthActivist,DaoistReformerandRedemptiveSocietyPatriarchinMainlandChinaandTaiwan,"inDavidA.
PalmerandXunLiu,eds.
,Daoisminthe20thCentury:BetweenEternityandModernity,Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2011.
13OnYiguandao,thefirstethnographicreportswerepublishedin1945byLiShiyu,Xiandaihuabeimimizongjiao現代華北祕密宗教,Taibei:Gutingshuwu,1975;DavidK.
JordanandDanielL.
Overmyer,TheFlyingPhoenix:AspectsofChineseSectarianisminTaiwan,Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1986,combinesethnographicresearchonYiguandaoandlocalspirit-writinggroupswithtextualresearchon"sectarian"scripturesandhistory;ThomasDavidDuBois,SacredVillage,includesvaluablehistoricaldataonYiguandaoinHebeivillagesuntilandincludingtheCCPrepressionofthe1950's;LuYunfeng,TheTransformationofYiguandaoinTaiwan:AdaptingtoaChangingReligiousEconomy,Lanham,MD:LexingtonBooks,2008,basedonparticipantobservation,usesreligiouseconomytheorytoanalysethegrowthandchangesofYiguandao.
LuZhongwei陸仲偉,Yiguandaoneimu一貫道內幕,Nanjing:Jiangsurenminchubanshe,1998,containsawealthofhistoricaldataontheYiguandaoorganizationinrepublicanChina;SongGuanyu宋光宇,Tiandaochuanzheng–Yiguandaoyuxiandaishehui天道傳證-一貫道與現代社會,Taibei:Zhengyishanshuchubanshe,1996–oneofseveralworksbySongGuangyuonYiguandao–containsseveralessaysanalysingthedevelopmentofYiguandaoinTaiwaninthecontextofsocio-economicchanges;foranoverviewinEnglish,seehis"TheHeavenlyWayTransmitstheLight:TheYiguandaoandRedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategoryTrueEmptiness),whichregisteredastheZhenkongCishanhui真空慈善會(TrueEmptinessCharitySociety)in1948,14andtheDejiao德教(MoralityTeachings),whichbeganin1945andspreadtoSoutheastAsiashortlybeforebeingeradicatedinthePeoples'RepublicofChina.
15Anothergroupwhichsharesthesameorigins,structureandcharacteristicsistheVietnamesenewreligionCaodai高臺教,whichregisteredwiththeFrenchcolonialgovernmentofCochinchinain1926.
16ThesizeofthephenomenoncanbejudgedbythefactthatthefirstmasspoliticalcampaignlaunchedbythenewCCPregimeafter1949wasthemovementtostampoutthe"reactionarysectsandsecretsocieties"反動會道門.
Accordingtopolicereports,atotalof13millionfollowers(2%ofChina'spopulation)werecountedand820,000sectleadersandactivistswerearrestedorturnedthemselvesin,inallofChina'scounties.
17Thesefigurescanbecomparedtothe500,000Buddhistmonks,the1millionProtestantsandthe3millionCatholicsinChinaatthetime.
Redemptivesocietiesthusconstituted,byfar,thelargestgroupoforganizedreligiouscongregationsinRepublicanChina.
18LinRongzehasestimated,basedonananalysisofreportsonthecampaigninlocalgazeteersContemporarySociety",ChineseStudiesinHistory44:1-2(2010-2011),pp.
76-90OnYiguandaoinSoutheastAsia,seeSongGuangyu,"ReligiousPropagation,CommercialActivities,andCulturalIdentity:TheSpreadandDevelopmentoftheYiguandaoinSingapore,"ChineseStudiesinHistory44:1-2(2010-2011),pp.
91-120;SooKhinWah,"AStudyoftheYiguanDao(UnitySect)andItsDevelopmentinPeninsularMalaysia.
"Ph.
D.
dissertation,UniversityofBritishColumbia,1997,and"TheRecentDevelopmentsoftheYiguanDaoFayiChongdeBranchinSingapore,MalaysiaandThailand,"inPhilipClartandPaulCrowe(ed.
),ThePeopleandtheDao,NewStudiesinChineseReligionsinHonourofDanielL.
Overmyer,SanktAugustin,MonumentaSericaMonographSeriesLX,2009,pp.
109-125.
SébastienBillioudiscurrentlyconductingextensivefieldresearchonYiguandaoinHongKong.
Foraninitialreport,seeBiYousai畢游塞(SébastienBillioud),"LundaochangjiaoyuzaiYiguandaojiushishimingzhongdejiaose"論道場教育在一貫道救世使命中的角色.
InChinaAcademyofSocialSciencesInstituteofWorldReligionsed.
,Xinxingzongjiaofazhanqushixueshuyantaohuilunwenji新興宗教發展趨勢學術研討會論文集,6-7Dec.
2010,pp.
132-144.
14SeeTetsuroNoguchi野口鐵郎,"DongnanyaliuchuandelianggeZhongguorenzongjiao"東南亞流傳的兩個中國人宗教,Minjianzongjiao2(1996):51-91.
15OnDejiao,seeTanChee-beng,TheDevelopmentandDistributionofDejiaoAssociationsinMalaysiaandSingapore,InstituteofSoutheastAsianStudies,1985;YoshiharaKazuo.
"Dejiao:AChineseReligioninSoutheastAsia".
JapaneseJournalofReligiousStudies15(1988):199-221;ZhengZhiming鄭志明,"DongmaDejiaodefazhan"東馬德教會的發展Shijiezongjiaoxuekan3(2004):87-113;BernardFormoso,"ChineseTemplesandPhilanthropicAssociationsinThailand.
"JournalofSoutheastAsianStudies27(2),1996,pp.
245-260,andDeJiao:AReligiousMovementInContemporaryChinaAndOverseas:PurpleQiFromtheEast,Singapore:NUSPress,2010.
.
16SeeJeremyJammes,"Lecaodasme:rituelsmédiumniques,oraclesetexégèses:approcheethnologiqued'unmouvementreligieuxvietnamienetdesesréseaux.
"Ph.
D.
diss.
,UniversitéParis10,2006;V.
L.
Oliver,CaodaiSpiritism:AStudyofReligioninVietnameseSociety,Leiden:Brill1976.
17ShaoYong,Huidaomen,452-453.
LuZhongwei陸仲偉,Minguohuidaomen民國會道門,Fuzhou:Fujianrenminchubanshe,2002,p.
1,estimatesthenumberoffollowersat30million.
18ThepractitionersofChinesecommunalorpopularreligionwerefarmorenumerous,andincludedalmosttheentireChinesepopulation,butChinesecommunalreligiondoesnothavevoluntarycongregationalmembershipinthewaythatChristianchurchesandredemptivesocietiesdo.
RedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategorypublishedinmainlandChinasince1980,thatmembershipinpopularsects(excludinggangsandmilitiassuchastheGreenGang青幫,RedSpears紅槍會andsoon)intheearly1950'samountedtoover18million,mostofwhomwereaffiliatedtooneofthegroupslistedabove.
19Whilethesefiguresneedtobetakenwithcaution,theydogivesomeideaoftheconsiderablesizeofthephenomenon.
20ThoughtheCCPcampaignsdidsuccessfullyeradicatemostredemptivesocietiesonthemainland,theyexpandedinTaiwanwhere,ledbyYiguandao,theyalsogrewintosomeofthelargestreligiousorganizationsontheisland,andwereamajormatrixfortheemergenceofseveralnewreligiousmovementssuchastheTrueBuddhaSchool真佛宗,Haizidao亥子道andtheMiledadao彌勒大道.
InoverseasChinesecommunitiesinSoutheastAsia,redemptivesocieties(notablyDejiao,ZhenkongjiaoandYiguandao)becameandremainasoneofthemostimportantformsofreligious,socialandphilanthropicassociation.
AsshowninthecontributionsbyFanChun-wu,WangChien-ch'uan,LiShiwei,WeiDingmingandYauChi-ontothisdoubleissue,groupssuchastheXiantiandao,TongshansheandDaodexueshewereactiveinpromotingConfucianrevivalisminRepublicanChina,inHongKongandinpost-warTaiwan.
Republican-eraredemptivesocietiesweretheprecursorsofthepost-Maoqigongmovement,andbearanalogieswithsomeaspectsoftheearly21st-centurypopularConfucianrevivalintheChinesemainland.
SomeoftheearliestactivistsoftheqigongmovementintheChinesemilitaryin1978becameenthusiastsaftertheyweretreatedwithexternalqiemissionbyanoldmasterwho,inthe1930's,hadbeenaleadingdiscipleofXiaoChangming蕭昌明(1895-1943),thefounderofTiandeshengjiaoandafamousqihealer.
21Duringrecentfieldwork,IhavefoundthatsomecontemporaryConfuciangroupshavebeenrepublishingandstudyingtextsbyredemptivesocietyleaderssuchasDuanZhengyuan段正元(1864-1940),founderoftheDaodexueshe,andWangFengyi王鳳儀(1864-1937),ahealer,populareducatorandleadingmemberoftheWanguodaodehuiin19LinRongze林容澤,Yiguandaolishi–daluzhibu一貫道歷史-大陸之部,Taibei:Mingdechubanshe,2008,pp.
58-62.
Fordetailedlocaldataonhuidaomeninthelate1940s,gleanedfromPRCgazeteers,seeZhaoJiazhu赵嘉珠,comp.
,Zhongguohuidaomenshiliaojicheng:jinbainianlaihuidaomendezuzhiyufenbu.
中国会道门史料集成:近百年来会道门的组织与分布.
Beijing:Zhongguoshehuikexuechubanshe,2004.
20Thefigurescouldbeinflatedbyzealouslocalofficialstryingtomeetorsurpassthetargetsofpoliticalcampaigns;ontheotherhand,theycouldalsobeunderreportingthepossiblylargenumbersofmemberswhodidn'tturnthemselvesinorotherwiseavoideddetection.
21DavidA.
Palmer,QigongFever:Body,ScienceandUtopiainChina,NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2007,p.
50.
RedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategoryManchuria.
22InTaiwanandMalaysia,Yiguandaoisthelargestandmostactivepromoterofthescripture-recitationmovement讀經運動whichisthebasicexpressionofConfucianrevivalismofallstripes.
NostudyofreligioninthemodernChineseworld,oroftraditionalrevivalsandreinventionsincontemporaryChina,canthusaffordtoignorethiswaveofgroups.
Thephenomenonwasnoticedandamplyreportedinthe1920'sbythemissionarypress.
23InhisbookRevolutionandReligioninModernChina,FrankRawlinson,editoroftheChineseRecorder,wrotein1929thattwomovementswereshakingChinaatthetime:thesecularistNewCulturemovement,andthereligiousresponsetoit,takingshapeinwhathetermedthe"EclecticSocieties",whichhetermeda"revolutionaryreligiousmovement"–revolutionaryinthatitattemptedtofullyabsorb,intotheheartsandreligiouscultureofthepeople,theconsequencesofthe1911revolution.
24Thefirstmovement,whichhecalledthe"intellectualrenaissance"wasledbyyoung,modern-educatedintellectuals,whilethesecondwasledbyolder,Confucian-trainedliterati.
Theonelaunchedananti-ChristiancampaignwhiletheotherattemptedtointegrateChristianityintoitssyncretisticoutlook–bothapproaches,claimedRawlinson,wereproofsofthe"virility"ofChristianityanditsgrowinginfluenceinChina.
25Wing-tsitChan,inhis1953bookonReligiousTrendsinModernChina,dismissedthese"newreligioussocieties"as"negativeinoutlook,utilitarianinpurpose,andsuperstitiousinbelief…Theydeservetheattackofintellectualsandarealreadybeingsuppressedby22OnWangFengyi,seeSongGuangyu宋光宇,"Wangfengyidexinglijiangbing"王鳳儀的性理講病,inSongGuangyuzongjiaowenhualunwenji,pp.
215-244.
23ApartiallistofreferencesincludesPauldeWittTwinem,"ModernSyncreticReligiousSocietiesinChina.
"TheJournalofReligion,Vol.
5,No.
5(1925):463-482andVol.
5,no.
6(1925:595-606);ClarenceDay,"AUniqueBuddhist-TaoistUnionPrayerConference,"ChineseRecorder56:5(1925):366-369;FrederickSequierDrake,"TheTaoYuan:ANewReligiousandSpiritualisticMovement,"ChineseRecorder54:3(1923):133-144;DonaldFay,"TheInternationalUnionofReligions,"ChineseRecorder55:3(1924):155-159;LewisHodous,"Non-ChristianReligiousMovementsinChina,"inMiltonTheobaldStauffer,ed.
,TheChristianOccupationofChina,Shanghai:ChinaContinuationCommittee,1922,pp.
27-31;"TheChineseChurchoftheFiveReligions,"JournalofReligionVol.
4,No.
1(1924):71-76;"AChinesePremillenarian,"JournalofReligionVol.
4,No.
6(1924):592-599;SpencerLewis,"ANewReligion,"WestChinaMissionaryNews26(1924):22-26;KarlLudvigReichelt,"TrendsinChina'sNon-ChristianReligions,"ChineseRecorder65:11(1934),707-714;GilbertReid,"RecentReligiousMovementsinChina,"ChinaMissionYearBook,1924,Shanghai:ChristianLiteratureSociety,1924:59-66;"NewReligiousMovementsinChina,"ChurchMissionaryreviewvol.
76,no.
849(1925):15-26;"TrendsinChina'sReligiousLife,"ChinaChristianYearBook,1926,Shanghai:ChristianLiteratureSociety,1926,71-79;G.
W.
Sparling,"China'sNewReligiousSects,"WestChinaMissionaryNews26(1924):17-22;Y.
Y.
Tsu,"SpiritualTendenciesoftheChinesePeopleasShownOutsideoftheChristianChurchTo-day,"ChineseRecorder56:12(1925):777-781;"ReligioninChina:TowardaGreaterSynthesis,"ChineseRecorder59:10(1928):622-629.
24Rawlinson,Frank.
RevolutionandReligioninChina.
Shanghai:OrientalPress,1929,pp.
1,14.
25Rawlinson,Ibid.
,p.
86.
RedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategorythenewgovernmentinChina",26--althoughinthefollowingsentence,hementionedthat"Thisisnotthefirsttimetheyhavebeenbanished,buteachtimetheyhavesurvivedundercoveronlytoemergestrongerlateron",andwentontodescribesometendenciesofthesereligioussocieties,someofwhichwerepraiseworthy,andwhichcouldgiveanindicationofthefutureofChinesereligion:patriotism,revolt,this-worldliness,anethicalemphasis,layleadership,andsyncretism.
27Butsincethen,redemptivesocietieshavebeenalmostcompletelyignoredbyscholarsofmodernChinaandreligion,untiltheturnofthe21stcenturywhenChinesehistorianssuchasShaoYongpublishedhistoricaloverviewsofthehuidaomen,28andPrasenjitDuaracoinedtheterm'redemptivesocieties'todrawattentiontotheircommonprojectofsavingbothindividualsandtheworldasawhole.
The"redemptivesocieties"categoryanditssignificanceDuaraintroducedthecategoryofthe"redemptivesociety"inhisarticle"TheDiscourseofCivilizationandPan-Asianism".
29Althoughhedoesn'tdefinethecategory,helists"themorefamous"astheWanguodaodehui,theDaoyuan/Hongwanzihui,theTongshanshe,theShijiezongjiaodatonghui,theWushansheandtheYiguandao.
Hethenstatesthat"Thesesocietieshavetobeunderstoodintermsofthecomplexinterplaybetweentheparticularhistoricaltraditionoftheirderivationandthecontemporaryglobalcontextofthe1910s.
ThesocietiesclearlyemergedoutoftheChinesehistoricaltraditionofsectarianismandsyncretism.
WhilesomewerecloselyassociatedwiththesectariantraditionandinvolvedtheworshipofBuddhistandfolkdeitiesliketheEternalMother,theyalsorepresentedthelateimperialsyncretictradition(sanjiaoheyi)thatcombinedthethreereligionsofConfucianism,BuddhismandDaoismintoasingleuniversalfaith.
Lateimperialsyncretism,whichurgedtheextinguishingofworldlydesiresandengagementinmoralaction,gainedpopularityamongtheConfuciangentryandtheBuddhistandDaoistlaityinthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies.
Themodernredemptivesocietiesinheritedthemissionofuniversalismandmoralself-transformationfromthissyncretism.
Atthesametime,thesesocietiesalso26Chan,Wing-Tsit.
ReligiousTrendsinModernChina.
NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1953,p.
167.
27Chan,ibid.
,pp.
168-185.
28ShaoYong,Huidaomen,op.
cit.
,LuZhongwei,Minguohuidaomen,op.
cit.
,TanSonglin譚松林andPengBangfu彭邦富,Dangdaihuidaomen,dangdaiheishehuizuzhi當代會道門、當代黑社會組織,Fuzhou:Fujianrenminchubanshe,2002.
29PrasenjitDuara,"TheDiscourseofCivilizationandPan-Asianism,"JournalofWorldHistory,12:1(2001),pp.
99–130,reprintedinSovereigntyandAuthenticity:ManchukuoandtheEastAsianModern.
Lanham:Rowman&LittlefieldPublishers,2003,pp.
89-129.
RedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategoryretainedtheassociationoftheoldersyncreticsocietieswithsectariantraditions,populargods,andpracticessuchasdivination,planchette,andspiritwriting.
InthiswaytheycontinuedtoremainorganicallyconnectedtoChinesepopularsociety.
Hence,whileitmightappearconfusedtoassociatethesemovementswithsecretsocieties,theirconnectionstopopularcultureandlocalconcernsindeedcausedseveralofthemtoblurwithsecretsocietiesattheirruraledges.
"30Duarathenstresseshowthemoralprojectofthesegroupswasaffectedbythenewglobalcontextoftheearly20thcentury.
Theyinscribedthemselvesintoanewcivilizationaldiscoursewhich,inavarietyofformsthroughoutAsia,advocated"anEasternsolutiontotheproblemsofthemodernworld",allthewhileintegratingChristianity,Islamandevenevolutionarytheoriesintotheircosmology,andadoptingformsoforganizationandsocialengagementwhich"resembledothermodernreligiousandmoralitysocietiesaroundtheworld".
31Thisengagementincludedhospitals,orphanages,refugeecentres,schools,newspapers,libaries,factoriesandfarmsforthepoor,disasterrelief,Esperantoclasses,anddrugrehabilitationprojects.
Butthissocialengagementwasmotivatedbyaprofoundlyreligiousprogrammeofself-cultivation.
ThefocusofDuara'sstudyishowthecivilizationaldiscourseoftheredemptivesocietiesinteractedwiththebroadermoderndiscourseofanAsian-centreduniversalcivilization–adiscoursewhichwasactivelypromotedbyJapaneseimperialisminordertolegitimizeitsdominationbyunitingAsianculturesinacommoncivilizationalprojectopposedtoWesterncolonialismandmaterialism.
ItwasthisshareddiscoursewhichforegroundedthehighlyambiguousrelationshipbetweentheJapanesepuppetregimesinManchuriaandinNorthandCentralChina,andtheChineseredemptivesocieties,manyofwhichflourishedintheJapanese-occupiedregions.
ThepurposeofthisarticleistopursueDuara'sideabyexaminingthecategoryof"redemptivesocieties"asanobjectofstudyanditsusefulnessforthestudyofChinesereligion,forthehistoryofmodernChina,andforthesociologyofreligioningeneral.
Throughaquickoverviewoftheemergence,evolutionandcharacteristicsofthegroupslabelled"redemptivesocieties"inthecontextof20thcenturyChinesehistory,weimmediatelyseetheusefulnessofthiscategoryinbringingintofocusanenormouslysignificantbutpreviouslyignoredwaveofreligiousmovements.
Atthesametime,acloserlookatthepositionofthesegroupswithinthebroaderChinesereligiousfieldraisesimportantquestionsastotheanalyticalnatureofthiscategory:isitsimplyanew30Duara,SovereigntyandAuthenticity,103-104.
31Duara,SovereigntyandAuthenticity,104.
RedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategoryandvalue-neutrallabelforwhathistoriansofChinesereligionhavelongcalledthe"sectariantradition"and/orwhatsociologistsofreligioncall"NewReligiousMovements"IsitalabelforamodernChinesesubsetofsectsorNRMs,andinthatcasewhichonesOrisitbesttoavoidreifyingthegroupsintoasinglecategoryandtreat"redemptivesocieties"merelyasalabelforauniqueandephemeralhistoricalphenomenonwhichisbestunderstoodonitsowntermsinrelationtoitsimmediatesocialcontextSectarianrebels,secretsocieties,folkreligiouscults,newreligiousmovementsMyowninterestinredemptivesocietiesaroseoutofmyearlierworkontheqigongmovement.
Ihadbegunlookingintothesociologicalhomologiesandhistoricalconnectionsbetweenqigongandthelate-imperial"sectarian"tradition.
32DavidOwnbywasledtothesamequestioninhisworkonFalungong,anditwasthesearchforthe"missinglink"betweenthetwothatledustotherepublican-eraredemptivesocieties,andtotheconferencesleadingtothisspecialissueofMinsuquyi.
33Wewantedtofindhowsuchalinkcouldbeanalysedfromareligiousandsociologicalangle,ratherthanfollowthepoliticaldiscourseofahereticaltraditionofsecretsectsofincipientrebels,alwayswaitingfortheopportunitytolauncharevoltagainstsocietyanditsetablishedinstitutions,andthrowChinaintochaos.
34Academichistoriography,bothinChinaandtheWest,hastraditionallyfollowedthisparadigmofstate-sectconflict,ledonbythefactthatthestate,andscholarlydiscourse,tendstopayattentiontothesegroupsonlywhensuchinstancesofconflictoccur,whethersectarianrebellionsinthepastorFalungongtoday,andignoresthevastmajorityofcaseswhensuchconflictsdon'toccur.
In1992,BarendterHaarpermanentlydiscreditedthenotionofthe"WhiteLotusteachings"asasingletradition,showingthatsincetheMingthetermWhiteLotuswasmerelyastigmatisinglabelusedbythestatetobangroupsitdeemedheterodox.
35Byusingtheterm"sect"and"sectariantradition"(albeitusuallyasamatterofconventionandconvenience)however,WesternhistoriographyhascontinuedtounconsciouslyreplicatethepoliticalcategoriesoftheimperialandsocialistChinesestate.
32DavidA.
Palmer,QigongFever,op.
cit.
,pp.
285-290.
33SeealsothespecialissueofChineseStudiesinHistory44:1-2(2010-2011),editedbyDavidOwnby,on"RecentChineseScholarshipontheHistoryof'RedemptiveSocieties'".
34DavidOwnby,"ImperialFantasies:TheChineseCommunistsandPeasantRebellions".
ComparativeStudiesinSocietyandHistory43:1(2001):65-91.
35BarendterHaar,TheWhiteLotusTeachingsinChineseReligiousHistory.
Leiden:Brill,1992.
RedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategoryThevalueofthecategoryof"redemptivesocieties"isthatitbringsintofocustheuniquefeaturesofthesegroupsatacrucialmomentinChinesehistory,withoutgettinglockedintooldscholarlycategorizationswhichhadobscuredthemintheblindspotsofothernarrativestypicallyfoundinfourbodiesofliterature.
ThefirstsuchbodyofliteratureconcernsthehistoryofChinesesectarianism,millenialismandheterodoxy,called"popularreligioussects"(minjianzongjiao民間宗教,minjianjiaomen民間教門,minjianjiaopai民間教派)intheChinesescholarship,ofteninextricablefromdebatesontheexactnatureoftheso-called"WhiteLotus"tradition.
Thisliteraturehasattemptedtoreconstructthegenealogiesandlinkagesbetweenscriptures,groups,religiousleadersandsubtraditions,goingbackasfarastheHan,butwithafocusontheMingandQing.
36Withinthisliterature,theblindspotisthe20th-centurygroupsderivedfromthattradition,whichhavetypicallybeentreatedasanafterthought,consideredprimarilyintermsofhowtheycarryoverearliersectarianteachingsandpractices.
C.
K.
Yang,inhisclassicReligioninChineseSociety,brieflydiscussesYiguandao,butonlyasanillustrationoftheuseofapocalypticprophecybyWhiteLotussects.
37MaXishaandHanBingfang,intheirmammothhistoryofChinesepopularsects,makeapointoflimitingtheirstudyto"feudalChina".
TheirchapteronYiguandaonotesthatinthelateQing,Yiguandaoandtheconstellationofgroupsoutofwhichitemerged,includingtheDachengjiao大成教,Qianglianjiao青蓮教,Denghuajiao燈花教,andtheMohouYizhujiao末後一著教ofYiguandaofounderWangJueyi王覺一,wereallanti-Qingsects.
But,inafootnote,theystateclearlythattheydonotdiscussgroupssuchastheXiantiandaoandTongshanshe,sincetheirbookislimitedtothe"feudalperiod".
38Thesecondbodyofliteratureconcernsthehistoryofsecretsocieties(祕密社會,秘密結社)andtheirroleinmodernChineserevolutions.
39Thisnarrativefocusesonthe36StandardoverviewsincludeDanielOvermyer,FolkBuddhistReligion:DissentingSectsinLateTraditionalChina.
Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1976;MaXisha馬西沙andHanBingfang韓秉方,Zhongguominjianzongjiaoshi中国民间宗教史,Shanghai:Shanghairenminchubanshe,1992;HubertSeiwert(incollaborationwithMaXisha),PopularReligiousMovementsandHeterodoxSectsinChineseHistory,Leiden:Brill,2003.
37"ReligionandPoliticalRebellion,"inC.
K.
Yang,ReligioninChineseSociety,UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1961,pp.
218-243.
38MaXisha&HanBinfang,Zhonggyominjianzongjiaoshi,1164.
39StandardoverviewsincludeQinBaoqi秦寶琦,Qingmominchumimishehuidetuibian淸末民初秘密社會的蛻變,Beijing:Renminchubanshe,2001;ShaoYong,Zhongguohuidaomen;LuZhongwei,Minguohuidaomen;TanSonglin&PengBangfu,Dangdaihuidaomen;Gong'anbuyijued.
公安部一局編,Fandonghuidaomenjianjie反動會道門簡介,Beijing:Qunzhongchubanshe,1985;RobinMunro,ed.
andtrans.
:SyncreticSectsandSecretSocieties:Revivalinthe1980s.
SpecialissueofRedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategoryrelationsbetweenthesegroupsandthewarlords,theKMT,theJapanese,andtheCCP,butmakeslittleornoanalyticaldistinctionbetweensalvationistgroups(theredemptivesocieties),ruralmilitiassuchastheRedSpears紅槍會andBigKnives大刀會,andunderworldgangsandfraternalassociationssuchastheGreenGangs青幫andElders'Societies哥老會.
AlthoughthisliteraturestressesthemassivegrowthofthesegroupsandhighlightstheirdeeptieswithRepublican-erapoliticalandmilitaryelites,itsblindspotisthereligiousdimensionoftheredemptivesocieties,whichistypicallyignored,downplayed,orcategoricallydenied.
Whenthereligiousdimensionismentioned,itisneverplacedinthebroadercontextofthecontemporaryChinesereligiouslandscape,butonlylinkedtothehistoryofheterodoxyandsuperstition,suchaswhenoneauthorstatesthat"ChinesehuidaomenareaformofpopularsecretsocietywithacolourationofreligionandfeudalsuperstitionwhichappearedinthelateperiodofChinesefeudalism.
"Further,hedefinesthedaomen道門assynonimouswithreligiousheresy宗教異端,whilehuimen會門aredefinedasarmedgroups.
40MuchoftheChinesescholarshiponbothsectarianhistoryandsecretsocietiesfitsthemintoananalyticalframeworkwhichseesthemasthesuperstitiousideologyofanti-feudalpeasantrebellionswhich,whentheybecomeRepublican-erasecretsocieties,suddenlychangetheirfunctiontobecomeinstrumentsoffeudalcounter-revolutionaryforces.
LuZhongweiquiteexplicitlystatesthatthereasonthetermhuidaomenisusedistodistinguishthemfromthe"secretsects"祕密教門oftheYuan,MingandQing,simplybecausethelatterhadapositivedimensionofpeasantrebellion,whichwasentirelylackinginthehuidaomen.
41Whilethisliteraturecontainsawealthofmeticulouslyresearchedhistoricaldata,itsanalyticalframeworkisweakenedbyitsconstantoscillationbetweenthestructurallyidenticalbutideologicallyoppositepositionsofQingandsocialistpoliticalorthodoxy.
42AthirdbodyofliteratureisprimarilybasedonanthropologicalfieldstudiesinTaiwan(butalsoinHongKong,SingaporeandMalaysia,andincreasinglyinthemainlandaswell)inwhich"sectarian"groupsaredemonstratedtobepartofthelocalfabricofpopularreligion.
Whereasthe"sectarianhistory"and"secretsociety"literatureChineseSociologyandAnthropology21:4(1989).
SeealsoLuZhongwei,"HuidaomenintheRepublicanPeriod,"ChineseStudiesinHistory44:1-2(2010-2011),pp.
10-37.
40ShaoYong,Huidaomen,1.
41LuZhongwei,Minguohuidaomen,1.
42DavidA.
Palmer,"HereticalDoctrines,ReactionarySecretSocieties,EvilCults:LabelingHeterodoxyinTwentieth-CenturyChina.
"InMayfairYang,ed.
,ChineseReligiosities:AfflictionsofModernityandStateFormation,Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2008,pp.
113-134.
RedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategorystressestheheterodoxandpoliticaldimensionofthesegroups,andpayslittleornoattentiontotheirlinkswithlocalreligiouslife,theworksofethnographyandlocalhistoryshowhowdeeplyembeddedtheycanbeintothe"orthodox"religiouscultureoflocalcommunities.
43Itbecomesdifficulttodrawaclearlinebetweenredemptivesocietiesandlocaltemplecults,spirit-writinghalls,orvegetariangroups.
Studiesofdifferentsectariangroupsoperatinginthesamelocalitieshavealsoprovidedawindowintothesometimesquitedifferentdynamicsofgroupswhichhavevaryinglevelsofintegrationintolocalrituallife.
44InsomeareasofNorthChina,forinstance,themergingof"sectarian"religionandthecommunalreligionduringtheQingcanbeobservedthroughthedisseminationofvegetarianpractices,theinclusionofsalvationistdeitiesandsaints(suchastheUnbornMother無生老母orthefoundersofsalvationistmovements)withinthelocalpantheonofdeitiesworshipedintemples,andthecommonincidenceofreligiousspecialistssuchasDaoistpriests,Buddhistmonks,diviners,orfengshuimasterseitherjoiningorevenestablishingsalvationalgroups.
45Thelocalandanthropologicalfocusofthesestudies,andtheirunderminingofrigiddistinctionsbetween"sectarian"groupsandotherformsoflocalreligiosity,tendstodrawthemintothecategoryof"popularreligion"民間信仰.
Whilenotincorrect,suchacategorizationrisksdissolvingthespecificityofredemptivesocietiesintothesoilofafolkreligionwhichisgenerallyseenasirrelevanttoChinesehistory(exceptwhenitburstsintopopularrebellions)andinconsequentialtothehistoryofChina'smainreligioustraditions.
Inthecaseofredemptivesocieties,however,weseegroupswhichtranscendedlocalconcernsandwereimportantparticipantsintheprocessofdefiningChina'smodernnationalidentityandrecastingitstraditions.
Afinalbodyofliteraturewhichhaslargelyneglectedthecaseofredemptivesocietiesisthesociologicalstudyofnewreligiousmovements.
ThesociologyofreligionhasonlyrecentlytakenaninterestinChina,andmanyworksalreadytreatFalungongasastandard43SeeJosephBosco,"YiguanDao:'Heterodoxy'andPopularReligioninTaiwan.
"InMurrayA.
Rubinstein,ed.
,TheOtherTaiwan:1945tothePresent,pp.
423-444.
Armonk,N.
Y.
:Sharpe,1994;LiShiwei,"ASurveyandEvaluationofPostwarScholarshipofPopularReligioninTaiwan(1950-2000),"ChineseStudiesinHistory44:1-2(2010-2011),38-75;CaoXinyu,"FromFamineHistorytoCrisisMetaphor:SocialMemoryandCulturalIdentityinChineseRuralSociety,"ChineseStudiesinHistory44:1-2(2010-2011),pp.
156-17144SeenotablyJordanandOvermyer,TheFlyingPhoenix,op.
cit.
;KennethDean,LordoftheThreeinOne.
TheSpreadofaCultinSoutheastChina.
Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1998;DuBois,TheSacredVillage,op.
cit.
45LiangJingzhi梁景之,Qingdaiminjianzongjiaoyuxiangtushehui清代民間宗教與鄉土社會,Beijing:Shehuikexuewenxianchubanshe,2004,pp.
283-298.
RedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategoryexampleofacontemporaryNRM.
46FalungongisinfactvirtuallytheonlyChinesecasediscussedintheEnglish-languageliteratureonNRMs.
47TaiwanesescholarshavedebatedaboutNRMssincethe1990's,butwithafocusonrecently-emergentgroupssuchastheTrueBuddhaSchool真佛宗andSupremeMasterQinghai青海無上師.
48Inthemainland,themostcomprehensivebook-lengthintroductiontoNRMsisalmostentirelydevotedtonon-Chinesecasesand,initssinglesentencewhichreferstothehuidaomen,thereisnomentionoftheirhistoryintheRepublicanera:"Actually,NRMsinChinahave400yearsofhistory.
SincetheMing-Qing,thedesperatemassesofthelowerclassesoftenorganizedreligiousgroups,andoftenusedthemasinstrumentsofrebellion,asiscommonlyknown.
Ofthe300-odd"huidaomen"whichweredisbandedinthe1950s,manywereNRMsoftheMing-Qing".
49Groupsfromtheearly20thcenturyarerarelymentionedindiscussionsofNRMs,presumablybecausetheyalreadylook"old",orhavealreadyenteredthemainstreamofTaiwanesereligion.
50Andyet,redemptivesocietiesconstituteamajorwaveofnewreligiousmovementsemerginginthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury,andcontributedtothespawningofsubsequentwavesofreligiousinnovationinTaiwanandmainlandChina.
Precicelybecausethisspecificwavehassubsided,anditsvariousgroupshavefolloweddifferenttrajectories,theredemptivesocietiesprovideanexcellentcasetounderstandtheentirecourseofreligiousinnovationinanon-Western,Chinesecontext,fromtheemergenceofawaveofnewgroupstoitsclimaxandfinaloutcomes.
46SeeforexampleElijahSiegler,NewReligiousMovements,UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:PearsonPrenticeHall,2007;JamesR.
LewisandJesperAagardPetersen,ControversialNewReligions.
NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2005.
47CherisChan,"TheFalungonginChina:ASociologicalPerspective",ChinaQuarterly,179(2004):665–83;LuYunfeng,"EntrepreneurialLogicsandtheEvolutionofFalungong",JournalfortheScientificStudyofReligion,44:2(2005):173–85;seealsothespecialissueonFalungonginNovaReligio(2003,vol.
6no.
2).
48SeeDingRenjie丁仁傑,Shehuifenhuayuzongjiaozhidubianqian–DangdaiTaiwanxinxingzongjiaoxianxiangdeshehuixuekaocha社會分化與宗教制度變遷-當代台灣新興宗教現象的社會學考察,Taibei:Lianjingchubanshiyegufenyouxiangongsi,2004;ZhengZhiming鄭志明,Taiwandangdaixinxingzongjiao台灣當代新興宗教,Lingjiushanwenjiaojijinhuiguijifoxueyanjiuzhongxin,1997;ZhangJiaqi張家麒,"DangdaiTaiwanxinxingzongjiaoyanjiuqushifenxi"當代臺灣新興宗教研究趨勢分析,inZhonghuafazhanjijinguanliweiyuanhuied.
中華發展基金管理委員會主編,Haixialiang'anzongjiaoyushehuixueshuyantaohuilunwenji海峽兩岸宗教與社會學術研討會論文集,2004,pp.
237-281.
49GaoShining高師寧,Xinxingzongjiaochutan新興宗教初談,Beijing:Zongjiaoshehuikexuechubanshe,2006,p.
282.
50OneexceptionisSiegler,NewReligiousMovements,68,whichpresentsYiguandaofollowingadiscussionoftheChinesesectariantraditionasalonghistoryofNRMsinChina.
Seiwert,PopularReligiousMovements,usesRodneyStark'sNRMtheorytoanalysethedynamicsoflateimperialsects.
LuYunfeng,TheTransformationofYiguanDaoinTaiwan,op.
cit.
,pp.
21-45,appliesStark'smodelofsuccessfulNRMstotheexpansionofYiguandaoinmainlandChinafrom1930to1953.
,.
RedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategoryWhenwelookatthebroadpictureofredemptivesocieties,aquestioncomestomind:arewelookingatauniquehistoricalphenomenonoratoneexpressionofalonger,lesshistoricallydeterminedtypeofreligionAndifthelatter,arewespeakingofanalmosteternalcategoryofChinesereligion(the"sectariantradition")orofaneternalsociologicalcategory("newreligiousmovements")–theoneemphasizingtraditionalcontinuity,theotheremphasizinginnovationDavidOwnbyhasarguedagainstthe"sectariantradition"category,stressingthattheterm"sect"anditssociologicalconceptualizationsaregroundedinthelogicofWesternreligiousexperience,whichplacegroupsonachurch-sectpolarity,withsectsbreakingofffromtheChurch,aimingtocreateacommunityoftheelect,andthusfindingthemselvesintensionwiththesurroundingsociety,andcondemnedashereticalbytheChurch.
SuchaconstructclearlydoesnotfiteasilywiththeChinesecontext,wherethereisnoChurchintheWeberiansense;the"sects"havenotbrokenofffromachurch-styleinstitution;theirteachingsaretypicallyhighlyinclusiveandsyncretistic,ratherthan"sectarian"inanascetic,dogmaticsense;andthewholerangeoflevelsoftensioncanbeobserved,withlowornotensionasprobablymostcommonatthelocallevel.
51Asasolutiontothisquandary,Ownbyproposestousetheterm"redemptivesocieties"asacategoryforallthegroupsheretoforedesignatedas"WhiteLotus"or"sectarian",aswellastherepublican-eragroupsunderdiscussionhere,andqigongandFalungongaswell.
Thissemanticshiftallowsustotofocusontheirintrinsiccharacteristicsandmoveawayfromorthodoxy/heterodoxyandlevelsofsocialtensionasthe(explicitorimplicit)definingcriteriaofthesegroups.
ByOwnby'sdefinition,aredemptivesocietyischaracterizedbyacharismaticmasterwhoclaimsindependencefromotherreligiousgroups,preachesamessageofsalvationexperiencedthroughthebodyandgroundedinmorality,whichisoftengivenurgencythroughapocalypticteachings,andtypicallyconsignedinscriptures.
52Thisdefinitionaimstocreateabroadsociologicalcategorywhichcouldconceivablyincludegroupsfromanyhistoricalperiod,andindeedfromanywhereintheworld.
51DavidOwnby,"SectandSecularisminReadingtheModernChineseReligiousExperience.
"Archivesdesciencessocialesdesreligions144,2008,pp.
13-29.
52DavidOwnby,FalunGongandtheFutureofChina,NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2007,pp.
23-26.
RedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategoryShouldtheterm"redemptivesocieties"designateonlytherepublican-eragroups,ortheentirerangeofgroupsspanningdifferenthistoricalperiodsInmyview,theactualchoiceoftermsisofsecondaryimportance,butOwnby'spropositionneedstoberefinedbydistinguishingbetween(1)labelsfordistincthistoricalwavesofgroupsthathaveappearedindistinctcircumstancesandhavetheirowncharacteristics–sothatwecanidentify,forexample,theredemptivesocietiesoftherepublicanera,thepost-Maoqigongmovement,aswellasdifferentwavesofgroupsatearlierhistoricalperiodsaswellasinthepresent,eachwithitsdistinctcharacteristics;and(2)another,moresociologicalcategorywhichdescribesthecommonstructuralfeaturesofthesegroupsandthedynamicsoftheirrelationswiththebroadersocietyandreligiousfield.
Intheremainingsectionsofthispaper,Iwillproposetousetheterm"salvationistreligion"救度宗教asthelattersociologicalcategory,and"redemptivesocieties"救世團體asaspecificwaveofsalvationistgroupswhichoccuredinthefirstdecadesofthe20thcentury.
Thelabel"redemptivesocieties"hasbeencriticizedascarryingChristianconnotationsofredemptionwhichareoutofplaceinthestudyofChinesereligion.
53MypersonalopinionisthattheuseofChristianterminologyisnotentirelyunfoundedinthecaseofthesegroups,sinceseveralofthesegroupswere,consciouslyornot,partlyinspiredbyChristianmodelsofreligiosityandorganizationandthat,evenwithintheirownChineseeschatologicalframework(Confucianutopianismand/orUnbornMothermillenialism),theysoughttoredeemtheChinesepeople,andevenallofhumanity,fromitsstateofcorruptionandmoraldegradation.
TheinfluenceofChristianityonredemptivesocietiesdeservesfurtherinvestigation54(andChristianitywouldneedtobeincludedinthehistoryandsociologyofsalvationistreligioninChina,asconceptualizedbelow).
IndiscussionsheldwithChinesecolleaguesatthetwoconferencesatFoguangUniversitywhichledtothisdoubleissueofMinsuquyi,however,theliteralChinesetranslationofredemptivesocietiesasjiushutuanti救贖團體wasconsideredtobetooexclusivelyChristianandforeigninconnotationtobeappropriate,andaftermuchdiscussion,thetermjiushituanti救世團體wasfelttobeamoresuitableChinese53JacquesGernet,personalcommunication,Paris,April2006.
54OntheinclusionofChristianityintheDaoyuan,seeRichardF.
Young,"SanctuaryoftheTao,"op.
cit.
,onYiguandao'sappropriationofChristianity,seePhilipClart,"TheImageofJesusChristinaChineseInclusivistContext:I-kuanTao'sChristologyanditsImplicationsforInterreligiousDialogue,"inZongjiao,wenxueyurensheng宗教,文學與人生,ed.
ChungYun-Ying鍾雲鶯(Chungli中壢:YuanzhiDaxueZhongwenxi元智大學中文系,2006),279-313.
RedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategoryequivalent(othertermssuchasdushituanti渡世團體andjishituanti濟世團體werealsoconsidered).
Jiushituantiliterallymeans"salvationsociety"–but,asChenJinguolaternoted,thistermhasmoresecular,this-worldlyconnotationsthanotherChinesetermsforsalvationwhichhavemoreconnotationsofinnerself-cultivation.
Heproposedthetermjiudu救度(渡)ashavingamorecomprehensivemeaning,encompassingbothinnercultivationandoutermerit.
55Inthispaper,Iadopthissuggestedtermforthebroadersociologicalcategoryof"salvationistreligion,"whichIrenderinChineseasjiuduzongjiao救度宗教,whileretainingjiushituantiastheChinesetermforthewaveofgroupsdesignatedinEnglishas"redemptivesocieties.
"AsThomasDuBois'contributiontothisissuedemonstrates,thethis-wordly,philanthropicjiushiorientationofredemptivesocietiescontainsinittheseedsofasecularizingtendencywhichmaycomeintotensionwiththeirteachingsoninnerspiritualcultivation.
Inthefinalanalysis,however,whether"redemptivesocieties"inEnglishor"jiushituanti"inChinese,oranyotherterm,thepurposeistofindamonikertoidentifyaspecificwaveofRepublican-erareligiousmovements,ratherthantoengageinhair-splittingdebatesontheliteralmeaningofthenameitself.
SalvationistreligionassociologicalcategoryPerhapsthefirstscholartoapplytheterm"salvationist"toChinesereligiousgroupswastheanthropologistMyronCohen,who,inhisarticleon"SoulsandSalvation,"emphasizedthatthedistinguishingfeatureoftheso-called"sectarian"groupsincontrasttothe"popularorthodoxy"ofcommunalreligionistheirfocusonindividualsalvation.
Thisismostobviouswhenwecomparetheirattitudestodeath.
Themaindeath-relatedconcernsincommunalreligionarecontinuedinteractionwiththelivingthroughacquiringthestatusofancestor;survivingthe"purgatory"ofdealingwiththeunderworldbureaucracy;andthepossibilityofreturntothisworldthroughreincarnation.
Salvationistmovements,however,promise"theimmediatepassageatdeathfromearthtoparadise.
"56Whilenotionsofuniversalsalvationarecertainlypresentinpopular55ChenJinguo陈进国,"Zoujinzongjiaoxianchang"走进宗教现场,Zongjiaorenleixue宗教人类学vol.
1(2009),p.
4n.
1,accessedonlineon15Dec.
2010athttp://www.
chinesefolklore.
org.
cn/web/index.
phpPage=3&NewsID=655656MyronCohen,"SoulsandSalvation,"inJamesL.
Watson&EvelynS.
Rawski,eds.
DeathRitualinLateImperialandModernChina.
Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1988,p.
197.
RedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategoryreligion,forthemostparttheyremainembeddedinasocialorthodoxyinwhichthosewhowhoenjoyaprivilegedpositioninlifearepreciselythosewhoaresuccessfulindeath:"Thosewhoinlifehadmarriedvirilocally,producedmaleoffspring,bequeathedtothempropertyofsomesignificance,anddiedatareasonablyadvancedagecertainlywereinthebestpositiontoreceiveproperritualattentionafterdeath.
"57Insalvationistreligion,ontheotherhand,paradise–theWesternHeavenortheReturntotheOrigin--waspromisedtoallwhoturnedtocompassionatedeitiessuchastheUnbornMother,regardlessoftheirsocialstation.
Thoughthereligiousworldviewofmostpeoplemayhaveincludedalloftheseviews,notmakingdistinctionsbetweenthem,andthoughsalvationistgroupsoftenprovideddeathritualsaccordingtopopularorthodoxy,whatdefinestheso-called"sectarian"groupsisthesalvationistteachingsoutofwhichtheyoriginated.
ThespecificcontentsofChinesesalvationistreligionvaryatdifferentperiods,buttypicallyshareanumberofinterconnectedfeatures:afoundationalcharismaticfigureand/ordirectdivinerevelations;amillenarianeschatology;moralteachings;anon-ascriptive,voluntarypathofsalvation;anembodiedexperiencethroughhealingand/orbodycultivation;andanoutward,expansiveorientationthroughgooddeeds,evangelism,orphilanthropy.
58Alloftheseelementsareinterconnectedandmutuallyreinforcing:themillenariancosmologypositsbothcalamityandthepossibilityofsalvation,andprovidesaframeworkofmeaningforpresent-daysufferinganddisorder,aswellasanimaginedotherworldofbliss,moralityandjustice.
Whenactivatedthroughpropheciesofimminentcatastrophe,itprovidesanimpetusformissionizingexpansion,aswellasritualandphilanthropicactionstosavetheworld.
Thecharismaticmasterand/orspirit-writingrevelationsprovideasenseofdirectconnectionwithdivineauthority,whichcanattractadherentsandmovethemtofollowthepathofsalvation,whichincludesoneoracombinationofmoralconduct,bodycultivationandscripturerecitation.
Thehealingandbodycultivationexperiencesprovideavisceral,embodiedconfirmationofthepathofsalvation.
Acongregationorcommunityoffollowersistheproductoftheseteachingsandpractices.
59Salvationistgroupsarethus,attheirorigin,distinctfromtheascriptivecommunitiesandritualspheresofmuchofChinesereligion:theyareneitherthe57Cohen,"SoulsandSalvation,"190.
58ThesecharateristicsareexpandedfromOwnby,FalunGong,25-26.
59SeeDavidA.
Palmer,"EmbodyingUtopia:CharismainthePost-MaoQigongCraze,"NovaReligio12:2(2008):69-89,andtheotherarticlesinthesamespecialissueofNovaReligioon"MappingCharismainChineseSocieties.
"RedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategorydomesticandlineagecultofancestors,northecommunal-liturgicalreligionoflocalvillages,neighbourhoodsandcorporations,northestatecults.
Theproportionsoftheseelementsmayvaryamongsalvationistgroups,aswilltheirspecificcontents.
Somedrawonasingletradition,suchasBuddhismorDaoism,whilemanyotherswillcombineseveral.
60However,totheextentthatalimitednumberofculturalcontentsandmodalitiesreadilyexistinthepopularreligiousculture,61wewillobservesimilarcontentsandmodalities,simplycombinedindifferentwaysandmodifiedindifferenthistoricalcontexts,throughouttherangeofgroups.
Variationsinthisbasicarchitecture,however,canleadtoagreatdiversityofgroupformations.
Someofthese,butnotall,willbesectarianinthesociologicalsense,withrelativelyhighlevelsoftensionwiththeirculturalandsocialenvironment.
ThesociologicaldefinitionofthesecthasbeenthesubjectofendlessdebatessinceWeberandTroeltsch;perhapsthemostsuccintandheuristicformulationisthatproposedbyStarkandFinke:"Allreligiousgroupscanbelocatedalonganaxisoftensionbetweenthegroupanditssocioculturalenvironment.
[…]Tensionreferstothedegreeofdistinctiveness,separation,andantagonismbetweenareligiousgroupandthe'outside'world.
Atthehighendofthetensionaxis,seriousantagonismexists,sometimeseruptingintobloodyconflict.
Atthelowend,thereexistssuchcompatibilitybetweenagroupanditsenvironmentthatitishardtodistinguishbetweenthetwo.
[…]Sectsarereligiousbodiesinrelativelyhighertensionwiththeirsurroundings.
"62Theverynotionofsalvationandmillenialismimpliesthatthereissomethingwrongwiththepresentconditionoflife,andthedesiretoprogresstothe"otherside"impliessomedegreeoftensionwiththecurrentstateofsociety–atensionwhichMaxWeberexpandedonthroughhisconceptofasceticism,whetherworld-rejectingorinner-worldly.
63Bydefinition,theideaofsalvationimpliesthatweneedtobesavedfromthis60OnformsofChinesesyncretism,seetheconclusiontoClart'scontributiontothisissue.
61SeeAdamChau,"ModalitiesofDoingReligion,"inDavidA.
Palmer,GlennShiveandPhilipWickerieds.
,ChineseReligiousLife,NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2011,chap.
4.
62RodneyStark&RogerFinke,ActsofFaith:ExplainingtheHumanSideofReligion,Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2000,p.
143.
63MaxWeber,TheSociologyofReligion,sectionH.
1,accessedonlineon15Dec2010athttp://www.
ne.
jp/asahi/moriyuki/abukuma/weber/society/socio_relig/socio_relig_frame.
html.
TheRedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategoryworld,andapathofsalvationinvolvesadoptingpracticeswhichdifferfromthecustomsoftheaverageperson.
Butthereisadifferenceinlevelsoftensionbetween,say,tryingtoupholdhighermoralstandardsthanothersbutotherwisebeingfullyintegratedintosociallife;partakingofavegetariandietonthefirstandfifteenthofeachmonth;becomingafullvegetarian,andtherebycuttingoneselfofffrommanyformsofcommonsociality;andlivinganextremelyasceticlifeofvoluntarypovertysuchaseatingonlygruel,growinglonghair,andhandingallone'spropertytothesect,asinthecaseoftheYixintiandaolonghuashengjiaohui一心天道龍華聖教會.
64Dependingonthegroup,salvationistbehaviourcanthusrangefrommerelipservicetomoralidealsandactsofphilanthropicgenerosity,tosignificantdeviancefromsocialnorms.
Withinthesalvationiststructure,itispossible,butnotinevitable,foragrouptoreachahighlevelofsalvationistintensity,apocalypticurgency,orasceticseverity,allofwhichwouldleadagrouptobecomemoresectarian.
Similarly,theappearanceofanewcharismaticfigure,oranentrepreneurialleader,canleadtoagroupbreakingofffromanother,andsuchbreakingawaycanoccurunderconditionsorhigherorlowertension,leadingtomoreorlesssectarianrelationshipsandcompetitionbetweengroups.
Sectarianismwillthusappearinvaryingdegreesamongtherangeofsalvationistgroups.
Nomatterhowsectarianagroupatonemomentintime,however,weknowthatgroupscanevolvefromlowertohigherlevelsoftension,andviceversa.
Manypathsoftraditionalizationcanbeobserved,inwhichthepractices,teachingsandparticipationinasalvationistgroupgraduallyblendintothelocalreligiousculture,removinganytensionwiththesocioculturalenvironment.
SuchaprocesscanbeseenrepeatingitselfinChinesereligioushistory,followingwaveafterwaveofsalvationism.
Whilesalvationistgroupsevolvetoplaylow-tensionfunctionsinthereligiousecology–suchastemplecults,ritualspecialistsormonasticenclaves--newcharismaticleadersordivinerevelationsstimulatefreshsalvationistimpulsesandtheemergenceofnewgroups.
conceptofsalvationistreligionasdiscussedinthisarticlewasconstructedinductivelythroughthecomparisonofChinesecasesandtheinsightprovidedbyMyronCohen,"SoulsandSalvation",ratherthanthroughtheapplicationofWeber'stheory.
Asithappens,itseemstocorrespondneatlywithmuchofWeber'sdiscussionofsalvation,offeringpromiseforfruitfulinsightsandcomparativestudiesbetweenChineseandotherculturalandreligioustraditions–butmanypotentialpitfallsaswell,givenWeber'softenerroneousanalysisofChinesereligion.
Adetailedtreatmentoftheseissuesisbeyondthescopeofthisarticle.
64LiShiyu,XiandaiHuabeimimizongjiao,op.
cit.
,pp.
166-175.
RedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategoryTheHeavenlyMasters天師道oftheLaterHan(25-220),forexample,beganasanewsalvationistmovementinSichuan,withclearelementsoftensionwiththesurroundingreligiousculture(condemninganimalsacrifice,forexample),butevolvedinthemediaevalperiodintotheleadingspecializedprovidersofliturgicalservicesforthecommunalreligion.
ThesalvationistandmillenarianaspectsoftheMaitreyacultwereamongthemostpopularformsofearlyChineseBuddhismduringtheSixDynasties,untilBuddhismwasdomesticatedthroughimperialpatronageandencapsulatedthroughinstitutionalizedmonasticism,inwhichhigh-tensionformsofspiritualasceticismareclearlydelineatedfromthemainstreamculture–aprocessthatalsooccurredwithQuanzhenDaoism全真道intheJin(1115-1271)andYuan(1277-1367).
ThePureLandlayBuddhistmovement,theWhiteLotusSociety,theUnbornMothercultandthePatriarchLuo羅教teachingsrepresentsubsequentwavesofsalvationism,elementsofwhichmergedintothemanystrandsofsalvationistreligioncommonintheMing(1367-1644)andQing(1644-1911).
Amongthelatterstrands,groupssuchastheHongyangjiao弘陽教,Huangtianjiao黃天教,Taishangmen太上門andTiandimen天地門graduallymergedintothelocalreligiouscultureofNorthChina,theirfoundersworshipedasgodsinlocaltemples,ortheirmembersoperatingasritualspecialists,asobservedbycontemporaryethnographers.
65InHongKong,manyofthesalvationistXiantiandao先天道congregationshavegraduallybecomelocalDaoisttemples.
Ontheotherhand,Yiguandao,itselfaXiantiandaooffshoot,afteroverfivedecadesofhistoryasarapidlyexpandingmovementonthemainlandbefore1949and,subsequently,inTaiwan,isnowinafarlowerstateoftensionsincetheTaiwanesebanonYiguandaowasliftedin1987,66evenasnewhigher-tensionsalvationistgroups,suchasHaizidaoandMiledadao,havesplitofffromit.
Inthesameperiod,awaveofnewsalvationistmovementsappearedintheTaiwaneseBuddhistmilieu,suchastheCijigongdehui慈濟功德會.
67Inthemainlandpost-Maoqigongmovement,severalgroupsshowedsalvationisttendencies;someremainedaslow-tensionprovidersofmorningexercisesandhealthregimens,whileothers,suchasFalungong,evolvedintorelativelyhighlevelsoftensionwiththesurroundingsocioculturalenvironment.
65SeetherecentfieldresearchbyThomasDuBois,CaoXinyu,DanielOvermyer,FanLizhu,andYangDer-Ruey,amongothers.
66LuYunfeng,TheTransformationofYiguandaoinTaiwan,113-135.
67SeeJuliaC.
Huang,CharismaandCompassion:ChengYenandtheBuddhistTzuChiMovement.
Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,2008.
RedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategoryTheseChinesecases,however,mayleadustoreconsiderthesourcesoftensionasdescribedinthesociologicalliterature,whichtendstoassumethatthestateisneutraltowardreligiousgroups,andthatsectsvoluntarilybreakofffromthedominant,low-tensionchurchestoofferamoredemandingpathtosalvation:tensionisbetweenthesectanditssocio-culturalenvironment,orbetweenthesectandthedominantChurch.
ButtheChinesecasealertsustothedynamicsoftensionbetweensalvationistgroupsandthestate.
Suchtensionmayoriginateinthereligiousgroupitself--acombinationofcharismaandapocalypticismmayconflatewithnotionsofdivineemperorshipandthemandateofheaven,andfromtherestimulateorlegitimatepoliticalrebellion.
Butitmaybestateitselfwhich,fearfulofsuchascenario,stigmatisesandbanssalvationistgroups,causingthemtobeinhighlevelsoftension.
Tensionmaythuscomefrominternalsources(thegroupitself)orexternalones(thestate),andchangesintheoverallleveloftensionwillresultfromtheinterplaybetweentheinternalandexternalfactors.
Furthercomplicatingthepicture,groupsmaybeatahighleveloftensionwiththestate,butatalowerleveloftensionwiththelocalsocioculturalenvironment–asituationwhichmayhavebeencommonintheMingandQingwhensalvationistmovementsthrivedinlocalcontextsbutwerebannedas"hereticaldoctrines"邪教.
Theearly20thcenturyoffersopensausefulwindowforcomparingtheeffectsofinternalandexternalsourcesoftension:thesuppressionof"hereticaldoctrines"endedwiththefalloftheQing,beginningaperiodduringwhichChinesesalvationistmovementsenjoyedanunprecedentedleveloffreedom,withchangingandinconsistentlevelsofgovernmentregulationundervariousregimes,untiltheywereonceagainrepressedashuidaomenin1949.
Thestructureandinnerdynamicsofsalvationismthusproduceswaveuponwaveofnewgroupsateachgeneration.
TousetheWesternsociologicalterminology,theseareNRMs.
Butsincetheyalwaysrecombinepre-existingelementsoftheChinesereligiousculture,theyalwaysseemfamiliar,notquiteso"new".
Atthesametime,sinceeachwaveappearsinaspecificpoliticalandhistoricalcontext,andsincethegroupsareyoungandnotconstrainedbyarigidorthodoxy,theyarehighlyreactiveandresponsivetotheuniqueconditionsandculturalcrisesoftheirtime.
Assuch,theyarefascinatingprismsforstudyingthereligiousproductionsofsocialchangeatanyhistoricalperiod.
6868ElijahSiegler'stextbookNewReligiousMovements,op.
cit.
,isthefirstworkonNRM'stotakebothahistoricalandglobalview,lookingbeyondtheusuallistofNRMsappearinginthepost-warWesttolookatNRMsindifferentculturaltraditionsincludingWesternesotericism,missionizingAsianRedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategoryRedemptiveSocietiesasHistoricalPhenomenonTheRedemptivesocietiesofRepublicanChinarepresentawaveofsalvationalmovements,auniqueproductofaspecificsetofhistoricalcircumstances.
Althoughtheydirectlydescendfromlateimperialtraditions,theyalsorepresentaspecificresponsetothechallengesandopportunitiesaffordedbythecollapseoftheimperialorderandtheirruptionofmodernity.
Redemptivesocietieshaveadistinctiveimprintwhichmakesthemalmostimmediatelyrecognizable,anddistinctfrombothlateimperialsalvationistgroupsaswellasfrommorerecentmovements,whetherqigong,mainlandConfucianrevivalistgroups,orotherNRMs.
Theyraiseseveralquestionsaboutthereligiosityofbusiness,military,andformergentryelitesinRepublicanChina;69abouttheformulationofalternativeChinesediscoursesofcivilization,traditionandmodernity;abouttheinterplaybetweentraditionalandmodernformsofcharityandrescue;70andabouttheideologicalandpoliticalrelationshipsbetweenredemptivesocietiesandemergingmodernstates,fromtheearlyRepublictotheKMTregimeandJapanesepuppetstates.
OnewayofidentifyingtheredemptivesocietiesoftheRepublicaneracanbeaccordingtoasetofclearcriteriawhicharenotbasedonthecontentoftheirteachingsorpractices(whichdovaryfromgrouptogroup,makinggeneralizationsproblematic),butonfourorganizationalcharacteristics:(1)althoughtheyfreelydrewontheThreeTeachings,theywerenotaffliliatedtotheorthodoxinstitutionsofthelatter,whetherConfucianacademies,BuddhistorDaoistmonasticism,ortheZhengyiDaoistordinationsystemforliturgicalmasters(eventhoughsomeindividualmembersofredemptivesocietiessometimeshadsometrainingoraffiliationwithanorthodoxinstitution).
(2)membershipwasvoluntary:theyweredistinctfromtheascriptivecommunitiesoflocalreligion;(3)theyformednationalorprovincialassociationswhichregistered(orattemptedtoregister)withthestateaslegalentities(withthestatusofreligions,charitiesorcivicassociations)withaconstitutionandarticlesofincorporation,overseeingareligions,NRMsinEastAsia,newreligionsofAfricaandtheAfricandiaspora,andIslamicnewreligions.
69SeePaulR.
Katz,"'ItisDifficulttobeIndifferenttoOne'sRoots'.
TaizhouSojournersandFloodReliefduringthe1920s.
"BulletinoftheInstituteofModernHistory,AcademiaSinica54,2006,pp.
1-58;andhisforthcomingarticleonWangYiting王一亭.
70SeeDuBois'contributiontothisissue.
RedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategoryhierarchyofhallsorbrancheswhichspannedseveralregionsifnotthewholecountry;(4)theseassociationswerefirstestablishedinRepublicanChinabetween1912and1949.
Whilemanyredemptivesocietiesdirectlyderivedfromlate-imperialheterodoxgroups–suchastheZailijiao,Xiantiandao,TongshansheandYiguandao--itwasundertheimpulsionofacharismaticleaderorspirit-writingcommunicationsduringtheRepublicanperiodthattheymodifiedtheirtraditionalorganizationalstructure,aiming(withvaryingdegreesofsuccess)toturnthemintointegratednationalorganizationswithalegalstatus.
Usingthesecriteria,allofthegroupslistedatthebeginningofthispapercanbecategorizedasredemptivesocieties;whiletherearenoothertypesofChinesereligiousgroupswhich,tomyknowledge,fitthosecriteria.
However,wecannotignoretheorganicrelationshipbetweenredemptivesocieties--ofwhichtherewereatmostonlyafewdozenhaving,accordingtothecriterialistedabove,trans-regionalornationalorganizations–andthethousandsofsmallergroups,lodges,hallsandsects,whetherspirit-writinghalls,71vegetariangroups,72benevolentsocieties,73andmoralitysocieties,whicharetheimmediateculturalandreligiousmatrixoutofwhichredemptivesocietiesgrewandwhichthusneedtobeconsideredinanystudyofredemptivesocieties,butwhichdonot,owingtotheirsmall,localscale,fitintothecategory.
Manyredemptivesocietiesgrewoutofsuchsmallergroups,wereinfactattemptstoorganizenetworksofsuchgroups,ormerelyspawnednewgenerationsofincreasinglyautonomouslineagesandlocalchapters.
LookingatChinaasawhole,weseeasmallnumberofredemptivesocietieswhichwere,oraspiredtobe,actorsinthehistoryofthenation(orofthe71Onspirit-writinggroups,seeGarySeaman,TempleOrganizationinaChineseVillage.
Taipei:TheOrientCulturalService,1978;LaurenceG.
Thompson,"TheMovingFingerWrites:ANoteonRevelationandRenewalinChineseReligion,"JournalofChineseReligions10(Fall1982);JordanandOvermyer,TheFlyingPhoenix;WangChien-ch'uan,Taiwandezhaijiaoyuluantang台灣的齋教與鸞堂,Taibei:Xinwenfengchubanshe,1996;PhilipClart,"TheRitualContextofMoralityBooks:ACase-StudyofaTaiwaneseSpirit-WritingCult,"Ph.
D.
diss.
,UniversityofBritishColumbia,1997;"ConfuciusandtheMediums:Istherea'PopularConfucianism'"T'oungPaoLXXXIX(1-3),2003,pp.
1-38;"MoralMediums:Spirit-WritingandtheCulturalConstructionofChineseSpirit-Mediumship,"Ethnologies25(1):153-190;GraemeLangandLarsRagvald,"Spirit-WritingandtheDevelopmentofChineseCults,"SociologyofReligion59:4(1998):309-328.
72Onthe"vegetariansects"zhaijiao齋教inTaiwan,seeWangChien-ch'uan王見川andJiangCanteng江燦騰,eds.
Taiwanzhaijiaodelishiguanchayuzhanwang台灣齋教的歷史觀察與展望,Taibei:Xinwenfengchubanshe,1995;WangChien-ch'uan,Taiwandezhaijiaoyuluantang.
73SeeJoannaF.
HandlinSmith.
"BenevolentSocieties:TheReshapingofCharityDuringtheLateMingandEarlyCh'ing.
"JournalofAsianStudies,2(1987):309-337;AngelaLeung梁其姿,Shishanyujiaohua–Ming-qingdecishanzuzhi施善与教化:明清的慈善组织,Taibei:Lianjingchubanshiyegongsi,1997;VivienneShue,"TheQualityofMercy:ConfucianCharityandtheMixedMetaphorsofModernityinTianjin"ModernChina32.
4(2006):411-452;YauChi-on(YouZi'an)游子安.
Shanyurentong:MingQingyilaidecishanyujiaohua善與人同:明清以來的慈善與教化.
Beijing:Zhonghuashuju,2005.
RedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategoryworld),butifwefocusonasingletownorneighbourhood,weseeacomplicateddynamicofrelationsbetweennationwideredemptivesocietynetworksandmorelocalgroups.
Atoneextreme,ThomasDuBois'workclearlydemonstratesthatofthefour"sectarian"(i.
e.
,salvationist)traditionspresentinthevillageshestudied,thetwogroupswewouldcallredemptivesocieties–ZailijiaoandYiguandao–hadbranchesbutshallowrootsinvillagerituallife,andsocouldbefullyeradicatedbytheCCPcampaigns,whilethetwooldertraditions–Taishangmen太上門andTiandimen天地門--hadbecomeintegraltolocalcultureandrituallife,andre-appearedinthepost-Maoera.
74Ontheotherhand,studiesinTaiwan,notablybyPhilipClart,showthelocaltractationsandcompetitionbetweenYiguandaoandlocalspirit-writingcults,andhowpre-existinghallscouldactuallyjoinorsplitofffromYiguandao.
75InmyownfieldresearchinHongKongandMacau,IhavecomeacrossonecasewhichillustratesthedenselinkswhuchcanexistatthelocallevelbetweenredemptivesocietiesandallotherformsofChinesereligion.
TheDejiao德教redemptivesocietyisoneofthelargestnetworksofChinesereligiousandsocialorganizationsinSoutheastAsia,withseveraltemplesinThailand,MalaysiaandSingapore.
TheMacautemplewasestablishedinthelate1990sbyacharismatichealerandphilanthropist,LinDong林東,whoisreveredbyhisfollowersastheincarnationofJigong濟公.
JigongisoneofthemaindeitiesappearinginDejiaospirit-writingseances;severalDejiaotempleshavereceivedrevelationsfromJigong,advisingDejiaomemberstoturntoLinDongforguidanceandhealing.
LinDongandhisownorganization,theDongjingyuanfohui東井圓佛會,havethusbecomeveryinfluentialamongtheDejiaocommunitiesthroughoutSoutheastAsia,inadditiontocontrollingtheMacautemple.
ThelatterisamemberoftheMacauDaoistAssociation,ofwhichLinDongishonourarychairman.
HealsosponsorsfestivalsandprocessionsfortheTianhou天后birthdayfestivalsatlocalcommunaltemplesinHongKong,successfullylobbiedtohaveJigongcanonizedasanational-levelintangibleheritageinChina,andsitsontheboardsofdozensofstate-sponsoredphilanthropicsocietiesinthePRC!
Whatthiscaseshowsisthat,whileitcanbeanalyticallyusefultomakedistinctionsbetweenredemptivesocietiesandotherforms74DuBois,TheSacredVillage.
75SeeJordan&Overmyer,TheFlyngPhoenix;andClart,"ThePhoenixandtheMother:TheInteractionofSpirit-WritingCultsandPopularSectsinTaiwan,"JournalofChineseReligions25(1997):1-32.
RedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategoryofChinesereligion,thelocalrealitymaybefarmorecomplex,revealingintenselinksandcirculationsbetweenthem.
RedemptivesocietiesandthemodernhistoryofDaoismandConfucianismAsrecentresearchhasmadeincreasinglyevident,thestoryofredemptivesocietiesiscrucialtounderstandingthemoderndevelopmentofeachofChina'smajorreligioustraditions.
InthecaseofDaoism,studieshaveonlybeguntoexplorehowredemptivesocietieswereamongthechiefpropagatorsofDaoistself-cultivationpracticesintheearly20thcentury,onascalewhichwouldonlybesurpassedbytheqigongmovementofthe1980'sand1990's.
DuringtheQing,spirit-writinggroupswereveryactiveinrevealingneidan內丹(inneralchemy)textsattributedtoDaoistimmortalssuchasLüDongbin呂洞賓,ZhangSanfeng張三丰andChenTuan陳摶.
Thistrendcontinuedintherepublicanperiod,includingthroughthespirit-writingtextsofthelargerredemptivesocieties.
OneofthecorepracticesoftheTongshanshewasameditationmethoddirectlyderivedfromtheneidanmethodsoftheXiantiandao.
ThecorescriptureoftheDaoyuan,theTaiyibeijizhenjing《太乙北極真經》,revealedbyLüDongbinin1917,wasonesuchtext;otheralchemicaltextswerepublishedbytheDaoyuaninthefollowingdecades.
Oneoftheleading20thcenturyauthorsofneidanmanuals,ZhaoBichen趙避塵(1860-1942),wasactiveintheZailijiaoanduseditsnetworktodisseminatehisteachings.
TheheadsofZaililodges,thedangjia當家,imitatedtheappeatanceofQuanzhenDaoists,claimedaQuanzhengenealogy,andpracticedDaoistself-cultivationmethods.
ThepoliticianJiangChaozong江朝宗,theleaderoftheWushanshe(whichlaterbecametheJiushixinjiao),wasamajorpatronoftheBaiyunguan,Beijing'sleadingDaoistmonastery,andwasalsooneofthesponsorsoftherepublicationoftheDaoistCanon.
76TheKMTofficialLiYujie李玉階(1901-1994),whowasaleadingfigureoftheTiandeshengjiaointhe1930s(and,in1979,wouldfoundtheTiandijiao天帝教inTaiwan),spenteightyearsatHuashanduringtheSino-Japanesewar,wherehelivedalongsideQuanzhenmonks,studiedDaoistscriptures,andthrougha76Foradetaileddiscussionoftheseexamples,seeVincentGoossaert,TheTaoistsofPeking,op.
cit.
,pp.
297-317.
RedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategoryformofspirit-writing,composedhismajorwork,basicallyareformulationofDaoistcosmologyusingscientificterms.
77DrawingontheDaoisttraditioncanbeseenasanaturalexpressionofthesyncretismoftheredemptivesocieties.
But,accordingtoGoossaert,manyofthetextsthattheyproduced"evinceathoroughknowledgeoftheTaoistcanonicallegacyandastrictadherencetoQuanzhenhistoriography.
"78Andinfact,heargues,theexpansionistredemptivesocietiesplayedalargerrolethanQuanzhenclerics–whousuallyonlyhadasmallhandfulofdisciples–indisseminatingDaoistself-cultivationmethodsinRepublicanChina.
InthecaseofConfucianism,anargumentcouldbemadethatredemptivesocietieswerethemainorganizedexpressionofConfucianisminRepublicanChina–evenifscholarshiponConfucianismseemstobecompletetyunawareoftheirveryexistence.
Indeed,lookingattheiroriginalsourcesofinspiration,theredemptivesocietiescanbeclassifiedintotwomaingroups.
Somederivedfromearliersalvationisttraditions,notablythroughtheXiantiandao,andcarriedontheUnbornMothercultandthethree-stageeschatology.
Others,however,notablytheDaodexuesheandtheWanguodaodedui,maintainedastrongConfucianidentity,towhichtheyadded,however,auniversalisttendency,honouringthefoundersofallmajorreligionsandadvocatingtherealization,onaglobalscale,ofthe'GreatCommonwealth'(datong大同)dreamtofintheBookofRites,andelaboratedonintheutopianmodebyKangYouweiandothers.
Inspiteoftheirdifferentorigins,thesetwotypesofredemptivesocietyevolvedinsimilardirections,blurringthedistinctionbetweenthetwo.
Bothpracticedspirit-writinganddrewtheiractivistsfromtheremnantsoftheoldclassofliterati;bothadoptedThree-in-OneorFive-in-Onesyncretism;bothlaunchedphilanthropicprojects.
TheConfuciangroups,whichadoptedmoremodernorganizationalforms,alsotaughtmeditationandhealingpractices;whilethetraditionalsalvationistgroupsalsoemphasizedthestudyoftheConfucianclassics.
TheTongshanshe,forinstance,whichwasadirectoffshootoftheXiantiandaotradition,wasveryactiveinpromoting"Nationallearning"國學initsmanybranches.
79Thismergingofthetwostrandswasaproductofthetimes:expelledfromtheRepublicanideology,ConfucianismhadlostitsorthodoxprivilegesandwasonaparwiththegroupsderivedfromtheMing-Qing77SeeDavidA.
Palmer,"TaoandNation.
"78Goossaert,TheTaoistsofPeking,315.
79SeeWangChien-ch'uan'scontributiontothisissue.
RedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategorysalvationisttraditions.
Atthesametime,thelattercouldtakeadvantageofthepoliticalconfusionandmodernformsofcommunicationandorganization,toraisetheirpublicprofileandorganizationalcapacity,whiletheirsyncretismallowedthemtoaspiretobecomerepositoriesofthetotalityofChinesetraditioninthefaceofWesternmodernism.
TheroleoftheConfucianassociations,andoftheold-style,Confucian-educatedliterati,inthisconfigurationwastheresultofthedownfallofConfucianismastheofficialideologyandthesuddendisbandingofitsMandarinatewiththeendoftheEmpire.
Followingtheabolitionoftheimperialcultandofthetraditionalexaminationsystem,severalassociationswereformedadvocatingthedesignationofConfucianismasthestatereligionofthenewRepublic,notablytheKongjiaohui孔教會.
Withthefailureofthiscampaign,theConfucianassociationsbecamereligiousorphilosophicalsocietieslikeanyother,detachedfromofficialorthodoxyandobligedtocompetewithallmannerofothergroups,providingabroaderrangeofspiritualservices,blurringthedistinctionbetweenthemselvesandsalvationisttraditions—evolvingintheprocessfromayearningforanationalreligiontoanuniversalistidealofaworldreligion.
Atthesametime,theabruptendoftheimperialsystemanditsConfucianritualandculturehadleftaroundfivemillion80traditionally-educatedliterati(asperaround1900),whowereofanearliergenerationthantheyoungergraduatesofthemodern-styleandoverseasschools,suddenlybereftofaritualandorganizationaloutletfortheirvaluesandidentity.
Thisrolewaslargelytakenoverbytheredemptivesocieties,whichaimedtotransmittheclassicalscripturallegacyandtraditionalmorality,butwithinasocialorganizationadaptedtonew,Western-inspiredmodelsofa'religion'(withachurchhierarchy,Sundayprayersandchoirs,missions,journals,andeven,insomecases,baptism).
OneexamplewastheXixinshe洗心社(Heart-cleansingsociety),whichliterallycarriedoutKangYouwei'sprojectofaConfucianchurchinthecitiesandlargetownsofShanxi.
ThesocietymeteverySundayinlocalConfuciustemplesorpublichalls.
Sermonsbylocalnotablesand,sometimes,Christians,wereassortedwiththeburningofincensebeforeatabletofConfuciusandceremonialbowsbytheaudience.
81Similarly,theDaodexuesheheldweeklygatheringswhichbeganwithasermon,withprayersledbyalecturer,followerd80DavidJohnson,"Communication,Class,andConsciousnessinLateImperialChina.
"InDavidJohnson,AndrewNathan&EvelynS.
Rawski,eds.
PopularCultureinLateImperialChina,Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1985,pp.
58-59.
81Rawlinson,RevolutionandReligion,39-40.
RedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategorybycongregationalmeditation.
Thesociety'sobjectivewastounifytheworldandtheworld'sreligions,whichallrevolvedaroundthebasicteachingsofConfucianism.
82TheWanguodaodeduiwasfirstestablishedinJinan(Shandong)byJiangShoufeng江壽峰(1875-1926),whohadbeendeeplyinvolvedintheKongjiao孔教movement,sendingfrequentpetitionstovariousgovernmentdepartmentscallingfortheestablishmentofConfucianismasthenationalreligionandforthecompulsoryteachingoftheclassicsinallschools.
HissupportforotherreligionsmarginalizedhimamongthehardlineConfucians,buthegainedanaudienceafterhisson,JiangXizhang江希張(1907-),wasfoundtobeachildprodigy,abletowritecommentariesontheclassicsbeforetheageof10,aswellasapacifisttract,theXizhanlun《息戰論》,whichdrewonthescripturesofthefivemainreligions,andcalledfortheestablishmentoftheWanguodaodehui,called"WorldwideEthicalSociety"inEnglish.
83Fatherandsonbegantoorganizethegroupin1916.
TheysentcommentariestoscholarsandpoliticalandmilitarynotablesoftheBeiyangregime,earningtheenthusiasticsupportofsome,andregisteredwiththenationalgovernmentin1921.
84TheSociety,whichworshipedthefoundersoftheFiveTeachings,wasofficiallyinauguratedonthebirthdayofConfuciusatTai'an,Shandong,on28September1921;itshonourarypresidentsincludedthepoliticianWangShizhen王士珍,thegovernorandmilitarycommanderofShanxi,YanXishan閻錫山,andtheAmericanmissionaryGilbertReid李佳白,85whiletheheadofthelineageofthedescendantsofConfucius,KongDecheng孔德成(1920-,77thgenerationheirofConfucius,whowasstillachild)wasappointedashonorarychairman.
TheabovediscussionoftheroleofredemptivesocietiesinthemodernhistoryofDaoismandConfucianismpresentsonlyfragmentaryandpreliminarydatabasedonveryrecentresearchbyasmallhandfulofscholars.
InthecaseofBuddhism,thepossibleconnectionsandoverlapsbetweenredemptivesocietiesandthereformedlayBuddhistmovementsoftherepublicanperiod,remaincompletelyunchartedterrainforfuturestudies.
82OntheDaodexueshe,seeFanChun-wu'scontributiontothisissue.
83LuZhongwei,Huidaomen,131.
84XiaMingyu,"Minguoxinxingzongjiaojieshe,"pp.
8-13.
85OnGilbertReid,seeTsouMingteh,"ChristianMissionaryasConfucianIntellectual:GilbertReid(1857-1927)andtheReformMovementintheLateQing",inDanielBaysed.
ChristianityinChina:fromtheEighteenthCenturytothePresent,Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress,1999,pp.
73-90.
RedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategoryConclusionThestudyofChinesereligionhaslongbeenhamperedbytheuseofinappropriatecategoriesderivedfromtheWesternChristian/secularexperienceand/orfromthepolitical-ideologicalagendaoftheQingempireanditsmodernistsuccessors.
Afterafewdecadesofdebatesbetweensinologists,historians,anthropologistsandsociologists,asetofcategoriesmoreusefulthantheoldlabelof"superstition"hasbeguntoemergetodescribeandunderstandtraditional"Chinesereligion,"primarilyinitslocal,communalexpressionthroughitsterritorialtemples,lineageorganizations,ritualtraditionsandsymbolicandadministrativerelationswiththeimperialstate.
ButtheworkhasonlybeguninrelationtothesalvationistandmillenarianstrandsofChinesereligion.
Whiletextualandhistoricalsourceshavebeenamplystudied,thecategoriesusedtodescribeandcomparethesemovements,suchas"sectarian,"remainlittlemorethanlabelsofconveniencewhosepotentialoverlaporcontrastwiththeWesternsociologyofChristiansectarianism,ortheChinesediscourseonsectarianrebellion,havenotalwaysbeenfullyaccountedfor.
Thisarticlehasproposedsomepreliminaryelementsofananalyticalframeworkforstudyingthesereligiousmovements.
Thenotionofsalvationistreligionreferstoasociologicalcategoryofreligiousgroupswhoseteachingsandpracticesengenderadynamicwhichcanbecontrastedtoascriptivecommunalreligionandcanengendervaryingdegreesoftensionwiththesurroundingsocioculturalenvironment.
Inthehistoricaltrajectoryofasalvationistgroup,tensioncanincreaseordecrease;itmaybecomesectarian,maymergeintothelocalreligiousculture,ormaybeinstitutionalized.
Changesinlevelsoftensionwillbeafactoroftheattitudesofthestateasmuchasthoseofthegroupitself.
ThedynamicofsalvationistreligionisauniversalsociologicalconstructwhichcanbeusefullyappliedtoanyperiodofChinesehistory,includingthecontemporayperiod,andtomovementsdrawingonanysetofteachings,betheyDaoist,Buddhist,Confucian,Christian,orother.
ItalsolendsitselfwelltoengagementwiththestudyofWesternchurch-sectdynamicsandnewreligiousmovementsinthesociologyofreligion.
Seenwithinthisframework,theRepublican-eraredemptivesocietiesrepresentanimportantandfascinatinghistoricalwaveofChinesesalvationistgroups.
Thiswaveappearedatatimewhentheoldimperialorderhadcollapsed,andreligion,societyandculturewereinastateofextremeflux.
Modern,Western(andJapanese)worldviews,formsofsocialorganizationandinstitutionalizationwereontheascendant,whilenationalistanduniversalistresponsesandreformulationsofChineseculturewereinRedemptiveSocieties:HistoricalPhenomenonorSociologicalCategoryactiveferment.
Suchacontextnotonlyopenedawidespaceforthegrowthofsalvationistgroups,butalsoforinnovationintheirteachings,practicesandorganizationalforms.
Redemptivesocietieswerequicktointegratemodernformsofnationalassociation,scientism,universalism,philanthropyandpublicengagementintotraditionalmodelsofsalvationism.
Atatimewhentheverynotionsof"religion,""superstition"and"Chinesetradition"werethesubjectofheateddebates,redemptivesocietiesconsciouslyattemptedtoformulatealternativesynthesesofspirituality,traditionandmodernity.
Someoftheseattemptspositionedthemselvessquarelyas"religion"(suchasthe"Newreligiontosavetheworld")whileothersclaimedtobea"Way"thattranscendsallreligions(suchastheDaoyuanandYiguandao).
Somewereelite-dominatedexpressionsofethicaluniversalism(suchastheWanguodaodehui)whileothersweremoreintenselyapocalypticwithamorepopularfollowing(suchasJiugongdao).
OfficialpolicytowardthesegroupsshiftedbetweenthewarlordregimesoftheBeiyangperiod,theKMTstate,Japanesepuppetstatesandcommunistliberatedareas,andredemptivesocietiesadoptedarangeofstrategiestonavigatetheunstablepoliticallandscape,rangingfromundergroundavoidancetoactivecollaborationorarmedresistance.
RedemptivesocietiesarethusauniqueproductofRepublicanChina,whichneedstobestudiedinrelationtothepolitical,ideologicalandculturalconflictsofthatperiodofChinesehistory(theyalsocontinuedtoplayanimportantroleinpostwarTaiwanandintheChinesediasporaofSoutheastAsia,andneedtobestudiedinthoseregionalcontextsaswell);atthesametime,theyareorganicallyconnectedtoamuchlargerlandscapeofsmallergroups,aswellastootherwavesofgroupsthatprecededtheminlateimperialChina,andthatfollowedtheminpost-MaoChinaandTaiwanaftermartiallaw.
ThispaperhasproposedapreliminaryframeworkforsituatingredemptivesocietieswithinthebroaderhistoryandsociologyofChinesereligion.
Futureresearchwillundoubtedlyleadtofurtherelaborationsandrefinementsofthisframework,andrevealfurtherdimensionsoftheroleofredemptivesocietiesintheconstructionofChinesereligiousmodernity.
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