Heresphotobucket

GreenSocialNetworkingFrameworkforIndustrialEcologyApplicationsMohamedRaoufGhaliJean-MarcFrayretJean-MarcRobertDecember2014CIRRELT-2014-68GreenSocialNetworkingFrameworkforIndustrialEcologyApplicationsMohamedRaoufGhali1,Jean-MarcFrayret1,2,*,Jean-MarcRobert11DepartmentofMathematicsandIndustrialEngineering,PolytechniqueMontréal,P.
O.
Box6079,StationCentre-ville,Montréal,CanadaH3C3A72InteruniversityResearchCentreonEnterpriseNetworks,LogisticsandTransportation(CIRRELT)Abstract.
Thispaperaimstoreviewandanalysetheroleofsocialnetworkingtostimulatethedevelopmentofindustrialsynergies.
Inordertoanalysehowsocialmediacancontributetoachievingthisgoalandtoultimatelyreducingtheenvironmentalimpactsofindustry,thispaperfirstpresentsareviewofdifferentmodelsofthedevelopmentofindustrialsymbiosis,aswellasaliteraturereviewonInformationandCommunicationTechnologiesforIndustrialSymbiosis.
Next,thenewconceptofGreenSocialNetworking(GSN)isintroducedasanovelapplicationofGreenIS,whichaimstopromoteanddevelopcleanerindustrialpracticeswithinindustrialnetworksandregions.
InordertopresentthisnewapplicationofSocialMedia(SM),thispaperanalysesthemostcommonfunctionsofexistingsocialmediasitesandhighlightstheirpotentialcontributionswithrespecttoinitiatingindustrialsynergy.
Thepracticalcontributionofthispaperaimstointroducenewoptionstostimulateinformationsharinginindustrialareasandultimatelytofacilitatetheidentificationofindustrialsynergies.
Thispaperalsocontributestothedefinitionofnewinformationsystemsconcepts,whichpracticalusefulnessmustbestudiedanddevelopedfromatheoreticalperspective.
Keywords:GreenIS,industrialsynergy,industrialsymbiosis,sustainabledevelopment,socialmedia,socialnetwork,GreenSocialNetworking(GSN).
Acknowledgement.
TheauthorswouldliketothankgratefullytheCentredeTransfertTechnologiqueencologieIndustriellefortheircollaboration.
WewouldalsoliketothanktheFondsderechercheduQuébec–Natureettechnologies(FRQNT)andtheNaturalSciencesandEngineeringResearchCouncilofCanada(NSERC)fortheirfinancialsupport.
ResultsandviewsexpressedinthispublicationarethesoleresponsibilityoftheauthorsanddonotnecessarilyreflectthoseofCIRRELT.
LesrésultatsetopinionscontenusdanscettepublicationnereflètentpasnécessairementlapositionduCIRRELTetn'engagentpassaresponsabilité.
*Correspondingauthor:Jean-Marc.
Frayret@cirrelt.
caDéptlégal–BibliothèqueetArchivesnationalesduQuébecBibliothèqueetArchivesCanada,2014Ghali,Frayret,RobertandCIRRELT,20141.
IntroductionIndustrialsynergycanbeconsideredasaformofeco-collaborationbetweentwoormorecompanies"inordertomaximizethebenefitofeco-efficiency"(Brooksetal.
,2012).
Morespecifically,itisdefinedastheoperationofsubstitutingorsharingthesupplyortreatmentofaflowbetweencompanies(Bengoa,2007),regardlessofthenatureofthisflow(mutualisticorcommensal)(Jensenetal.
,2011).
Itdiffersfromindustrialsymbiosis,whichencompassesmanysuchflowsthroughoutentireindustrialnetworksandregionaleconomies.
Theconceptofindustrialsymbiosisisdescribedinmanydifferentformsacrosstheliteratureanditisoftenassociatedwitheco-industrialparks(EIP),eco-industrialdevelopments,regionalsourcesynergies,circulareconomyandeco-industrialnetworking(CtéandCohen-Rosenthal,1998;Cohen-Rosenthal,2003;VanBeersetal.
,2007;GengandDoberstein,2008;Cardinalgroup,2013).
Specifically,anindustrialsymbiosisconsistsofexchangesbetweenorganizationsinagivenregionoranindustrialpark,by-products,whichmaytaketheformofsolidwasteproduction,wastewaterorenergyflowinordertoincreasetheutilizationofresources.
Itentailsanindustrialnetwork,whichcanbedevelopedeitherspontaneously(Chertow,2000;Jacobsen,2006)orthroughplanning(e.
g.
,asanEIP)(Chertow,2007)regardlessofitsstructure(Ashton,2008).
Suchnetworksaimtoachieveenvironmentalgoalsandcontributetoenvironmentalsustainability.
Forthemostpart,economicincentivesaretheprimarymotivationfororganizationsinvolvedinthecreationofenvironmentalbenefits(CtéandCohen-Rosenthal,1998;Desrochers,2004;Chertow,2007;Duflouetal.
,2012).
Exchangesbetweenorganizationsarenotrestrictedtomaterialandenergyflow,theycanconcerninformationandideasaboutbusinesspractices(MirataandEmtairah,2005).
Suchintangibleexchangesareessentialforcompaniestohelpthemfindsuitablebusinesspartnersandshareresourceswithinabusinesscommunity(Heeresetal.
,2004)Intheglobalizedindustrialsphere,InformationandCommunicationTechnologies(ICT)arecrucialforthedevelopmentofsustainableindustrialapproachessuchasindustrialsymbiosis(Isenmann,2009).
TheconceptofGreenISisrelativelynewand,assuch,isstillpoorlydefinedinthecontextofsustainabledevelopment.
Someinformationsystemapplicationsforindustrialsymbiosiscurrentlyexist,suchasPrestéo(SociétéSystèmesdurables),SYNERGIe(NationalIndustrialSymbiosisProgramme)andBRIQ(Centredetransferttechnologiqueenécologieindustrielle).
However,toourknowledge,theseapplicationsdonotincludesocialmediafeatures.
Furthermore,socialmedia-stylenetworkinghasyettobeintegratedintothedevelopmentofsymbioticpartnerships.
Thispaperproposestoaddresstheseissues.
2.
ObjectivesandMethodologyThispaperaimstoanalyzethepotentialroleofsocialmediatostimulatethedevelopmentofindustrialsynergies.
Itshouldbenotedthattheterms"socialmedia"and"socialnetwork"areusedinasimilarmannerthroughoutthispapertorefertotheideaofsocialnetworking.
However,thereisadifferencebetweensocialmediaandsocialnetworks.
Thelatterconsistsoftechnologicaltoolsthatinvolveandfacilitateentertainment,contentcreation,andinteractionsbetweenpeople.
ItreferstoallWeb2.
0tools(e.
g.
,blogs,forums,socialnetworks)thatallowuserstogetintouchandsharecontentwitheachother.
Theformerrefersspecificallytotheactualsocialconnectionsbetweenindividuals,oratleastthepotentialtoreachindividualsandformsuchconnections.
Socialnetworksappear,amongothers,fromtheuseofsocialmedia.
Thisdistinctionbeingmade,thispaperaimstoidentifythedifferencesbetweenvarioussocialmediafeaturesandanalyzeshowthesefeaturesmightbeimplementedandusedwithininformationsystemsdesignedtofacilitatethedevelopmentofindustrialsynergies.
Inbrief,throughtheanalysisoftheliteratureandthefieldsofIS,GreenISandindustrialecology,thispaperaimstoestablishthepotentialbenefitsofinitiatingandpromotingindustrialsymbiosiswiththeuseofsocialmedia-stylenetworks,inordertopromotethedevelopmentofthenewfieldofGreenSocialNetworking.
Inordertodoso,thispaperfirstpresentsareviewofdifferentmodelsofindustrialsymbiosisdevelopment.
Then,itanalyzestheliteratureonGreenIS,andproposesanupdateddefinitionthatconveystheaddedvaluethatsuchinformationsystemscanprovidetoolsforinnovativegreenbusinessdevelopment.
Next,basedonthisliteratureandtheanalysisofthefunctionsprovidedbysocialmedia,thispaperproposesadefinitionofthenewconceptofGreenSocialNetworkingasanovelapplicationforGreenIS,whichaimsatpromotinganddevelopingcleanerindustrialpracticesatthelevelofindustrialnetworksandregions.
ThisdefinitionofGreenSocialNetworkingalsoentailsadescriptionofsocialmedia,particularlysocialnetworking,detailingtheirprimary(e.
g.
,sharing,collaboration)andsecondary(e.
g.
,advertising,linking)functions.
Thiscomprehensiveanalysisaimsathighlightingtheusefulnessofsocialnetworkingandthepotentialenvironmentalapplicationsofitsvariousfunctions.
3.
IndustrialsymbiosisaroundtheworldTheliteraturepresentsmanycasestudiesofregionalindustrialsymbiosesaroundtheworldsuchastheindustrialareaofKwinana(Australia)(VanBerkel,2007),theRotterdamharboranditsindustrialcomplex(Netherlands)(BaasandBoons,2007),andPuertoRico(USA)(ChertowandLombardi,2005).
However,KalundborginDenmarkremainsthemostcitedexampleandisconsideredamodelofindustrialsymbiosis(Jacobsen,2006).
TherearetwokeyreasonsforexplainingthepastandcontinuingsuccessofKalundborgindustrialsymbiosis:theseindustrialpartnershipsarecommerciallyviableand,thenetworkedpartnersarelocatedclosetoeachother,whichfacilitatesanyformofmaterialorenergyexchangebetweenthem.
3.
1TwomodelsofindustrialsymbiosisdevelopmentIndustrialsymbiosesaretypicallyorganizedwithinacommunitysuchasacity,forinstanceKalundborg(Denmark),Kwinana(Australia),Guayama(PuertoRico),Campbell(UnitedStates),ShenzhenandUlsan(China),oraregion,forinstancethestateofStyriainAustria,theTianjinEconomicDevelopmentAreainBinhai,China,theRotterdamHarborintheNetherlands,andcertainUKindustrialareas(Chertowetal.
,2012).
Theanalysisofsuchindustrialsymbiosesshowsthattheseexchanges,whichareassociatedwithenvironmental,economicandsocialbenefits,areoftenpropelledbylocalorganizationsandinitiatedbycompanies.
Theliteraturedescribestheconceptsofindustrialsynergyandindustrialsymbiosisextensively,notingthattheinitiationanddevelopmentofindustrialsymbiosisovertimetypicallycorrespondtooneoftwodevelopmentmodels(Chertow,2007):aself-organizedmodelandaplannedmodel.
Investigationsandcomparisonsofthesetwomodelsandtheirrespectivesuccesses,failuresandlimitingfactorshavegivenrisetomajordebates.
Forinstance,LombardiandLaybourn(2012)revisitedtheinitialdefinitionofindustrialsymbiosisproposedbyChertow(2000),anddeniedtheargumentthatgeographicalproximitywasakeyelementforplannedattemptsatdevelopingindustrialsynergy(intheformofeco-industrialparks).
Beyondtheneedtounderstandcontributingfactorsfortheemergenceofindustrialsymbiosis(eitherself-organizedorplanned),theneedtobetterunderstandtheinitiationphaseofthisemergenceisparticularlyrelevant.
Self-organizationreferstoprocessesbywhichanorganizationalstructureemergesonitsown,withoutbeingledbyanoutsidesource.
Inbusinessmanagementtheory,theexistenceofself-organizedcommunitiesconsistingofcompaniesthatshareinterests,protocolsandinfrastructureiswell-documented(Milesetal.
,2010).
Theirpracticessupportcollaborationamongmembers.
Self-organizedcommunitiesmanifestthemselvesinvariouscircumstances,forinstancetorevitalizetheeconomyofacommunity,tocreatejointventuresandachievecommongoalsformutualgain,ortosolveanenvironmentalissuethroughanindustrialsymbiosis(Brooksetal.
,2012).
Ontheopposite,plannedindustrialsymbiosisreferstoprocesseswherepotentialsynergiesareidentifiedandinitiatedbyathirdparty.
Thispartygenerallyusesstructuredapproachesbasedonspecificmethods(e.
g.
,COMETHE)andutilizestoolstoanalyzematerialflowswithinindustry,suchas:TheFacilitySynergyTool(FAST),developedbytheUS-EPA,whichisanaccessdatabaseconnectedtoageographicinformationsystem(GIS);Prestéo(Systèmedurables),aweb-basedtoolwithlimited(non-public)access,whichincorporatesadatabaseofindustrialflowsfavoringtheclosureofindustrialflowsandfacilitatingtheidentificationofsynergies;TheISIS(IndustrieetSynergiesInter-Sectorielles)database,developedbytheEDF(lectricitéRéseauDistributionFrance)group;itonlytakesphysicochemicalaspectsofflowsintoconsideration;SYNERGiev,asystemdevelopedbytheUK-basedNISP(NationalIndustrialSymbiosisProgram);thesystemwasdevelopedasasupporttoolforfacilitatingindustrialsymbiosisprogramswithinbusinesscommunities;itisonlyaccessibletothesystem'sfacilitators;TheISDATAproject(IndustrialSymbiosisDataSources),whichaimstostructuredatarelevanttoindustrialsymbiosisintoonecentralrepository.
ChertowandEhrenfeld(2012)conceptualizedthedevelopmentofindustrialsymbiosesasoccurringinthreestages:(1)sprouting,(2)uncoveringandembeddedness,and(3)institutionalization.
Self-organizationcanundoubtedlyleadtotheinitiationanddevelopmentofindustrialsymbioses,whichcanlaterbemanagedbyacoordinatingbody,inlinewiththisprocess(Chertow2007).
Forexample,inKalundborg,environmentalregulationstriggeredthedevelopmentofindustrialsynergiesasearlyas1960(BringsJacobsen,2006;EhrenfeldandGertler,1997).
Suchadevelopmentresultsfromalongprocessofevolution,eventhoughitoriginatedspontaneously(asopposedtotheplannedmodel).
Thesuccesshereisduetoexistingfavourableconditions,suchasthehighleveloftrustbetweenbusinessleadersandanabsenceofcompetition(Duret,2004).
Whiletherewereseveralstudiesonthesuccessofself-organizedindustrialsymbiosis(Chertow,2007;Gibbsetal.
,2007),otherstudieshaveidentifiedmixedformsofevolutiontowardindustrialsymbiosisinbusinessescommunities,arguingthatthisprocessdoesnotoccurspontaneously(BoonsandBaas,1997).
Suchstudiesemphasizethatindustrialsymbiosescanbeeffectivelydesignedandpromotedthroughnationalinitiativesorpolicyinstruments(Parketal.
,2008;VanBerkeletal.
,2009;Zhangetal.
,2010;Shietal.
,2010).
Thisplanned(i.
e.
,goal-directed)processofnetworkingoccurswhen"partiesinteracttoachieve,plan,coordinate,ordecideontheirindividualandcollectiveactivities"(PaquinandHoward-Grenville,2012).
OneofthemostsuccessfulexamplesoftheplannedmodelistheUK-basedNISP,whichisaprivatesectorinitiativeoftheBusinessCouncilforSustainableDevelopment.
Thismodelconsiderstheentirecountryasaeco-industrialpark(Jensenetal.
,2011)withtheNISPbeingresponsibleforconnectingitsmembers,disseminatingknowledgebetweenthemandensuringacentralfocusonsustainabledevelopment(Lowe,1997,Ashton,2008,CostaandFerraro,2010).
3.
2TowardsahybriddevelopmentmodelofindustrialsymbiosisAlthoughtheliteraturepresentstwooppositedevelopmentmodelsofindustrialsymbiosis,therealityisgenerallymorecomplex.
Industrialsymbiosispartnershiprequiresratherdelicatecooperation.
Trust,goodpersonalrelationshipsbetweenleaders,broadcommunitysupportandcollaborationbetweenpairsorgroupsofenterprisesareimportantrequirementsformanyfunctionaleco-industrialparks,regardlessofwhetherthispartnershiphasbeenplannedordevelopedspontaneously(Sakretal.
,2011).
Forexample,intheInter-IndustrialMaterialsFlowManagementRhine-Neckar-Experienceproject(IMFM)inGermany(SterrandOtt,2004),aninitialobjectivewastoverifywhetheranindustrialareacoulddevelopintoanindustrialsymbiosiswiththeinfluenceofanexternalcatalyst(asopposedtoaspontaneousinitiation,asinKalundborg).
Asaresult,itappearsthattheregionallevelisthemostappropriateforthistypeofsymbiosisprojectbecauseitenablesamoresubstantialsynergisticpotentialforthedevelopmentofcloseloopflows.
However,adisadvantageofindustrialsymbiosisinitiativesataregionallevelisthatbusinesscommunicationandtransparencyarebothmoredifficulttoachieve.
Theoutcomeofthisprojectalsohighlightedtheneedfortools,whichprovideamulti-platformcommunicationforumwithinwhichexpertsandmanagerscancreateandfostermutualtrust,andeventuallycoordinatebusinessactions,whilealsoallowingfortheprovisionofreliableandinexpensivedatatohelpcompaniesstimulatethiscoordinatedaction.
Suchtoolsarenecessaryforcompaniestoexploitthepotentialofindustrialsynergy,forexampleunderstandingthattheirby-productsandindustrialwastearesimilartothoseofneighbouringbusinesses,orthatthewasteofneighbouringbusinessescouldbeusefultothem.
Moreimportantly,thesecommunicationtoolsarenecessarytohelpcompaniesrealizethatthechallengeandresponsibilitiesofwastemanagementcanbesharedandthatitisintheirintereststoworktogetheronthatissue.
Therefore,anapproachtofosterthedevelopmentofindustrialsymbiosiswouldbetouseinformationtechnologytoenablecompaniestosharesomelevelofinformationthatwouldallowthemtoidentifyandpre-analyzesynergyopportunities.
Suchaninformationsystemcouldsupportcompaniestojointlysolvetheirindustrialwasteandby-productsissues.
Itcouldalsopromoteplannedregionalinitiativebyactivelyidentifyingcompaniesthatcouldberelevanttosuchinitiatives.
Suchanapproachofindustrialsymbiosisdevelopmentwouldbedeemedhybridasithascharacteristicsofboththeself-organizedandplannedapproachestoindustrialsymbiosisdevelopment.
Beyondtheformationofasymbioticbusinesscommunity,itisstillimportanttoconsider,atthemicrolevel,thedevelopmentofasingleindustrialsynergybetweentwobusinesses.
A"simple"exchangeconsistsoftheestablishmentofalinkbetweentwocompanies,inwhichbothareawareofthebenefitsoftheircooperation(Heresetal.
,2004).
Thedevelopmentofsuchalinkcaninturnaffectothercompaniesandstakeholders(Meneghettietal.
,2012).
Forinstance,thesynergyandsymbiosisprojectsconductedbytheCentredeTransfertTechnologiqueencologieIndustrielle(CTTEI)1showthatwhenacompanyhasdevelopedasynergy,italsodevelopsthecapabilitytomoveforwardwithothersimilarinitiativeandcreatefurtheropportunitiesforsymbioticdevelopment.
Table1outlinesboththeplannedandself-organizedsymbiosisdevelopmentscenarios,aspreviouslydiscussed.
Ahybridscenarioisalsopresentedinordertoaccountforsymbiosiswithbothorigins.
NotethattheinformationinTable1onlypertainstotheinitialphaseofasynergyproject.
Therefore,onlyapreliminaryfeasibilitystudyisincludedtoidentifyunrealisticsynergyopportunitiesthatcaneasilybescreenedout.
However,becausesynergyprojectsusuallyrequireinvestments(Grantetal.
,2010,Duflouetal.
,2012),amorerobusteconomicalandtechnicalfeasibilitystudywouldneedtobecarriedoutonceafirstcontactismade.
Allthreescenariosfollowthesamegeneralsteps:(1)acknowledgementofaneed;(2)identificationofpotentialsynergies;(3)preliminaryfeasibilitycheck;and(4)contactbetweencompanies.
Thehybridscenarioisamixofboththeplannedandtheself-organizedscenarios.
Athird-partymaysometimesbeinvolved,whichisanorganizationwhosepresenceismandatedbytheneedsofdirect(i.
e.
,potentialpartners)orindirectstakeholders(e.
g.
,cities,industrialassociations,orotherformsofauthority)inasynergy.
1http://www.
cttei.
qc.
ca/realisations_projets_e.
phpTable1:SymbiosisdevelopmentscenariosStepsofascenarioPlannedscenario(top-down)Self-organizedscenario(bottom-up)HybridscenarioAcknowledgementofaneedAcknowledgementofaneedtomanagewasteorby-productsbyanorganizationwithinagivenarea.
Thisneedisnotnecessarilyacknowledgedbytheproduceroftheby-product.
Acompanyacknowledgesitsneedtomanageoracquireanothercompany'swasteorby-products.
By-productsareseenasapotentialfeedstockforanothercompany'sprocesses.
Identificationoracknowledgementofaneedtomanagewastesorby-productsbyanorganization,whichmaybetheproducerorthepotentialuseroftheby-products,orathird-party.
IdentificationofpotentialsynergiesIdentificationofpotentialsynergiesbyathird-partymandatedtoimprovethemanagementofthewastesorby-products.
Identificationofoneormanypotentialsynergiesbytheby-productproducerorthepotentialby-productuserwithinagivengeographicarea.
Identificationofoneormanypotentialsynergiesbytheproducer,thepotentialuserofby-products,orathird-party,withinagivengeographicarea.
PreliminaryfeasibilitycheckPreliminaryverificationofthefeasibilityandinterestsofboththeproducerandthepotentialuserbythethird-partyorganization.
Preliminaryverificationofthefeasibilitybythecompanywiththeneed.
Preliminaryverificationoffeasibilityandinterestsfrompotentialpartners;thisprocessiscarriedoutby:theproducerorpotentialuserofby-products(ifsynergyistobemoreself-organized);athird-partymandatedtodevelopsynergies(ifsynergyistobemoreplanned).
ContactContactbetweenthecompaniesisinitiatedbythethird-party.
Contactbetweenthecompaniesisinitiatedbyoneofthem.
Contactbetweenthecompaniesisinitiatedbyoneofthemorathird-party.
Table1highlightsanexplicitunderstandingoftheneedsisimportantfortheinitiationofapartnership;partiesmustacknowledgetheirmutualinterest.
Thisgenerallyshowsitselfthroughacompanyrecognizingawaytoimproveaspecificinefficiency.
Thisinefficiencyorproblemishereforthreferredtoasthe"need".
Suchaneedbecomesthebasisofdiscussionsaboutanyindustrialsynergyplansoropportunitiesforidentifyingpotentialsynergy.
Itshouldbenotedthattheseneedsarenotnecessarilyacknowledgedexplicitlybydirectstakeholders,andintheplannedscenario,theycanbeidentifiedormonitoredbyathirdparty.
Thenextdevelopmentalstepofindustrialsymbiosis,accordingtoGrantetal.
(2010),istheidentificationofsynergyopportunities,whichcanoccurthroughthreepossiblemeans:(1)thedevelopmentofnewprocessesthattransformby-productsintousableresourcesorproducts(whichisusuallyalong-termapproach);(2)thereplicationofsuccessfulsynergiesbysimilarorganizationselsewhere;and(3)thematchingofinputandoutputbetweencompanies.
InallthreesynergydevelopmentscenariospresentedinTable1,thesemeanscanbeinstrumental.
However,inthecaseofaplannedapproach,athird-partycandeveloptheexpertiseorspecifictoolstoimplementthesecondandthirdmeans(i.
e.
,replicationandinput-outputmatching).
Anotherimportantaspectintheidentificationofsynergyopportunitiesisaccesstoinformation.
Again,athirdpartycanbeinstrumentalforgatheringsuchinformationinordertoeitherreplicateexistingsynergiesorimprovematchingbetweenbusinesses.
Inthecaseofself-organizedsymbiosis,potentialpartnersmustbecomeawareoftheircomplementarityontheirown.
Therefore,inordertofacilitatethedevelopmentofindustrialsymbiosisonaself-organizedbasis,organizationsmustreducethe"mental"or"psychologicaldistance"betweenthemselvesandpotentialpartners(Jesenetal.
,2011).
Onceasynergyopportunityisidentified,itisnecessarytoconductapreliminaryfeasibilitycheckinordertoeliminateunfeasiblematches.
Notethattheidentificationofopportunitiesandtheirfeasibilitycheckcanbecarriedoutinamoreorlesssimultaneousmanner,dependingontheintensityofthepreliminarycheck.
Finally,onceafeasiblesynergyopportunityisidentified,thedirectstakeholdersmustconfirmthefeasibilityaswellastheirmutualinterest.
Inorderforthesynergytoflourishanddevelop,theymustdeveloptrustovertime(Erkman,2001;LambertandBoons,2002;Gibbs,2003;Mirata,2004;Murphy,2006;Ashton,2008;Sakretal.
,2011).
Thesubsequentphasesofsynergydevelopmentareoutsidethescopeofthispaper,andmaybeconsideredalongthelinesofmoretraditionalformsofbusinessdevelopment.
ThenextsectionsofthispaperdealwiththesestepsofinitiatingindustrialsynergyandtheirlinkstotheconceptofGreenIS.
4.
GreenISGreenISusuallyreferstoaninformationsystemthatisusedtoachieveanenvironmentalobjective(Dedrick,2010).
TherearestillambiguitieswithrespecttowhatexactlyconstitutesagreenIS(Ijabetal.
,2010).
ThissectionreviewsacademicdiscussionsinordertoproposeamorespecificdefinitionofGreenIS.
SincethereisamarkeddifferencebetweenISandIT(Boudreau,ChenandHuber,2007),thisstudyleavesouttheGreenITliteratureasitfocusesonhardwareaspectsofinformationsystems,suchasserversandcomputersenergyconsumption,andlifecycleanalysisoftheircomponentsandsub-systems.
Thispaperfocusesongreensoftwaresystems.
4.
1.
RedefiningtheroleinGreenISThissectionaimstoexplorethenewrolesofgreeninformationsystem(GreenIS),whichhasincreasinglybecomemorethanstoring,transmittingandprocessinginformation.
TheneedtoredefinetheroleofISinthesustainabledevelopmentdomain(referredtoasGreenISinthispaper)isingrainedinliterature.
AsIjab(2010)stated"AlthoughtheGreenISconstructhasbecomeincommonuse,itisnotwelldefined".
ThecommondefinitionofGreenISistheuseofISinordertoachievespecificenvironmentalobjectives(Dedrick,2010)byencouragingindividualsandorganisationstoadoptsustainablebehaviours(Yorketal.
,2009)calledeco-sustainability(Gholamietal.
,2013)throughautomationandtransformationofproducts,businessprocesses,businessrelationshipsandpractices(Chenetal.
,2008andMelville,2010).
Brooksetal.
,(2012)intheirdefinitionencompassfourelements:technology,humanaspect,organizationalmindsetandculture.
Basically,inthispaper,wearguethattheroleofGreenISincludesthreemainroles,namely:storing,retrievingandpresentinginformation;supportingdecision-making;andcoordinatinggreeninitiatives.
Theseroles,whencombined,couldsetthestageforinitiatingorpromotingindustrialecologyinaninnovativeway.
ThefirstbasicroleofGreenISistoprovide,ontheonehand,functionssuchassaving,storing,transforming,andpublishingdata(i.
e.
,inputs)emittedfromoneorseveralsources.
Ontheotherhand,ISprovidesfunctionstotransmitthisdatatooneorseveraldestinations.
ThisisthefoundationoftheotherfunctionsofGreenIS.
Itallowscompaniestomonitorandcontrolspecificproductionindicators,whichinturnenablesthemtoassessspecificemissions,theirtrends,andtocarryoutsimpledataanalysis.
AlthoughthesefunctionsarecommontoanyISingeneral,issuesrelatedtosemanticanddatamodelingmustbeaddressinordertoenableinformationsharingbetweenorganizationsacrossregionsandcountries(Grantetal.
,2010).
Inthecontextofindustrialecology,thisisparticularlyimportantforthesharingofgoodpracticesandknowledgedissemination.
ThesecondroleofGreenISistosupportdecision-making.
Itbuildsonthepreviousfunctionsinordertoprovideadvancedtoolsofdataanalysis.
Thesefunctionsincludeenvironmentalimpactassessmenttools(seeCucek,etal.
,2012forarecentreview)andeco-industrialparkdesigntools(seeBoix,etal.
,(2014)forarecentreview).
Thesetoolsoftenembedspecificknowledgeintheformofinformationandmathematicalmodelsandindicators(e.
g.
,impactindicators,environmentalfootprints,costmodels,flowmodels).
Theycanalsoexploittheknowledgeofpastanalysis,impactstudies,andbestpracticesinordertoprovideimpactandperformanceestimations,forecastsorrecommendations.
Suchtoolsarenecessarytoassessthecost/impacttrade-offofindustrialsynergy,aswellastheirmostcosteffectiveconfigurations.
Finally,thethirdroleofGreenISaimstocoordinateinteractionbetweenactorsinordertosupportgreeninitiatives.
Suchinitiativesoftenrequiretheinvolvementofseveralactors.
Industrialsynergiesandsymbiosisareperfectexamples.
Inordertosupportsuchinitiatives,GreenIScanprovidesimplefunctionssuchasasharedvirtualenvironmenttocoordinateappointmentsandexchangeinformation.
Itcanalsoprovidemoreadvancedfunctionsinordertocollaborateoncomplexprojects,suchasgreenproductdevelopment.
Inthespecificcaseofindustrialecology,aGreenIScanprovideaspacetoexchangeinformationandexperience,butmoreimportantly,ameanstoinitiateandcoordinatethedesignofindustrialsynergiesandsymbiosis.
Theindustrialecologyapproachisanevolutionaryprocessthatusuallytakestime.
Itisthereforevitaltoensureagoodcoordinationbetweentheactors,includingcompanies,governments,municipalitiesandeconomicdevelopmentagencies.
Itisespeciallyimportantwhenthelinksbetweentheseactorsareweakornonexistent.
Thiscoordinationrequiresaswapspacetoallowtrust,closenessandcommunication.
Itmustpromotefacetofacebetweennetworkmembers.
GreenIScanreducetransactioncoststhroughthecentralizationofinformation,butmostimportantly,itcanreducethetimetosearchforpotentialsynergies.
4.
2.
SocialISfunctionalitiesforindustrialsynergyandsymbiosisdevelopmentInthecontextofindustrialecology,Grant(2006;2010)examinedseveralIStoolsdevelopedbetween1995and2000inordertoidentifysynergiesinthecontextofindustrialclusters,andfoundthatthesetoolssufferedfromhighstart-upcosts.
Theywerealsogenerallytoocomplex,astheyweredesignedforspecificindividualusers,notorganizations'endusers.
Furthermore,theywerenotdesignedtofacilitateactualcooperationorintegrationbetweenpotentialbusinesspartners.
Theirspecificobjectivewasonlytosupporttheidentificationofpotentialindustrialsynergies.
TheywereoftenbasedonaGeographicInformationSystem(GIS),whichstoresandretrievesinformationtofindresources(e.
g.
,wastes,by-products)basedongeographicalproximity,oronthepremiseofsearchingthroughadirectorywithastructuredlistofclassifiedresources.
TheseISapplicationsweremainlyusedtocharacterizeandanalyzetheflowofmaterialsandenergy(i.
e.
,theindustrialmetabolism)inanindustrialsystem.
Inotherwords,theycanassistinthesearchforsynergyopportunity,buttheiraccessisgenerallylimitedtospecificusersthroughanonlineportalorlicensedaccess.
ThesetypesofapplicationsarepartofanewclassofISapplicationsdedicatedtosolvingenvironmentalissues,whichisreferredtoasEnvironmentalInformatics(Pillmannetal.
,2006;Isenmannetal.
,2009).
Alongthesamelines,thedefinitionofIndustrialSymbiosisbyLombardietal.
(2012)sharessimilaritieswiththatofWatsonetal.
(2010):"[engaging]diverseorganismsinanetworktofostereco-innovationandlong-termculturalchange.
Creatingandsharingknowledgethroughthenetworkyieldsmutuallybeneficialtransactionsfornovelsourcingofrequiredinputs,value-addedproductsdestinationsfornon-outputs,andimprovedbusinessandtechnicalprocesses".
Thisdefinitionclearlyemphasisestheimportanceofknowledgesharinginacontextofeco-innovationandmutualbenefits,which,inturn,highlightthesocialnatureofindustrialsymbiosis.
Similarly,self-organizationinthecontextofknowledgeprocessing(Gutounig,2011)throughsocialmediasuchasWikipedia,bookmarkingsites(whichallowuserstosavelinksonapublicwebsite)andcrowdsourcing(whichallowscompaniestooutsourcecertainfunctionsbysolicitingcontributionsfromtheonlinecommunityratherthanfromtheiremployeesorsuppliers),andself-organizationinthecontextofindustrialsymbiosissharebasicprincipleswithrespecttogenerating,distributingandapplyingknowledge.
Inparticular,thereisanoverlapbetweensomeelementsofindustrialsymbiosis(i.
e.
,Organizations,network,creating,sharingandapplyingknowledge)andcertaincomponentsusuallyfoundonsocialnetworkingsites(i.
e.
,socialactors,profiles,socialrelationsandcontent).
Theseoverlapsraisethefollowingquestion:whatrolesocialmediacanplayinsupportingtheinitiationanddevelopmentofindustrialsymbiosisThisquestionisaddressedinthenextsection.
5.
CurrentroleofsocialmediaSocialmedia(SM)aimtosimplifycommunication,datasharingandcollaborationbetweenindividualsandorganizations(Edosomwan,2011).
BolotaevaandCata(2010)definesocialmediaastoolsdedicatedtothecreationofcommunitiesbetweenonlineuserswhosharecommoninterests,activitiesandgoals.
Basedonthisgeneraldefinition,thispaperspecificallydefinessocialmediaasweb-basedtoolswithsocialfunctionsavailabletowebpublishersand/orsiteowners,whicharerunbyacommunitythroughadesktoporamobileinterface.
Inmorepracticalterms,itisatechnologywithwell-definedrecreationalandsocialfunctionswithoperationsfuelledbyvariousdata(e.
g.
,images,video,text)beingsharedorexchanged.
Thisdefinitionprimarilyemphasizesthecommunicationtechnologyaspects(exchangeandsharing)andinformationalaspects(i.
e.
,data),whichcontributetoformingsocialnetworks.
Becauseofsimilaritiesbetweensocialnetworksandindustrialsymbiosis,sincebothrequireexchangeandsharingofdata,thispapermakestheassumptionthatSMcouldbeusefulforbuildingsynergiesbetweenorganizations.
Inthissection,fourspecificfunctionsofSMthatarerelevantfortheinitiationofindustrialsynergiesandsymbiosisareanalyzed:(1)thepromotionoflearningfromeachother;(2)thepromotionofinformationsharing;(3)thebuildingofrelationships;and(4)thefacilitationofcommunitycoordination.
5.
1PromotionoflearningfromeachotherOneofthechallengesinthedevelopmentofindustrialsymbiosisliesinthepromotionofthebasicprinciplesofindustrialecology.
Beyondtheneedtoefficientlymanagethedisposalofindustrialwaste,companiesmustfirstperceivetheirwasteandby-productsaspotentiallyvaluableassetsandnotasproblemsthatmustbedealtwith.
Hence,thesharingofgoodpracticesandexperiencestobederivedfromindustrialecologycanpositivelycontributetochangingtheperceptiontheseorganizationshaveoftheirwasteproducts.
Focusgroupsonsocialnetworkshaveshownthattheycanpromotethedevelopmentoflearning-basedcommunities,inwhichmembersshareexplicitorimplicitknowledgeandlearnfromothermembers(notnecessarilyjusttheirowncontacts).
Thissharingofknowledgemayincludeanythingthatmembersbelievetobetrueorrelevantabouttheworld.
Thisknowledgeiswhatpeopleusetomakedecisionsorsolveaproblem.
Itcanbeexplicitandlearnedthroughformalmeans,orimplicit,representingknowledgethatmembershaveexperiencedandlearnedthroughpracticeovertime.
Inparticular,becauseimplicitknowledgeisgenerallyrelatedtoanindividual'sexperience,theuseofapointofreferencethataggregatesmanymembersandexperts,suchasasocialmediawebsite,increasesthelikelihoodthatsomeone'spersonalexperiencemightcontributetosolvingsomebodyelse'sproblem.
Inotherwords,socialmediawebsitesallowtheirmemberstosharetheirproblems,solutionsandexperiences.
Theyallowthemtofindsolutionstoproblemsforwhichothermembershavealreadyfoundsolutions.
Thiskindofcooperationonsocialmediaforumsallowsexpertstodiffusetheirexpertiseandcontributetothebuildingoftheironlinereputation.
Italsosupportspassive(i.
e.
,non-contributing)memberstotakeadvantageofexchangedknowledge.
SuchSMtoolsoverallallowforknowledgetobecapitalizeduponthroughtheprocessofsharing.
Thereexistmanyfocusgroupsinthedomainofindustrialecologyandsymbiosis;Table2presentsafewofthem.
Table2:FocusgroupsinindustrialecologyandsustainabledevelopmentPlatformsFocusGroupsNamesSubjectsLinkedInISIEGroupIndustrialecologyIndustrialsymbiosisIndustrialsymbiosisSustainabledevelopmentSustainabledevelopmentISDATADataintegrationandsharingFacebookIndustrialEcologyStudentsandGraduatesIndustrialEcologyIndustrialEcologyChalmers2013IndustrialEcologyGreenInformationTechnologyGreenITTumblrModernindustrialecologyIndustrialUrbanEcologyViadeoIndustrialopportunity(inFrench:Opportunitéindustrielle)IndustrialsynergyEco-project(inFrench:co-Projet)EcologyandsustainabledevelopmentIndustrialecology(inFrench:cologieindustrielle)IndustrialecologyYoutubeMethodsinEcologyandEvolution(channel)IndustrialecologySustainableDevelopmentUNSustainabledevelopmentBlogsInterfacecutthefluffSustainabilityTwitterIntlSynergies&NISPnetworkIndustrialecology5.
2PromotionofinformationsharingInformationdiffersfromknowledgebecauseitcannotbedirectlyusedasaruleoraguidelinetomakedecisions.
Itcantaketheformofobservations,whichhavenotnecessarilybeenassimilatedorformalizedintoknowledge.
Itistherawmaterialofknowledgecreation,whichcanbeusedtomakedecisionsandsolveproblems.
Likeknowledge,informationcanbeshared,storedandretrievedinastructuredmanner,andconsultedinordertocontributetosolvingaproblem.
Forinstance,inthecontextofhealthcare,Boyer(2011)pointedouttheusesofsocialmediaspacesforexchangingandcommunicatinginformation(andknowledge).
Bydoingso,theauthordescribedwaysinwhichpeoplecanusesocialmediatosharetheirconcernsaboutmedicaldiagnoseswithgeographicallydistantfriendsandfamilies.
Alongthesamelines,Sharp(2011)describedtheexampleofaclinic,whichadoptedsocialmediaplatformstopromotethesharingofpatients'feedbacks.
Insteadofrelyingonmorestandardformsandreports,thisclinicusedFacebook,TwitterandYouTubetoengagepatientsandgathertheirfeedback.
Informationsharingcanalsotakeamorespecificform,suchascollaborativeworkonshareddocumentsordiscussionforums,whichtracetheinformationexchangedovertime.
Forexample,groupsonLinkedIn(equivalentto"hubs"onViadeo)suchas"InternationalSocietyforIndustrialEcology"or"industrialsymbiosis"allowuserstolearnfromandnetworkwithotherprofessionals.
Thesegroupsprovideavaluablewayforprofessionalstomonitorandkeepuptodatewithglobaldevelopmentsinthefieldofindustrialecology.
Theyallowmemberstoaskquestions,getfeedbackaboutrelevantevents,andsendinvitationstoevents.
Theycanserveasaforumforresolvingbusinessconcerns.
Theycanalsohelpresearcherstoobtainunpublishedinformation.
OtherexamplesofplatformsthatfacilitatethesharingofinformationarevideosharingsiteslikeYouTubeandDailymotion.
Ontheseplatforms,anyonecancreateachannel(WebTV),onwhichitcompilesarangeofvideos.
Otherusersmaytheninteractwithandcommentuponthesevideos.
Althoughtheyarenotreallyexploitedforbusinesspurposes,suchchannelscouldplayusefulrolesinpromotingconceptsofindustrialecology,aswellasforsharingexperiencesofindustrialsynergies.
5.
3ThebuildingofrelationshipsAnotherimportantaspectofsocialmediaistheirabilitytobuildrelationships.
Thebasicprincipleofsocialmediautilizationissimilaracrossdifferentplatforms.
Theytypicallyallowuserstocreatetheirprofileconsistingoftheirpersonalinformation,interests,andaphoto.
Usersarethenaskedtoinvitefriends,oracquaintances,tojointheirnetwork,ortoformconnectionswithotherusersoftheplatform.
Overtime,usersbuildupanetworkofcontacts.
Socialmediaplatformscouldthusbevaluabletobusinessesaimingtooperateinanenvironmentallysustainablemanner.
Theyprovideaneffectiveapproachforbuildinganetworkofcontacts,whichpossessessharedinterestsinindustrialecologyandinthecreationofindustrialsynergies,orgenerally,contactswhichhavesimilarproblems.
Specificsocialnetworkfunctionsthatsupportthebuildingofrelationshipswithsecondandthirdlevelcontacts(e.
g.
,LinkedIn),ormorespecificallywith"compatible"contacts,mightbeusefulforsupportingtheemergenceofindustrialsymbiosis.
Forexample,the"importcontacts"function,allowsonetoimportcontactsfromauser'semailaccountandaddthemtohis/hernetworkonasocialmediasite.
Theimplicitfunctionofcontactfilteringisalsousefulforbuildingrelationships.
Itisgenerallybasedonheuristicrulesthatquantifythelevelofcompatibilitybetweenunrelatedusers(forexamplebycalculatingthenumberofsharedcontacts).
Inthecaseofindustrialsynergies,thiscompatibilityismorecomplextoevaluate,asitisdependentonprivateinformation,butthisinformationcouldbesharedwithaneutralandtrustedthird-party,suchasthroughasocialmediaplatform.
Alongthisline,asocialmediaplatformwithaccesstoathinktankofexpertsandresearcherscouldsimilarlycontributetofosteringrelationshipsbetweenorganizationsandthesharingofknowledgeandinformation.
5.
4FacilitationofcommunitycoordinationInsocialmedia,communitycoordinationcantaketheformofacontentmanagementfunction,executedbyapersonwhoseprimaryroleistoencouragediscussionsandpotentiallycontributetoknowledgeandinformationsharing.
Italsoservestokeepexchangesonasocialmediasitewithinaspecificframeworkofcontentandethics.
Inthecontextofindustrialsymbiosis,thisfunctionissimilartothatofafacilitator(sometimescalledachampion)(Sakretal.
,2011;Meneghettietal.
,2012).
Sincethenotionofchampionisusedfrequentlyinprojectmanagementliterature,andbecauseindustrialsymbiosesarenotnecessarilyplanned(top-down),theterm"contentandcommunitymanager"ispreferredinthispaper.
Itreferstocommunitymanagersorfacilitatorswhoworkwithsocialnetworksandinsocialmediadisciplines.
Acommunitymanager'sprimaryfunctionisthedevelopmentandmanagementoforganizations'presenceonasocialnetwork.
Thesemanagerstakecareofkeepingdiscussionsfocusedonaparticulartopic,whileensuringtheconfidentialityofbusinessinformationthatisexchanged.
Inadditiontothisratherpassiveroleinthecommunity,amanagercanalsotakeaproactiveroleinordertocreatelinksbetweenorganizations,thereforecontributingtoinitiatingindustrialsynergies.
Forinstance,intheUK-basedNISPinitiative,thereareregionalfacilitatorswhousespecifictoolssuchasSYNERGIetoidentifyandanalysesynergyopportunities.
Amanagerisaneutralactorwithknowledgeandexperienceinindustrialecologyandindustrialsynergyinitiation.
S/hehasaccesstoprivateorconfidentialdataandinformation.
Consequently,thefunctionofsuchafacilitator,togetherwiththeuseofasocialmediaplatform,canbeinstrumentalallowingfortheemergenceofanindustrialsymbiosiswithinavirtualbusinesscommunity.
5.
5LimitsofcurrentsocialmediaAmongthefourmainfunctionsofsocialnetworks,asillustratedinTable3,thesharingofinformationandknowledgearethemostcommoningreensocialmedia.
However,otherfunctionssuchasthebuildingofrelationships,whichiscommonlyusedinsocialmediasuchasFacebookandTwitter,arelimitedtothesharingofspecificinformationinthecaseofgreensocialmedia.
UnlikegeneralSMplatforms,socialnetworksusedforindustrialsynergyinitiationwouldprimarilybeinterestedinfunctions,suchasthestorage,theretrievalandtheanalysisofconfidentialbusinessdataandinformation,aswellasmoreadvancedfunctions,suchasdatafilteringandanalysis,andpotentiallyevendecisionsupportfunctions.
Themainroleofthesesocialfunctionsistogatherdata(e.
g.
,browser,location,IPaddress,searchqueries,profileinformation)throughdifferentmethodsofgettingdata(e.
g.
,thirdparties,cookies,logdata,devicetrackingtechnology)inordertouseandanalyzethesedatatoprovidesynergysolutions,sendinformationtocompanies,ornotify.
However,thetaxonomicalclassificationofresourcesremainsachallengetotheirimplementationbecausetheyrequireacommonlanguagetoproducerelevantsearchresult(Grantetal.
,2010).
Similarly,thesocialmediafunctionofcommunitycoordinationhasnotyetreachedalevelthatisappropriateforpromotingthebottom-upemergenceofindustrialsymbiosis.
AsdemonstratedbytheNISPinitiative,coordinationisafunctionthatismostlycarriedoutbyfacilitatorswhoactasacatalystbetweenpotentialpartners.
Indeed,thepresenceofanintermediarybetweenmanufacturersusuallypreventsthedevelopmentoftheirmutualrelationships,atleastintheearlystageofsynergydevelopment.
Thisisthecaseinseveralexistingplatforms(e.
g.
,BRIQ,SecondCycle),inwhichtheownerofplatformisdirectlyresponsibleformostofthepublishing,searchandexchangeprocesses,andthecoordinationtosupporttheemergenceofindustrialsymbiosis.
Thesekindsofapplicationdonotdirectlybenefitcompaniesanddonotreallyexploittheinformationexchanged,toughtheyreducesearchcostsforsellersandbuyersofwaste,helpingtomatchtheneedsofbothpartiesandfacilitatingtheresultingtransactions.
Inordertoexplorefurtherthepotentialofsocialnetworkingtosupporttheinitiationofindustrialsymbiosis,thenextsectionintroducesanddiscussesspecificsocialmediafunctions,andproposesalistoffunctionsthatmaybestcontributetofosteringinteractivityandthebuildingofbusinessrelationships.
Table3:GeneralfunctionsofexistingsocialmediaplatformsandISapplicationsdedicatedtoindustrialsynergiesPlatformShareknowledgeShareinformationBuildrelationshipCoordinationModePurposeNatureSO:self-organizedP:plannedIKS:informationandknowledgesharingISI:industrialsynergyinitiationISP:industrialsynergypromotionIC:interestcompatibilityOC:opportunitycompatibilityIOC:input-outputcompatibilityQ/AC:questionanswercompatibilityISdedicatedtoindustrialsynergiesPrestéoX-XXXSYNERGYeXXXXXXXBRIQ-XXXXSecondCycleXXXXXXXSMdedicatedtosustainabledevelopmentCarbonrallyXXXXXZerofootprint-XXXXMakeMeSustainableXXXXXCelsiasXXXXXChange.
orgXXXXXXGenericSMLinkedIn,ViadéoXXXXXXXXFaceBook-XXXX----FlickrXXXX----DeliciousXXXXXAnswers_wikiXXXXXYoutubeXXXXX----PhotobucketXXXX----AskXXXXX6.
NewfunctionsforGreenSocialNetworkingWearguethatthegenericfunctions(i.
e.
,buildingrelationshipandcommunitycoordination)ofcurrentISapplicationsdedicatedtoindustrialsynergiesarenotsufficienttosupportseveralaspectsofthedevelopmentofanindustrialsynergy.
Inordertoshowhowparticularsocialfunctionsmightworkinthiscontext,thispaperconsidersGreenSocialNetworkingasasetofgreenISapplications(yettobedeveloped)withthepurposeofsupportingtheemergenceofindustrialsymbiosisandcollectiveenvironmentalinitiatives.
Inordertodefinegeneralguidelinesforthedevelopmentofsuchapplications,thissectionfirstdiscussesthebasicfunctionsofSM(e.
g.
,walls,circles,smartlists-notethatthenamesofthesefunctionsvaryacrossplatforms)thatcancontributetothisgoal.
6.
1SocialmediafunctionstosupportofsustainabledevelopmentTheservicefunctions(e.
g.
,contentmanagement,discussion)ofSMarechangingrapidlythroughcontinuousimprovementsandnewdesigns.
Despitesuchchanges,themainsocialfeaturesthesefunctionsaimtoexploitremainthesame:promotingthediscoveryofsimilarities,complementarities,andsharedinterestsbetweendifferentusers/parties.
AnunderstandingofhowthefunctionsofSMenablesuchdiscoveriesandcontributetoprovidingservicestocommunitiesisnecessarytotakeadvantageofSMtocreateprofessionalcommunities,whichcouldultimatelybeusefulforinitiatingindustrialsynergyanddevelopingknowledge(Grantetal.
,2010).
Inparticular,thestudyofthefunctionshighlightedinthissectionaimstoguidethedesignofinformationsystemsthatwillsupportahybriddevelopmentofindustrialsynergies,accommodatingthespontaneityofindividualcompaniesaswellasthecoordinationofindustrialsynergybythirdparties.
SMfunctionscanbeclassifiedintotwocategories:primaryandsecondary.
Primaryfunctionsarerelatedtoinformationexchangeanddiscussion.
ExchanginganddiscussingarethebasicfeaturesofSM,evenifdifferentplatformsuseadifferentvocabularytodescribetheseprocesses.
Forinstance,similarinformationexchangesmighthappenthrough"sharing"onFacebook,"retweeting"onTwitteror"riffing"onSo.
cl.
SecondaryfunctionsofSM,whicharesometimesreferredtoas"accessories",areusedtobuilduponandcomplementprimaryfunctionsandincludefunctionssuchasadvertisingandeventcreation.
Secondaryfunctionsalsoservetoimproveusers'experiencesbeforethesocialprocessesofsharingandexchange(suchastheprocessofopeninganaccount),ortogeneraterevenues(throughadvertising).
Suchfunctionsaresecondarybecausetheydonotdirectlyrelatetothebasicprinciplesofsocialnetworks:theexistenceofcontactsandtheconnectionsthatformbetweencontacts(Barnes,1954).
Toattractandretainmembers,asocialnetworkplatformmustsupportthemthroughprimaryandsecondaryfunctionsthatareusefultousers'dailyoperations,allowingthemtoestablisheffectivecommunicationchannelsthroughwhichtheycanreacheachother.
Thissectionproposesaclassificationofprimaryandsecondaryfunctions,andanalyzesthemwithrespecttotheirpotentialcontributionstothedevelopmentofindustrialsynergy.
6.
1.
1PrimaryfunctionsofasocialmediaplatformInthisclassificationframework,therearefourtypesofprimaryfunctions:information,exchange,discussion,andlegal.
Informationfunction:thestrengthofasocialmediaplatformanditscommunityliesinitsabilitytopresentandcommunicateinformationonaregularbasisandtogeneratevisitsbyusers.
SMplatformsorganizeinformationindifferentformsaccordingtothetypeofcommunitytheyarecateringto.
Forexample,thesocialnetworkDigikaahasdevelopeda"socialportfolio"function.
Here,userscanbeconnectedtoaprojectonwhichtheyareworking,orhavepreviouslyworked,andaddprojectsdirectlytotheirprofileinordertoimprovetheirprofileandexperience.
Theideaistoaggregateuser'sprofessionalexperiencesthroughalistofprojects.
Beyondthesimpletransmissionofinformation,thestructurethroughwhichinformationispresented,organizedandlinkedtootherinformationisdesignedwiththeuserexperienceinperspective.
Forinstance,ausercantagcompaniesaswellasotherprojectparticipantsinaparticularproject,andthentheinformationisautomaticallyrelayedontotheseotherparticipants'resumes.
Similarly,theGoogle+platformincludesafunctioncalled"Spark"whichprovidesastreamofinformation,whichconstantlyupdatesitselfontopicsofinteresttousers,includingarticlesandvideosthatappealtootherusers.
Userscanread,viewandsharethisinformationwiththeircontacts.
Exchangefunction:asmentionedabove,thestrengthofasocialmediaplatformisitsabilitynotonlytopresent(i.
e.
,makesomeoneawareofsomethingforapurpose),butalsotocommunicateandexchangeinformation(i.
e.
,diffuse,transmitinformationwithoutspecificintention).
Theexchangefunctionisthuscharacterizedbythecommunicationofcontentthatapersonororganizationwishestosharewithotherusers.
Thisincludesarticles,opinions,reflections,whitepapers,promotions,andprofessionalexperiences.
Usersmayalsosharecontentthattheydonotnecessarilylikeoragreewith.
Anoteworthyaspectoftheexchangefunctionisthatsuchexchangesofcontentcanaffectthereputationofeachentityinvolvedintheexchange,contributingtobuildingindividuals'"e-reputation".
Discussionfunction:thisfunctionextendstheinformationandexchangefunctions,allowinguserstopubliclycommunicatewithothersocialnetworkmembers,throughcommenting,thedemonstrationofanexpertiseorthecommunicationofanopinion.
Thisfunctionalsoincorporatesusers'reactionstocontentsharedbyothers.
The"comment"or"reply"functionstypicallyconstituteamajorpartofthediscussionfunction.
Thisfunctionisimplementedthroughhubs,groups,discussionsorquestions(e.
g.
,discussionsonViadeo).
Google+providesseveralexamplesofthisfunction,suchasvideo-bubblesonwhichuserscanclicktoengageindiscussionsonvideosortoorganizeagroupdiscussionwithinacircleofusers.
6.
1.
2SecondaryfunctionsSecondaryfunctionsareSMfunctionsthatsupportprimaryfunctionsandthattypicallyhavealessersocialimpact.
Theyarequitenumerousandthelistbelowintroducessomeofthemostsignificantones.
Searchfunction:thisfunctionaimstoprovideinformationsearchcapabilityinordertoprovideuserswithrelevantinformation.
GSNshouldindeedofferinformationretrievalfunctionsbasedonsimplepulltechnics(e.
g.
,searchform)aswellasonpushtechnics(e.
g.
,basedontheuserprofile,browsinghistoryanddeclaredtopicsofinterest).
Advancedinformationpullingtechnicsincludedelegatingrepetitivesearchtaskstoanintelligentagentthatsystematicallyretrieve,filter,andpresentinformationtoitsuser.
Inanpushinformationsearchfunction,theuserplaysalessactiveroleasinformationis"pushed"andprovidedasalistofrecommendationorsuggestion.
Membershipfunction:thisfunctionaimstomanagetheprocessofauserjoiningasocialnetworkbyopeninganaccountoraddingcircles,contacts,connections,fans,followers,andsoforth.
Thisprocesstypicallyfeaturesaregistrationformtobecompletedwithauser'spersonalinformation.
Thewayinwhichmemberscompletetheirprofiles(i.
e.
,whethertheyfillthemoutpartiallyorcompletely)offersaclueabouttheirlevelofactivityontheSM.
Usefulinformationtobederivedfromthemembershipfunctionisnotreallyfoundwithinthewayuserscreatetheirprofiles,butwithinthequalityofinformationintheirprofiles.
Certainusersintentionallydiscloseminimalinformationinordertoremainanonymousandavoidmixingtheirprivatelifewiththeirpubliclife.
DifferentSMplatformsfeaturevariousmembershipandprofilesystemsdependingonthenatureoftherelationshipasemphasizedbythenetwork(e.
g.
,friendlylikeFacebook,orprofessionallikeLinkedIn)inordertobestprotectusers'identities.
Inabusinesscontextofsocialnetworking,thisfunctioncouldincorporatefunctionssuchasasmartaddressbook,acardorafanpage.
Suchpotentiallybusiness-friendlyelementssuggestthatthemembershipfunctioncanbeagatewaytodevisingasynergeticsocialtool.
Entertainmentfunctions:thesefunctionsincludegamingapplicationsand"ecodgets".
Theterm"ecodget"derivesfromboth"ecology"and"gadget",referringtoprogramsthatoperatelikeWindows'widgets.
Theyaregenerallybasedonasingleprincipleandservejustonefunction:theinterpretationanddisplayofcontinuousordiscontinuousdatastreams(e.
g.
,RSS).
Theseecodgetsprovidelivestreamsofinformationtousers.
Inanindustrialecologycontext,theycanbedevelopedtoofferspecificandrelevantfunctionalities,suchasafeedprovidingthelatesteco-industrialnews.
Advertisingfunctions:thesefunctionsofferadvertisementsonsocialmediasitesinordertoattractcompaniestoasocialnetwork.
Suchsitestendtoofferadvertisingopportunitiesinordertogeneraterevenuesforthesocialplatform.
Adsaregenerallymanagedbyadvertisingnetworksinordertogarnerthemaximumpossibleamountof"clicks"fortheadvertiser.
Theactualmanagementprocessofallocatingadstospecificwebpagesandusersisacomplexprocess,outsidethescopeofthispaper.
Linkfunction:thisfunctionaimstointegratesocialmediawebsiteswithothersitesorblogs,throughtheuseofhypertextlinksbetweenaSMplatformandanexternalwebpage.
Forinstance,Facebookimplementsthisfunctionthroughits"Like"function.
TherearealsomanyothersecondaryfunctionsspecifictoeachindividualSMplatform.
Suchfunctionshavebeencustomizedovertimeinordertoadapttothespecificprofileanddemographyofthecommunitytheyserve.
Inotherwords,eachsocialmediumischaracterizedbyakeyconcept.
Forexample,So.
clisknownprimarilyasaresearchsystem,Twitter's140-characterlimitmakesitsuitedtosmall-scalepersonalorprofessionalcommunication,Google+has"circles"andResearchGateisdedicatedtoacademics,tonameafew.
6.
1.
3AnalysisAsocialnetworkbasedontheaforementionedprimaryandsecondaryfunctionsoverallaimstoprovideavarietyofservicestopromotethedevelopmentofcommunitieswitheithergeneralorspecificinterests.
Foracommunitywithveryspecificinterests,suchastheeconomicdevelopmentwithinanindustrialclusterorregionthroughmeansofby-productsreuseandmutualisation,thesefunctionswouldneedtobedesignedinordertoaccommodatethedevelopmentofindustrialsymbiosisboththroughself-organizedandplannedmodes.
Suchfunctionsmustthereforealsoacknowledgeandcatertothediversityofusers(e.
g.
,industriesinvaryingsectors,agentsofeconomicdevelopment,municipalities,administrativeregions,electedofficials)andanyneedforinformationconfidentiality.
Bothformsofindustrialsymbiosisdevelopmentundoubtedlyrequiresomelevelofinformationsharing.
However,inpractice,thissharingisdoneonlyinacontextwhereimplicittrustexistsbetweenpotentialpartners,orwithatrustedthird-party.
Consequently,thepromotionofindustrialsymbiosisthroughaSMplatformrequiresthedesignofspecificsharingandexchangefunctionsthatsupportthebuildingoftrustbetweenorganizations,inordertoencouragethedevelopmentofamembershipbase,whichinturnincreasesthechanceofindustrialsynergybeingcreatedorotherformsofresourcesharing.
Consideringthisneedfortrust,thepotentialroleofsuchSMfunctionsseemstobelimited,atleastinearlystages,totheinitiationofcontact(i.
e.
,theprocessofsocialnetworking)betweenpotentialpartnersandstakeholders,althoughadvancedmatchingfunctionsbasedonmaterial,processandlogisticcompatibilitystillneedtobedeveloped.
Alongthisline,otherspecificfunctionsyettobedevelopedmightalsocontributetolaterphasesofthedevelopmentofsuchpartnerships,ascurrentsocialmediafunctionsappeartobetoogenerictoallowforadegreeofprivacywhichwouldpleaseorganizationsusingsuchasocialmedianetworkforthepurposesofdevelopingindustrialsymbiosis.
6.
2.
AgreensocialnetworkingframeworkfortheinitiationofindustrialsynergyBasedonthesedefinitionsofprimaryandsecondarysocialmediafunctions,asocialnetworkhasthefollowingcharacteristics:itisinteractive,web-basedwithsocialfunctions,andithasanactivelygrowingdatabase(i.
e.
,asopposedtoapassiveone).
Consequently,agreensocialmediawouldhavesimilarcharacteristicswhilealsobeingdesignedtoserveenvironmentalobjectives.
Thus,GreenSocialNetworking(GSN)asdefinedinthispaperisaninteractiveweb-basedplatformenhancedbysocialfunctions.
Itisbasedonanactivedatabaseandaimstocontributetothedevelopmentofindustrialsymbiosisandotherresourcesharingpartnerships,inordertoreducethecollectiveenvironmentalimpactofanindustrialcommunity.
Figure1proposesaframeworkthatidentifiesspecificcontributionsthataGSNcouldmakewithrespecttotheinitiationphaseofanindustrialsynergyproject.
Figure1:ThecontributionsthatsocialmediafunctionscouldmaketopartnershipdevelopmentInFigure1,thedevelopmentofanindustrialsynergyisdividedintothreegeneralphases:(1)theinitiationofapartnership;(2)thedevelopmentofapartnership;and(3)theimplementationandoperationofasynergy.
Phases2and3areoutsidethescopeofthispaperandassuch,theywillnotbediscussed.
Aspreviouslymentioned,Phase1isfurtherdividedintofoursub-phases:(1)anacknowledgmentofneedbyanorganization;(2)theidentificationofpotentialsynergybetweenmorethanoneorganization;(3)apreliminaryfeasibilitycheckforanypartnership;(4)contactbetweenmorethanoneorganization.
Duringthesesub-phasesaGSNcancontributeindifferentways,accordingtowhetherthesynergyistobedevelopedinaplannedoraself-organizedmanner.
Forinstance,inthecaseofaself-organizedinitiationofanindustrialsynergy,theneedacknowledgmentcouldbetriggeredthroughuserssharingtheirexperiencesorthroughthepostingofpubliccasestudies,whichwouldallowuserstofindinformationrelatedtotheirproblemsoropportunities.
Concerningtheidentificationofpotentialsynergies,aGSNplatformcanuseprivateinformationcontainedinanorganization'sprofile,disclosingthatinformation,toanalyzethecompatibilitybetweenorganizations(thatis,someformofautomatedflowanalysis).
Toolsbasedondata-miningorweb-miningtechniquescanbeusedtoautomaticallysortandanalyzelargeamountsofdatatofindthesecompatibilities.
Ifsuchcompatibilitiesarefoundbasedonthisinformation,theconcernedorganizationscanbecontactedprivatelythroughtheGSNplatformduringapreliminaryfeasibilitycheckphase,inordertofurtheranalyseanypotentialsynergy.
Inotherwords,withoutreallyplanningsynergiesasathird-partymightdo,theGSNcanplaytheroleofacatalystormiddlemanbetweenorganizations,evenbeforetheirfirstcontact.
Iffeasiblesynergyopportunitiesarefound,thecontactphasecanbeautomaticallyinitiatedbytheGSNplatformbysendingaformalmulti-partyinvitationtoconnect,andadescriptionofthesynergyopportunity.
Inthecaseofaplannedsynergy,theuseofaGSNplatformwouldbecharacterizedbytheproactiveroletakenbyathird-partyuser(e.
g.
,trustedconsultants,agentsofeconomicdevelopment).
Forinstance,aneedacknowledgmentcouldbesupportedbythesharingofsensitiveinformationcontainedinanorganization'sprofile,whichmayeventuallyleadthethird-partyusertoidentifyaby-productflowthatcouldpotentiallybedealtwiththroughanindustrialsynergy.
Duringthisphase,theexperienceofthethird-partyassharedontheGSNcandirectlycontributetotheidentificationoffurthersimilaritiesbetweenexistingsynergiesandsubsequently,opportunities.
Concerningthelatterthreephasesofsynergeticdevelopment(i.
e.
,identificationofapotentialsynergy,preliminaryfeasibilitycheckandinitiationofcontact),theprocesscanbesimilartothatoftheself-organizedmode.
However,thethird-partyusercantakeamoreproactiveroleinsteadoflettingtheGSNplatformautomaticallycarryoutflowanalysestoidentifysynergies.
AGSNplatformcanalsofeatureembeddedoptimizationtools,asproposedinMailléandFrayret(2013)andCimrenetal.
,(2011),whichservetofindoptimalornear-optimalsynergyconfigurationswithinanetworkoforganizations.
Suchtoolscanbeusedinordertocomputethelevelofcompatibilitybetweenorganizations,orrecommendpotentialtypesofindustrieswithhighsynergisticcompatibilityamidstaclusteroraneco-park.
6.
3.
GreensocialnetworkingpositionframeworkInordertobetterpositiontheconceptofGSNwithrespecttootherISapplications,Table4proposesaclassificationofvariousenterpriseandprofessionalISapplications.
Ontheonehand,PrestéoandSYNERGIeareISapplicationsthatarespecificallydesignedtosupporttheidentificationofindustrialsynergyopportunities.
Theyusevariouslevelsofinformationandaremostlysingleuser-oriented,hencetheydonotsupportanysocialfunctions.
Onthecontrary,theBRIQ(theQuébecIndustrialWasteExchangeplatform)isaproprietaryISapplicationuseddirectlybyindustrialorganizationstoconnectmarketoffersanddemandsforindustrialby-products.
However,unlikePrestéoandSYNERGIe,itusesapassiveapproachanddoesnotanalyzepotentialsynergiesinaproactivemanner.
Table4:ClassificationofgenericandspecificISapplicationsNon-socialmediaSocialmediaNon-greenCRM(Customerrelationshipmanagement)ERP(EnterpriseResourcePlanning)…LinkedInViadeoTumblrInstagramPinterestGoogle+Twitter…GreenPrestéoSYNEGIeBRIQSecondCycleGreenSocialNetworkingOntheotherhand,ViadeoandLinkedInaregeneralSMapplicationsthatsupportthebuildingofprofessionalnetworks.
Theyaimedatmanagingpersonalcareersandbuildingusers'professionalimages.
However,othergeneral-purposeSMapplications,whicharenotintendedforprofessionalusers,nonethelessutilizefunctionsthatcouldbeusefulfortheinitiationofindustrialsynergy.
Forinstance,Tumblrisaplaceforinformationalexchangesbetweenbloggers,whichallowsthemtoquicklyvisitawiderangeofmulti-mediaselectionsaggregatedfromauser'sfavouriteblogs.
Similarly,Pinterestisusefulforsharingideasandinspirationvia"pins"andboardsarrangedarounddifferenttopics.
Also,Instagramservesasasimpleforumforpostingimageswhilesimultaneouslyprovidingopportunitiesforotherstoleavecomments.
7.
ConclusionBusinessrelationships,includingindustrialsynergies,areofteninitiatedonacasualbasis,dependingonthesocialrelationsbetweentheleadersordecisionmakersofabusinessteam.
Theyarealsosometimesfacilitatedbythird-partyorganizationsorindividuals,whocandirectlyconnectpeoplewithinbusinessorindustrialcommunities.
Inthespecificcontextofindustrialsynergypartnerships,theconnectionprocessissometimessupportedbyathird-partyinformationsystem,whosemainfunctionsaretostoredatacollectedbyexperts,andtosubsequentlyanalysethesedatainordertoidentifysynergyopportunitiesbasedonthecompatibilityofflowsbetweenorganizations(suchasthesupplyanddemandofacertainby-productonthepartsofindividualorganizations).
Literatureonindustrialsynergyshowsthattheinterventionofaproactivethird-partyactingasacatalystisanefficientwaytoidentifyanddevelopsynergyopportunities.
Similarly,socialmediaforumshavedemonstratedtheirabilitiestoconnectpeopleandorganizationsbaseduponsimilaritiesorcomplementaritiesbetweenmultipleparties.
Theyhavealsodemonstratedanabilitytoeffectivelyandefficientlydisseminateinformationacrossvastnetworks.
Therefore,thedevelopmentofgreensocialnetworkswiththespecificpurposeofconnectingorganizationsbaseduponthecomplementarityoftheirinput-outputflowsisthelogicalnextstepfordevelopinggreenIS.
InordertocontributetothedevelopmentofGSN,thispaperhashighlightedthepotentialcontributionsofelementsofexistingsocialnetworks,withananalysisofexistingsocialmediafunctionsthroughthelensofthebasicstepsofpartnershipinitiationinabusinesssense.
Thisanalysishasdemonstratedthelimitsofcurrentapplicationsforgreensocialmedia,whichprimarilytakestheformofgeneral-purposeSMwithagreenorientation.
Italsorevealedtheusefulnessofspecificapplicationsandinformationsystemstoautomaticallyanalyzethematerialflowcompatibilitybetweenorganizations,andtooptimizetheconfigurationofindustrialsynergies.
Thisproposedframeworkaimstoguidethedevelopmentofnext-generationGSNplatforms,whichareyettobedeveloped.
Assuch,futureworkonthissubjectwouldincludethedevelopmentofsuchaGSNplatformaswellasthetestingandvalidationofitsfunctionstocontributetopromotingthedevelopmentofindustrialsynergies.
AcknowledgementTheauthorswouldliketothankgratefullytheCentredeTransfertTechnologiqueencologieIndustriellefortheircollaboration.
WewouldalsoliketothanktheFondsQuébécoisdeRechercheenNatureetTechnologies(FQRNT)andtheNaturalSciencesandEngineeringResearchCouncilofCanada(NSERC)fortheirfinancialsupport.
ReferencesBarnes,J.
A.
,(1954).
ClassandCommitteesinaNorwegianIslandParish,HumanRelations,7,pp.
39-58.
Bengoa,X.
,(2007).
SynergiesindustriellesàGenève:Recherchedenouvellesopportunitésetanalysedel'efficiencedusystèmederecyclage.
[Online].
http://www.
unil.
ch/webdav/site/ipteh/shared/Recherche/Master_07/BENGOA.
pdf(Dateaccessed12July2013).
Boix,M.
,Montastruc,L.
,Azzaro-Pantel,C.
,Domenech,S.
,2014.
Optimizationmethodsappliedtothedesignofeco-industrialparks:aliteraturereview.
JournalofCleanerProduction,doi:10.
1016/j.
jclepro.
2014.
09.
032.
Boons,F.
,Baas,L.
,(1997).
Typesofindustrialecology:theproblemofcoordination.
JournalofCleanerProduction.
5(1-2),79-86.
Boudreau,M.
C.
,Chen,A.
J.
,andHuber,M.
,(2007).
GreenIS:BuildingSustainableBusinessPractices.
InWatson,R.
T.
(ed.
)InformationSystems(pp.
1–15),Athens,GA:GlobalTextProject.
Bolotaeva,V.
,Cata.
T.
,(2010).
Marketingopportunitieswithsocialnetworks.
[Online].
http://www.
ibimapublishing.
com/journals/JISNVC/2011/409860/409860.
pdf(Dateaccessed8October2013).
Boyer,C.
,(2011).
Socialmediaforhealthcaremakessense.
FrontiersofHealthServicesManagement,28(2),35-40.
Brooks,S.
,Wang,X.
Sarker,S.
,(2012).
UnpackingGreenIS:AReviewoftheExistingLiteratureandDirectionsfortheFuture.
InGreenBusinessProcessManagement(Brocke,J.
,Seidel,S.
,andRecker,J.
Eds.
),p.
15-37,SpringerBerlin-Heidelberg,Berlin.
Cté,R.
P.
,Cohen-Rosenthal,E.
,(1998):Designingeco-industrialparks:asynthesisofsomeexperiences.
JournalofCleanerProduction.
6,pp.
181-188.
Chertow,M.
R.
,(2000).
Industrialsymbiosis:Literatureandtaxonomy.
AnnualReviewofEnergyandtheEnvironment25:313–337.
Chertow,M.
,Lombardi,R.
,(2005).
Quantifyingeconomicandenvironmentalbenefitsofco-locatedfirms.
EnvironmentalScienceandTechnology.
39(17):6535–6541.
Chertow,M.
C.
,(2007).
"Uncovering"industrialsymbiosis.
JournalofIndustrialEcology.
11(1):11–30.
Chertow,M.
R,Ashton,W.
S,EspinosaJ.
C.
,(2008)IndustrialsymbiosisinPuertoRico:environmentallyrelatedagglomerationeconomies.
RegionalStudies;42(10):1299–1312.
Chen,A.
J.
W.
,Boudreau,M.
C.
,Watson,R.
T.
(2008).
Informationsystemsandecologicalsustainability.
JournalofSystemsandInformationTechnology.
10(3),186-201.
Cimren,E.
,Fiksel,J.
,Posner,M.
E.
,&Sikdar,K.
(2011).
MaterialFlowOptimizationinBy-productSynergyNetworks.
JournalofIndustrialEcology.
15(2),315-332.
Costa,I.
,Ferraro,P.
,(2010).
Acasestudyofindustrialsymbiosisusingamiddle-outapproach.
JournalofCleanerProduction,18(10-11),pp.
984-992.
Cardinalgroup,(2012).
WhatisEco-IndustrialNetworking[Online].
http://www.
cardinalgroup.
ca/cein/whatsein.
html(Dateaccessed23October2012).
Chertow,M.
,Ehrenfeld,J.
,(2012).
Organizingself-organizingsystems:towardatheoryofindustrialsymbiosis.
JournalofIndustrialEcologyJournalofIndustrialEcology.
16(1),pp.
13–27,.
Cucek,L.
,Kleme,J.
J.
,Kravanja,Z.
,2012.
Areviewoffootprintanalysistoolsformonitoringimpactsonsustainability.
JournalofCleanerProduction,34,pp.
9-20.
Dyllick,T.
,Hockerts,K.
,(2002).
Beyondthebusinesscaseforcorporatesustainability.
BusinessStrategyandtheEnvironment.
11(2),130–141.
Desrochers,P.
,(2004).
Industrialsymbiosis:acaseofmarketcoordination.
JournalofCleanerProduction.
12(8-10),pp.
1099-1110.
Duret,B.
,(2007).
Premiersretoursd'expériencesenécologieindustrielle:étudesdecasenEuropeetenAmériqueduNord,CahiersdelaChaired'écologieindustrielle,UTT,n°1,juillet,p.
1-60.
Dedrick,J.
,(2010).
GreenIS:conceptsandissuesforinformationsystemsresearch.
CommunicationsofAIS,27(11),pp.
174–184.
Duflou,J.
R.
,Sutherland,J.
W.
,Dornfeld,D.
,Herrmann,C.
,Jeswiet,J.
,Kara,S.
,Hauschild,M.
Kellens,K.
,(2012).
Towardsenergyandresourceefficientmanufacturing:Aprocessandsystemapproach,CIRPAnnals-ManufacturingTechnology.
61(2),pp.
587-609.
Ehrenfeld,J.
,Gertler,N.
,(1997).
Industrialecologyinpractice:theevolutionofinterdependenceatKalundborg.
JournalofIndustrialEcology.
1(1),67-79.
Erkman,S.
,(2001).
Industrialecology:anewperspectiveonthefutureoftheindustrialsystem.
SwissMedicalWeekly131,pp.
531-538.
Edosomwan,S.
,Prakasan,S.
K.
,Kouame.
D.
,Watson.
J.
,Seymour.
T.
,(2011).
TheHistoryofSocialMediaanditsImpactonBusiness.
JournalofAppliedManagementandEntrepreneurship,16.
3,79-91.
Gibbs,D.
,(2003).
Trustandnetworkingininter-firmrelations:thecaseofeco-industrialdevelopment.
LocalEconomy,18,pp.
222–36.
Gibbs,D.
,Deutz,P.
,(2007).
Reflectionsonimplementingindustrialecologythrougheco-industrialparkdevelopment.
JournalCleanerProduction.
15,1683-1695.
Geng,Y.
,Doberstein,B.
,(2008).
DevelopingthecirculareconomyinChina:challengesandopportunitiesforachieving'leapfrogdevelopment'.
InternationalJournalofSustainableDevelopment&WorldEcology.
15(3),pp.
1-9.
.
Gholami,R.
,Sulaiman,A.
B.
,Ramayah,T.
,Molla,A.
,(2013).
Seniormanagers'perceptionongreeninformationsystems(IS)adoptionandenvironmentalperformance:Resultsfromafieldsurvey.
Information&Management.
50(7),pp.
431–438.
Granovetter,M.
S.
,(1973).
Thestrengthofweakties.
AmericanJournalofSociology.
78(6),pp.
1360-1380.
Grant,B.
G.
,Seager,T.
P.
,Massard,G.
andNies,L.
,(2010).
Informationandcommunicationtechnologyforindustrialsymbiosis,JournalofIndustrialEcology,15(2),pp.
315-332.
Gutounig,R.
,(2011).
SocialMediaandSelf-Organization:PotentialsforKnowledgeProcessesandSocialChange.
Proceedingsofthe10thAnnualConferenceoftheInstituteforadvancedstudiesonscience,technologyandsociety,Graz,Austria,2nd-3rdMay,2011.
Heeres,R.
R.
,Vermeulen,W.
J.
V.
,deWalle,F.
B.
,(2004).
Eco-industrialparkinitiativesintheUSAandtheNetherlands:firstlessons.
JournalofCleanerProduction,12(8–10),pp.
985–995.
Isenmann,R.
,Chernykh,K.
,(2009).
TheroleofICTinindustrialsymbiosisprojects–EnvironmentalICTapplicationsforeco-industrialdevelopment.
ProceedingsoftheConferenceonEnvironmentalInformaticsandIndustrialEnvironmentalProtection:Concepts,MethodsandTools.
Vol.
2:Workshops,pp.
231-242.
Berlin,Germany.
September.
Ijab,M.
T.
,Molla,A.
,Kassahun,A.
E.
,&Teoh,S.
Y.
,(2010).
Seekingthe"Green"in"GreenIS":Aspirit,practiceandimpactperspective.
ProceedingsofthePacificAsiaConferenceonInformationSystems(PACIS)2010,Taipei,Taiwan,9-12July.
Jacobsen,N.
B.
,(2006).
IndustrialSymbiosisinKalundborg,Denmark:AQuantitativeAssessmentofEconomicandEnvironmentalAspects.
JournalofIndustrialEcology,10(1-2),239-255.
Jensen,P.
D.
,Basson,L.
,Hellawell,E.
E.
,Bailey,M.
R.
,Leach,M.
,(2011).
Quantifying'geographicproximity':ExperiencesfromtheUnitedKingdom'sNationalIndustrialSymbiosisProgramme.
ResourcesConservationandRecycling.
55(7),pp.
703-712.
Khambatti,M.
,Ryu.
K.
,Dasgupta.
P.
,(2003).
Push-PullGossipingforInformationSharinginPeer-to-PeerCommunities.
ProceedingsoftheInternationalConferenceonParallelandDistributedProcessingTechniquesandApplications,June23-26,2003,LasVegas,Nevada,USA,Volume3pp.
1393-1399.
Lowe,E.
A.
,(1997).
Creatingby-productresourceexchanges:strategiesforeco-industrialparks.
JournalofCleanerProduction5(1-2),pp.
57-65.
Lambert,A.
J.
D.
,Boons,F.
A.
,(2002).
Eco-industrialparks:stimulatingsustainabledevelopmentinmixedindustrialparks.
Technovation;22,pp.
471–84.
Lombardi,R.
,Laybourn,P.
,(2012).
RedefiningIndustrialSymbiosis.
JournalofIndustrialEcology,16(1),pp.
28–37Maillé,M.
,Frayret,J.
-M.
,(2013).
IndustrialBy-ProductReuseandSynergyOptimization.
Workingpaper,CIRRELT-2013-85.
[Online].
https://www.
cirrelt.
ca/DocumentsTravail/CIRRELT-2013-85.
pdf,(Dateaccessed16December2013)Mirata,M.
,(2004).
ExperiencesfromearlystagesofanationalindustrialsymbiosisprogrammeintheUK:determinantsandcoordinationchallenges.
JournalofCleanerProduction,12(8-10),pp.
967-983.
Mirata,M.
,Emtairah,T.
,(2005).
Industrialsymbiosisnetworksandthecontributiontoenvironmentalinnovation:thecaseoftheLandskronaindustrialsymbiosisprogramme.
JournalofCleanerProduction13(10-11),pp.
993-1002.
Murphy,J.
T.
,(2006).
Buildingtrustineconomicspace.
ProgressinHumanGeography;30(4),pp.
427–50.
Melville,N.
P.
,(2010).
InformationSystemsInnovationforEnvironmentalSustainability.
MISQuarterly,34(1),pp.
1-21.
Miles,R.
E.
,SnowC.
C.
,FjeldstadO.
D.
,Miles,G.
,Lettl,C.
,(2010)Designingorganizationstomeet21st-centuryopportunitiesandchallenges.
OrganizationalDynamics,39(2),pp.
93-103.
Meneghetti,A.
,Nardin,G.
,(2012).
Enablingindustrialsymbiosisbyafacilitiesmanagementoptimizationapproach.
JournalofCleanerProduction,35,pp.
263–273.
Markewitz,K.
,Vermette.
J.
,Pinna.
J.
,(2012).
FromBRIQtoIndustrialSymbiosisProjects:IndustrialEcologyinQuébec,Canada.
Centredetransferttechnologiqueenécologieindustrielle(CTTI).
[Online].
https://gin.
confex.
com/gin/2012/webprogram/Paper3625.
html(Dateaccessed16August2013)Pillmann,W.
,Geiger,W.
,Voigt,K.
,(2006).
SurveyofenvironmentalinformaticsinEurope.
EnvironmentalModeling&Software21(11),pp.
1519-1527.
Park,H.
S.
,Rene,E.
R.
,Choi,S.
M.
,Chiu,A.
S.
F.
,(2008).
StrategiesforsustainabledevelopmentofindustrialparkinUlsan,SouthKorea-fromspontaneousevolutiontosystematicexpansionofindustrialsymbiosis.
JournalofEnvironmentalManagement.
87(1),pp.
1-13.
Paquin,R.
L.
,Howard-Grenville,J.
,(2012).
Theevolutionoffacilitatedindustrialsymbiosis.
JournalofIndustrialEcology,16(1),pp.
83-93.
ProjetCOMETHE.
L'cologieindustrielle.
InEutechSSIIetHomeSweetCom.
Conceptiond'OutilsMEThodologieetd'evaluationpourl'cologieindustrielle,[Online].
http://www.
comethe.
org/index.
phpoption=com_content&view=article&id=49&Itemid=85(Dateaccessed10August2013).
Sterr,T.
,Ott,T.
,(2004).
Theindustrialregionasapromisingunitforeco-industrialdevelopment–reflections,practicalexperienceandestablishmentofinnovativeinstrumentstosupportindustrialecology.
JournalofCleanerProduction.
12(8–10),pp.
947–965.
Shi,H.
,Chertow,M.
,Song,Y.
,(2010).
Developingcountryexperiencewithecoindustrialparks:acasestudyoftheTianjineconomic-technologicaldevelopmentareainChina.
JournalofCleanerProduction.
18(3),pp.
191-199.
Sakr,D.
,Baas,L.
,El-Haggar,S.
,Huisingh,D.
(2011).
Criticalsuccessandlimitingfactorsforeco-industrialparks:globaltrendsandEgyptiancontext.
JournalofCleanerProduction,19(11),pp.
1158-1169.
Sharp,J.
,(2011).
BrandAwarenessandEngagement:ACaseStudyinHealthcareSocialMedia.
FrontiersofHealthServicesManagement,28(2),pp.
29-34.
Tapiador,A.
,Carrera,D.
,(2012).
Asurveyonsocialnetworksites'functionalfeatures.
arXivpreprintarXiv:1209.
3650,arxiv.
org.
VanBeers,D.
,Corder,G.
,Bossilkov,A.
,vanBerkel,R.
,(2007).
IndustrialsymbiosisintheAustralianmineralsindustry:thecasesofKwinanaandGladstone.
J.
Ind.
Ecol.
11(1),pp.
55-72.
VanBerkel,R.
,Fujita,T.
,Hashimoto,S.
,Fujii,M.
,(2009).
QuantitativeassessmentofurbanandindustrialsymbiosisinKawasaki,Japan.
EnvironmentalScienceandTechnology.
43(5),pp.
1271-1281.
Watson,R.
T.
,Boudreau,M.
,Chen,A.
,(2010).
Informationsystemsandenvironmentallysustainabledevelopment:EnergyinformaticsandnewdirectionsfortheIScommunity.
MISQuarterly,34(1),pp.
23–38.
York,P.
T.
,Watson,R.
T.
,Boudreau,M.
C.
,Chen,A.
,(2009).
GreenIS:Usinginformationsystemstoencouragegreenbehaviour.
Proceedingsofthe2009AcademyofManagementAnnualMeeting,,Chicago,USA.
7-11August.
Zhang,L.
,Yuan,Z.
,Bi,J.
,Zhang,B.
,Liu,B.
,(2010).
Eco-industrialparks:nationalpilotpracticesinChina.
JournalofCleanerProduction.
18(5),504-509.