resultsaccountsuspended

729EverythingINeedToKnowILearnedfromFandom:HowExistingSocialNormsCanHelpShapetheNextGenerationofUser-GeneratedContentABSTRACTWiththegrowingpopularityofYouTubeandotherplatformsforuser-generatedcontent,suchasblogsandwikis,copyrightholdersareincreasinglyconcernedaboutpotentialinfringingusesoftheircontent.
However,whenenforcingtheircopyrights,ownersoftendonotdistinguishbetweendirectpiracy,suchasuploadinganentireepisodeofatelevisionshow,andtransformativeworks,suchasafan-madevideothatincorporatesclipsfromatelevisionshow.
Thelinecanbeadifficultonetodraw.
However,thereisatleastonesourceofuser-generatedcontentthathasexistedfordecadesandthatclearlydifferentiatesitselffrompiracy:fandomand"fanfiction"writers.
Thisnotetracesthehistoryoffancommunitiesandthecopyrightissuesassociatedwithfictionthatborrowscharactersandsettingsthatthefan-authordidnotcreate.
Theauthordiscussesestablishedsocialnormswithinthesecommunitiesthatdevelopedtodealwithcopyrightissues,suchasrequirementsfornon-commercialuseandattribution,andhowthesenormstracktoCreativeCommonslicenses.
Theauthorarguesthatwidespreaduseoftheselicenses,grantingcopyrightedworks"somerightsreserved"insteadof"allrightsreserved,"wouldallowcopyrightholderstogivetheirconsumerssomecreativefreedomincreatingtransformativeworks,whilemaintainingthecontrolneededtocombatpiracy.
However,theauthoralsosuggestsamoreimmediatesolution:copyrightholders,inmakingdecisionsconcerningcopyrightenforcement,shouldconsiderusingthenormsassociatedwithestablisheduser-generatedcontentcommunitiesasaframeworkfordrawingalinebetweentransformativeworkandpiracy.
730VANDERBILTJ.
OFENTERTAINMENTANDTECH.
LAW[Vol.
10:3:729TABLEOFCONTENTSI.
THECURRENTSTATEOFUSER-GENERATEDCONTENT735A.
FanFiction.
735B.
Copyright.
737C.
TheCopyrightCrisisandthe"New"User-GeneratedContent739II.
THESELF-REGULATINGCOMMUNITY:SOCIALNORMSANDCOPYRIGHTLAW.
745A.
FandomandSocialNorms745B.
NoncommercialUseandAttribution:TrackingCreativeCommons.
754III.
DEFENSES,LICENSES,NORMS,ANDTHENEWGENERATIONOFUSER-GENERATEDCONTENT756IV.
CONCLUSION.
761WhenwriterLoriJareoself-publishedhernovelAnotherHopeandlisteditonAmazon.
com(Amazon),sheexpectedonlyherfamilyandfriendstoseethepageandconsiderpurchasingacopy.
1However,thenovelalsoattractedagreatdealofunwantedattention:frommockingbloggers,outragedfans,andLucasfilms'lawyers.
2AnotherHopewasnotawhollyoriginalwork,butratheranunauthorizedStarWars"fanfiction"novel:astoryusingcharactersandsettingsfromStarWarswithouttheconsentofLucasfilms,whichownsthecopyrighttotheStarWarsuniverse.
3Lucasfilms'lawyerssentacease-and-desistnoticetoJareo,whothenremovedthebook'slistingfromAmazon.
4WhilethatwastheonlylegalconsequenceofJareo'sobviouscopyrightinfringement,1.
PostingofJohnScalzitoWhatever,http://www.
scalzi.
com/whatever/004162.
html(Apr.
21,2006,02:11).
2.
See,e.
g.
,id.
("Idon'tthinkbeingafanmeansyousuddenlyhavealicensetobestupid.
.
.
sheshouldbethankfulifshegetsoutofitwithoutallofherassets,andtheassetsofherpublishingcompany,encasedincarbonite.
");seealso,e.
g.
,PostingofLeeGoldbergtoAWriter'sLife,http://leegoldberg.
typepad.
com/a_writers_life/2006/04/no_hope_for_thi.
html(Apr.
20,2006)("Here'sasamplingofsomeoftheblogheadlines:'TheStupidIsStrongWithThisOne,''Behold:TheGreatestStoryofStupidityEverTold,''IBetSheFindsOurLackofFaithDisturbing,''FeelTheStupid,''TheWorld'sStupidestHuman,''SooooAmazinglyStupid,''GoodLord,HowStupidCanAPersonBe'and'FacePalm,HeadDesk,andaGenerousSmatteringofWTF'");PostingofThePinkMarauderandaccompanyingcommentstoJournalFen,http://www.
journalfen.
net/community/fandom_wank/928529.
html(Apr.
21,2006,03:18UTC)(containingover700commentsfromfans,nearlyallofwhicharenegative).
3.
PatrickLee,StarWarsFanficStillonSale,SCIFIWIRE,Apr.
25,2006,http://www.
scifi.
com/scifiwire/index.
phpcategory=0&id=35724.
4.
Id.
2008]EVERYTHINGINEEDTOKNOW731thepunishmentthatshereceivedfromthepublicwasmuchmoresevere.
Whenseveralwell-knownsciencefictionwritersandbloggerslatchedontothestory,theyallhadstrongnegativeopinionsofJareo'sactions.
5InApril2006,thestoryhitdozensofpopularblogs,inspiringsuchmockinglyclevertitlesas"TheStupidisStrongwiththisOne,"and"IBetSheFindsOurLackofFaithDisturbing.
"6WereitnotfortheInternetpublicityconcerningtheAmazonlisting,Lucasfilmsmaynothaveevernoticedit.
Infact,thebookwaspublishednearlyayearbeforethescandalerupted.
7ItwasnotintellectualpropertylawyersorthecopyrightholderthatcondemnedJareo;rather,itwasherfellowfanfictionwriters.
Jareobrokeamajorrulewhenshetriedtoprofitfromherfanfiction,andotherfansweretheretopointouthermistake—notonlyforthefauxpasinthefancommunitybutalsoforthepotentialattentionshebroughttotheworldoffanfiction,aworldinwhichcopyrightlawislargelyuntested.
8Althoughgenerallydefinedasfictionthatborrowscharactersandsettingsthattheauthordidnotcreate,theterm"fanfiction"impliesamorespecificsetofcharacteristicsthatdistinguishesthegenrefrom,forexample,retoldfolklore(suchastheDisneyversionsoffairytales)andpublishedmediatie-innovels(suchasanyoftheauthorizedStarTreknovelspublishedbySimonandSchuster).
9Oneearlylawreviewarticleonthesubjectdefinedfanfictionas"anykindofwrittencreativitythatisbasedonanidentifiablesegmentofpopularculture,suchasatelevisionshow,andisnotproducedas'professional'writing.
"10Furthermore,fanfictionisunderstoodtobe5.
SeegenerallyPostingofJohnScalzi,supranote1(mockingJareoforherblatantdisregardforcopyrightlaw);PostingofLeeGoldberg,supranote2(notingthefanfictioncommunity'snegativereactiontoJareo'sbook).
6.
PostingofLeeGoldberg,supranote2(listingblogentriesthatspoofdialogfromStarWars).
7.
SeeBarnes&Noble,http://search.
barnesandnoble.
com/booksearch/isbnInquiry.
aspisbn=1933456027(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008)(listingthepaperbackversionofJareo'sAnotherHopewithapublicationdateofJune2005,thoughnotingthatthebookiscurrently"unavailable").
8.
See,e.
g.
,PostingstoJediCouncilForums,PlayinginGeorge'sSandbox:CopyrightIssuesandFanFiction,http://boards.
theforce.
net/fan_fiction_resource/b10304/23718939/p1/(lastvisitedFeb.
8,2008)(providingStarWarsfans'criticismandconcernsthattheJareoincidentmayhavenegativerepercussionsforfandomasawhole).
9.
SeeAbigailDerecho,ArchonticLiterature:ADefinition,aHistory,andSeveralTheoriesofFanFiction,inFANFICTIONANDFANCOMMUNITIESINTHEAGEOFTHEINTERNET,62-63(KarenHellekson&KristinaBusseeds.
,2006)(discussingthedefinitionoffanfiction).
10.
RebeccaTushnet,Note,LegalFictions:Copyright,FanFiction,andaNewCommonLaw,17LOY.
L.
A.
ENT.
L.
J.
651,655(1997)[hereinafterTushnet,LegalFictions].
732VANDERBILTJ.
OFENTERTAINMENTANDTECH.
LAW[Vol.
10:3:729"unauthorized"and"not-for-profit.
"11Thoughsomemaystillusethetermtorefertoanyderivativework—thatis,anewworkthatincorporateselementsfromtheoriginal12—mostdefinitionsdistinguishfanfictionfromworksbasedonbooksinthepublicdomain.
13However,fanfictionisnotthetypeofderivativeworkthatisreceivingmostoftheattentionthesedays.
WiththegrowingpopularityofYouTube,socialnetworkingsites,blogs,andotherplatformsforonlineuser-generatedcontent(UGC),copyrightholders,suchasLucasfilms,haveevenmoretofretabout.
AsintheearlydaysofNapster,suddenlyeveryoneistalkingaboutcopyrightlawandanticipatingepiccourtroombattles.
14TheDigitalMillenniumCopyrightAct(DMCA)takedownnotices15streamingintoYouTubefromcompanieslikeFoxandViacomaredemandingtheremovalofnotonlyvideosthatareobviouslyinfringingcopyright,suchasfullepisodesoftelevisionshows,butalsoderivativeworkslikefanvids—11.
TranquilityAmongsttheStars(TATS),FanFictionGlossary,http://www.
swtats.
com/glossary.
html(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008)(definingfanfictionas"[u]nauthorized,not-for-profitfictionaboutcopyrightedcharacters,ortheuseoforiginalcharactersinacopyrighteduniverse,"andnotingthat"[f]anficcanbeintheformofvignettes,shortstories,novels,scripts,orpoetry").
12.
SeeMaryEllenQuinn,BookReview,BOOKLIST(Sept.
1,2006)(reviewingPAMELAAIDAN,DUTYANDDESIRE:ANOVELOFFITZWILLIAMDARCY,GENTLEMAN(2006);JANETAYLMER,DARCY'SSTORY:PRIDEANDPREJUDICETOLDFROMAWHOLENEWPERSPECTIVE(2006)(statingthat"[t]hesetwotitlesarejustthelatestinDarcy-inspiredJaneAusten'fanfiction'").
13.
See,e.
g.
,id.
(notingthatPamelaAidan's2006novel,DutyandDesire:ANovelofFitzwilliamDarcy,Gentleman,buildslargelyuponJaneAusten's1813novel,PrideandPrejudice);seealso,e.
g.
,GREGORYMAGUIRE,WICKED:THELIFEANDTIMESOFTHEWICKEDWITCHOFTHEWEST(ReganBooks1995)(providinganalternativeviewofthecharactersandstoryfirstpresentedinL.
FrankBaum's1900children'snovel,TheWonderfulWizardofOz).
14.
See,e.
g.
,WendyN.
Davis,DownloadingaFileofCopyrightWoes:Google'sBuyoutofYouTubeShowsFederalLawStillLagsBehindTechnology,93A.
B.
A.
J.
10(2007)(predictingthatcopyrightinfringementlawsuitswereonthehorizonbeforeViacomfiledsuitagainstGoogle);ChloeAlbanesius,CongressStaresDownYouTube,HDNet,PCMAG.
,May10,2007,availableathttp://www.
pcmag.
com/article2/0,2704,2128537,00.
asp(listingYouTubeasoneoftheonlinevideoprovidersthatsentrepresentativestospeaktoCongressconcerningintellectualpropertyrightsontheInternet);AdamCohen,ACrisisofContent;It'sNotJustPopMusic.
EveryIndustrythatTradesinIntellectualProperty—FromPublishingtoNeedleworkPatterns—CouldGetNapsterized,TIME,Oct.
2,2000,at68(discussingtheexpansionofNapster-likeservicesbeyondmusicandmovies);LawrenceLessig,MakeWayforCopyrightChaos,N.
Y.
TIMES,Mar.
18,2007,atE12(notingtheimportanceoftheupcomingViacomv.
Googlelawsuit).
15.
TheDigitalMillenniumCopyrightActallowsWebsitestoescapeliabilityforinfringingmaterialiftheyabidebytakedownnoticessentbythecopyrightholders.
See17U.
S.
C.
§512(2000).
2008]EVERYTHINGINEEDTOKNOW733user-madevideosthatedittogethermusicandclipsfromtelevisionshowsormovies.
16BigcopyrightholdersareattemptingtomaintainasmuchcontrolovertheUGCissueastheycan,perhapswaryofsufferingthesamefateasthepost-Napstermusicindustry.
17However,theytreatUGCasifitissomenewconstruct,asifthelinebetween"foster[ing]creativity"and"respectingtherightsofcopyrightowners"issomenewproblembroughtonbynewtechnology.
18Infact,fanfiction,likeJareo'sunauthorizednovel,isuser-generatedcontent.
FansandwritershavebeenappropriatingbitsandpiecesofcopyrightedworksfortheirownuseatleastsincethefirstStarTrek'zineswerepublishedinthe1960s.
19Lookingbackonthecopyright"crisis"oftheyearssinceNapster'sinception,lawprofessorJohnPalfreynoted,"Technologiesdon'tinfringecopyright;peopledo.
"20User-generatedcontentwasnotbornwithYouTube,andneitherwerethecopyrightissuessurroundingit.
Bydefinition,UGCiscreatedoutsideofone'sprofessionalroutine;itissomethingthatpeopledointheirfreetime,usuallywithoutmonetarycompensation.
21Forsomeonetodevotefreetimetosomethingvoluntarily,acertainamountofinterestmustbeinvolved;onemightevensayobsession.
Asonereporterwritingonmediafansstated:"Itisatruthuniversallyacknowledged:Nomatterhowmuchoneisobsessedwithsomething,onecanalwaysfindsomeonemoreobsessed—andincreasingly[,]thatpersoncanbefound16.
See,e.
g.
,PostingofAnonymoustoWaterbender,http://water-bender.
com/archives/61(Feb.
4,2007,12:04)(notingthatAvatarfanvidswereremovedfromYouTubeduetoViacom'sdemandsonbehalfofNickelodeon);Postingofunrelatedwaffletohttp://www.
tv.
com/the-adventures-of-jimmy-neutron-boy-genius/show/6566/youtube-purge/topic/4286-649688/msgs.
html(Feb.
5,2007,17:37)(notingthatJimmyNeutronfanvidswereremoved);Postingofharlequinntohttp://inheritanceforums.
com/index.
phpshowtopic=28017&st=15(Oct.
1,2007,23:40)(notingthatYouTuberemovedfanvidsforthemovieEragonattherequestofFOX).
17.
SeegenerallyUserGeneratedContentPrinciples,http://www.
ugcprinciples.
com/(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008)(settingoutaseriesofprinciples,agreeduponbyseveralmajorcopyrightholders,intendedto"fosteranonlineenvironmentthatpromotesthepromisesandbenefitsofUGCServicesandprotectstherightsofCopyrightOwners").
18.
PressRelease,PrinciplesforUserGeneratedContentServices,InternetandMediaIndustryLeadersUnveilPrinciplestoFosterOnlineInnovationWhileProtectingCopyrights(Oct.
18,2007),http://www.
ugcprinciples.
com/press_release.
html.
19.
Derecho,supranote9,at62.
20.
JohnPalfrey,Op-Ed.
,TheDigitalCopyrightCrisis,BOSTONGLOBE,Sept.
7,2004,atA15.
21.
ORGANISATIONFORECONOMICCO-OPERATIONANDDEVELOPMENT,PARTICIPATIVEWEB:USER-CREATEDCONTENT4(2007),availableathttp://www.
oecd.
org/dataoecd/57/14/38393115.
pdf[hereinafterPARTICIPATIVEWEB].
734VANDERBILTJ.
OFENTERTAINMENTANDTECH.
LAW[Vol.
10:3:729ontheInternet.
"22Thesametypesofpeoplewhowereobsessedenoughwithatelevisionshowtowritestoriesaboutitarenowobsessingoverpolitics,news,music,and,ofcourse,overmoremoviesandtelevisionshows.
23Existingcopyrightlawsometimesstrugglestofittheproblemspresentedbycurrenttechnologywithinitsestablishedstatutoryframework,butthereseemstobealargeindustrypushtowardschangingthelawtoremedythis,particularlyintermsofUGC.
24Ifclarificationsoradditionstothelawprovetobestricteronderivativeworks,itispossiblethatfanfiction,whichhasbeenlargelyleftalonebycopyrightholdersforthelastfortyyears,25willalsocomeundergreaterscrutiny,realizingthefearsofLoriJareo'saccusers.
However,thereisanotheroption.
CurrenthostsofUGC,andperhapsevencopyrightlawitself,couldlearnsomethingfromfandom.
WhereasYouTubehasonlyexistedforacoupleofyears,fanfictionhashadtimetoevolve,andthecommunitysurroundingithasdevelopedadistinctsetofsocialnormsthatgovernbehavior.
Informalrulesexist,suchastheoneagainstprofitingfromfanfiction,andfanfictionwritersareinternallypolicedthroughthe"manyslightandsometimesforcefulsanctionsthatmembersof[the]communityimposeoneachother.
"26ThisnotearguesthatascopyrightlawevolvestotakeintoaccountthenewgenerationofUGC,itshouldusetheexistingsocialnormsassociatedwithfanfictionasaframeworkfordealingwithderivativeworks.
PartIofthisnotetracesthehistoryoffanfictionandcopyright,alongwiththeproblemsthattheyimposeuponeachother.
Itthendiscussestherelationshipbetweenthe"copyrightcrisis"ofnewtechnologyandthecurrentproblemswithUGC.
PartIIdescribesthesocialnormsassociatedwithfanfictionandhowtheytrackexistingCreativeCommonslicenses.
PartIIIsuggestsabridge22.
MikeDoherty,StrangerThanFiction;WhenFansWriteStoriesBasedonTheirFavouriteMovies;orTVShows,It'sOutofLove.
DidTheyEverHearofCopyright,GLOBE&MAIL(Toronto),Apr.
26,2001,atR1.
23.
SeegenerallyHENRYJENKINS,CONVERGENCECULTURE(2007)[hereinafterJENKINS,CONVERGENCECULTURE](discussinghowconsumersinteractwithmediainavarietyofdifferentcontexts,andincludingchaptersontelevisionshows,movies,books,andpolitics).
24.
SeegenerallyPressRelease,PrinciplesforUserGeneratedContentServices,supranote18.
25.
Tushnet,LegalFictions,supranote10,at664("Copyrightlawingeneralhasverylittletosaytononcommercialandnoninstitutionalactorsbecauseuntilveryrecentlytheiractivitieshavegoneunnoticed.
").
26.
LAWRENCELESSIG,CODEVERSION2.
0,app.
at340(BasicBooks2006)(definingsocialnorms)[hereinafterLESSIG,CODEVERSION2.
0].
2008]EVERYTHINGINEEDTOKNOW735betweenthosenormsandcurrentcopyrightlaw,andhowitwouldapplytothenewgenerationofUGC.
Finally,PartIVconcludesthat,whereasanidealsolutionexistsintheformofCreativeCommonslicenses,practicalitiessuggestthatcopyrightownersshouldconsiderembracingexistingsocialnormswhendecidinghowtoenforcetheircopyrights.
I.
THECURRENTSTATEOFUSER-GENERATEDCONTENTA.
FanFictionTheideaoffancultures,or"fandoms,"cultivatingfanfictionwritersbeganattheearliestinthe1920swithsocietiesdedicatedtoJaneAustenandSherlockHolmes,27buttookoffinthelate1960swiththeadventofStarTrekfanzines.
28Thenegativestereotypeof"fans"todayisthatofobsessedgeeks,like"Trekkies,wholovenothingmorethantowatchthesame79installmentsoverandover.
.
.
"29However,thisrepresentsacoremisunderstandingofwhatitistobeafan:thatis,tohavethe"abilitytotransformpersonalreactionintosocialinteraction,spectatorialcultureintoparticipatoryculture.
.
.
notbybeingaregularviewerofaparticularprogrambutbytranslatingthatviewingintosomekindofculturalactivity.
"30HenryJenkins,aMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologyprofessorandexpertonfanculture,likensfanfictiontothestoryofTheVelveteenRabbit:thattheinvestmentinsomethingiswhatgivesitameaningratherthananyintrinsicmeritsoreconomicvalue.
31Forfanswhoinvestinatelevisionshow,book,ormovie,thatinvestmentsparksproduction,andreadingorviewingsparkswriting,untilthetwoareinseparable.
32Theyarenotwatchingthesamethingoverandover,butratherarecreatingsomethingnewinstead.
27.
Derecho,supranote9,at62;seeTushnet,LegalFictions,supranote10,at655n.
14.
28.
Derecho,supranote9,at62.
Afanzineis"[a]namateur-producedmagazinewrittenforasubcultureofenthusiastsdevotedtoaparticularinterest.
"TheFreeDictionary,Fanzine,http://www.
thefreedictionary.
com/fanzine(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008).
29.
CharlesLeerhsen,StarTrek'sNineLives,NEWSWEEK,Dec.
22,1986,at66.
30.
HENRYJENKINS,FANS,BLOGGERS,ANDGAMERS41(2006)[hereinafterJENKINS,FANS].
31.
HENRYJENKINS,TEXTUALPOACHERS:TELEVISIONFANSANDPARTICIPATORYCULTURE51(Routledge1992)[hereinafterJENKINS,TEXTUALPOACHERS].
"Thevalueofanewtoyliesnotinitsmaterialqualities.
.
.
,butratherinhowthetoyisused,howitisintegratedintothechild'simaginativeexperienceId.
at50.
32.
JENKINS,FANS,supranote30,at41.
736VANDERBILTJ.
OFENTERTAINMENTANDTECH.
LAW[Vol.
10:3:729ThoughtracedbacktotheearlydaysofStarTrek,fanfictionhasonlygainedtheattentionofthemainstreammediasincethepopularizationoftheInternetinthemid-1990s.
33Asoneiratecommentatorseekingtostampoutthe"evils"ofbadfictionputit,"fanfictionsubculturehasprobablyquietlyexistedsincethetimeofJaneAusten,"but"[l]ikemostsubcultures,thenethasgivenitcriticalmass.
"34Thisisunsurprisingsince"fans"haveoftenbeenearlyadoptersofdigitaltechnologiesandwereearlypioneersoftheInternet.
35This"criticalmass"hassinceoverflowed,reachingandconnectinganenormousnumberoffansallovertheworld.
ThemediaattentionsurroundingtheHarryPotterbooks,aswellasthelargenumberofInternet-savvyfans(largelyagenerationthathasgrownupwiththistechnology),broughtevenmoreattentiontofanfiction.
Today,aGooglesearchfor"fanfiction"yieldsnearly40millionresults.
36Fanfiction.
netboastsmorethan18,000StarWarsstoriesandmorethan300,000HarryPotterstories(upfromabout280,000storiesinthelastyear),37nottomentionthehundredsofotherfandomcategories,fromtheunsurprising(nearly7,000X-Filesstories)totheobscure(ninestoriesbasedonthetelevisionshowAlf).
38With"copyright"and"piracy"asthenewbuzzwordsinapost-Napstersociety,manywonderaboutthedubiouslegalstatusofthewritings.
39Ifcopyrightlawgivesauthorsexclusiverightstotheir33.
See,e.
g.
,CyndiKibby,InSlashFiction,LoveIsAllAround,ST.
PETERSBURGTIMES,Aug.
30,1996,at6T(describingthe"cyberspaceworldofslashfiction");JonCasimir,HowtheNetIsSnaringTVViewers,SYDNEYMORNINGHERALD,Jan.
13,1997,at2(describingfanfictionsitesandgroups,suchastheAlt.
Startrek.
Creativesite,as"adreamcometrue"forsometelevisionfans).
34.
KarlMamer,TheNet:AMagnetforBadFiction,TORONTOSUN,Oct.
6,1996,atC15.
35.
JENKINS,FANS,supranote30,at138("WithinthescientificandmilitaryinstitutionswheretheInternetwasfirstintroduced,sciencefictionhaslongbeenaliteratureofchoice.
Consequently,theslangandsocialpracticesemployedontheearlybulletinboardswereoftendirectlymodeledonsciencefictionfandom.
Mailingliststhatfocusedonfantopicstooktheirplacealongsidediscussionsoftechnologicalorscientificissues.
Inmanyways,cyberspaceisfandomwritlarge.
").
36.
GoogleHomePage,http://www.
google.
com/searchhl=en&q=%22Fan+Fiction%22&btnG=Search(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008).
37.
OnOctober18,2007,Fanfiction.
netlisted342,874HarryPotterstories,seeFanfiction.
net,http://www.
fanfiction.
net/book/(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008),whileanarticlepublishedonJanuary27,2007,listedFanfiction.
netashavingonly280,000HarryPotterstories,seeRobertColvile,BoldlyGoWhereNoOneHasGoneBefore.
ImagineHarryPotterinaClinchwithJamesBond:WelcometotheWorldofFanFiction,DAILYTELEGRAPH(London),Jan.
27,2007,at21.
38.
Fanfiction.
net,TVShows,http://www.
fanfiction.
net/tv(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008).
39.
SeeColvile,supranote37;Doherty,supranote22("[F]anfictioneersproducegreatquantitiesofwork,andintheprocessraisequestionsaboutappropriationofvoice,2008]EVERYTHINGINEEDTOKNOW737writings,thenhowcansomeoneelsecomealongandusetheircharactersandtheirworldwithouttheirpermissionShouldthelawallowthisoutletforcreativeexpressionB.
CopyrightModerncopyrightlawhasitsrootsinEnglishcommonandstatutorylaw,whichtheFramersoftheU.
S.
Constitutionusedasguidance.
40ThecopyrightclauseoftheConstitutiongivesthelegislativebranchthepowertocreatepatentsandcopyrightsto"promotetheProgressofScienceandusefulArts,bysecuringforlimitedTimestoAuthorsandInventorstheexclusiveRighttotheirrespectiveWritingsandDiscoveries.
"41Inthisdrafting,theFramershad"threemaingoals:thepromotionoflearning,theprotectionofthepublicdomain,andthegrantingofanexclusiverighttotheauthor.
"42Essentially,theFramerswishedtoencourageinnovationbyprovidinganincentivetocreate:anexclusiverighttocontrolandbenefitfromthosecreations.
Fanfictionfallsintothegrayareaofcopyrightlaw.
Itisgenerallyconsideredtobea"derivativework,"aconceptthatwasdefinedinthe1909CopyrightActas"aworkbasedupononeormorepreexistingworks,suchasatranslation,musicalarrangement,dramatization,fictionalization,motionpictureversion,soundrecording,artreproduction,abridgment,condensation,oranyotherforminwhichaworkmayberecast,transformed,oradapted.
"43Derivativeworksaretransformative;basically,theyincorporatecopyrightedaspectsoftheoriginalwithoutbeingcarboncopiesoftheoriginal.
Legally,onlycopyrightownershavetherighttopreparetheseworks.
44Thisappliestoanythingfromtheslightestmodificationtosomethingsotransformedthattheoriginalishardlyrecognizable,anditpertains"notjusttothecommercialpublisherbuttoanyonewithacomputer.
"45Moreover,copyrightlawtreatsaauthorialintegrity,thevalidityofcopyright,[and]thepointatwhichprivatecreationbecomespublicproperty.
").
40.
MeredithMcCardle,Note,FanFiction,Fandom,andFanfare:What'sAlltheFuss,9B.
U.
J.
SCI.
&TECH.
L.
433,438(2003)(notingthattheStatuteofAnneprovidedtheframeworkforUnitedStatescopyrightlaw).
41.
U.
S.
CONST.
art.
I,§8,cl.
8.
42.
SuntrustBankv.
HoughtonMifflinCo.
,268F.
3d1257,1261(11thCir.
2001).
43.
17U.
S.
C.
§101(2000).
44.
17U.
S.
C.
§106(2)(2000).
45.
LAWRENCELESSIG,FREECULTURE138-39(PenguinPress2004)[hereinafterLESSIG,FREECULTURE].
738VANDERBILTJ.
OFENTERTAINMENTANDTECH.
LAW[Vol.
10:3:729transformativeworkcreatedwithoutpermissioninthesamewaythatittreatscopyrightinfringement.
46Therefore,fanfictionisgenerallyunderstoodtobeillegal,asfanfictionwritersdonothavethelegalrighttocreatederivativesofcopyrightedworks.
47However,manylegalscholarshavearguedthatfanfictionshouldfallunderthecopyrightdoctrineof"fairuse.
"48Underthisdoctrine,copyrightedinformationcanbeused,incertaincircumstances,"evenagainstthewillof[a]writer[].
"49Recognizingtheinterestinmaintainingarichpublicdomainandnotstiflingcreativitywithoverprotection,CongresscodifiedfairuseasanexceptiontocopyrightprotectionintheCopyrightActof1976.
50Thefollowingfactorsdeterminewhethertheuseofaworkqualifiesasfairuse:(1)thepurposeandcharacteroftheuse,includingwhethersuchuseisofacommercialnatureorisfornonprofiteducationalpurposes;(2)thenatureofthecopyrightedwork;(3)theamountandsubstantialityoftheportionusedinrelationtothecopyrightedworkasawhole;and(4)theeffectoftheuseuponthepotentialmarketfororvalueofthecopyrightedwork.
51Thequestionofwhetherornotfanfictioncouldbeconsideredfairusehasneverbeenaddressedbythecourts,butsomelegalscholarshavesuggestedthatitshouldbeacategoricalexception.
52Whilethepublic46.
Id.
at139.
47.
ChristinaZ.
Ranon,Note,HonorAmongThieves:CopyrightInfringementinInternetFandom,8VAND.
J.
ENT.
&TECH.
L.
421,435(2006)("Fanfictionqualifiesasanunauthorizedderivativework,andisthereforeillegal.
");seealsoMcCardle,supranote40,at445("[Y]es,writingfanfictioninfringesoncopyrightprotections.
");Tushnet,LegalFictions,supranote10,at659("Copyrightlawlaterexpandeditsreachbeyondduplicationtolooserformsofborrowing,includinguseofwell-establishedcharacters.
").
48.
SeegenerallyMcCardle,supranote40,at457("Insummary,thepurposeandnatureoffanfictionweighmostlyinthefavorofafairusefinding,despiteavailableargumentsthatthesamepurposeandnaturecouldalsocutagainstafairusefinding.
");Ranon,supranote47,at451("Thebestwaytoprotectthisuseful,transformativecategoryofcreativeworksisthroughacategoricalfairuseexceptionforInternetfanfiction.
");Tushnet,LegalFictions,supranote10,at684-85("Thefairusedoctrinemaybeusedtoprotectaudiences'interestsincreativelyrespondingtowhattheysee.
Protectingtheadditionofcreativelaborasafairusealsoprotectscopyrightownersfromthecumulativeeffectsonthemarketofwidespreadpurecopying.
").
49.
Folsomv.
Marsh,9F.
Cas.
342,347(C.
C.
D.
Mass.
1841)(No.
4901).
50.
See17U.
S.
C.
§107(2000);Tushnet,LegalFictions,supranote10,at661.
51.
17U.
S.
C.
§107.
52.
SeeTushnet,LegalFictions,supranote10,at664;seealsoRanon,supranote47,at444-45.
2008]EVERYTHINGINEEDTOKNOW739generallybelievesthatadistinctionexistsbetweencommercialandnoncommercialusewithregardtocopyright,thisperceptionhasneverbeenacceptedaslaw.
53Because"[t]hestandardsforinvokingthefairusedoctrinearesovague,"fearoflitigationmaychillthecreationoffanfictionaltogether.
54Fanfictioncameunderthescrutinyofcopyrightholdersasearlyas1977.
55Morerecently,WarnerBrothersmadeheadlinesbysendingcease-and-desistletterstoteenagersrunningHarryPotterWebsites.
56However,nofanfictioncasehasevergonetocourt,eitherbecausecopyrightholdershavedecidedtoignorethemorbecauseoffanauthors'inabilitiestocontestcease-and-desistdemands.
57Infact,mostfanfictionwriterswouldprefertokeepitthatway.
LikethoseconcernedbyLoriJareo'snovelthatplacedfanfictioninthepubliceye,manyfansprefertoremainunnoticed.
Rightnow,fanfictionisalegalgreyareaandishighlyself-regulated,butifthelawweretocomedownonthesideofthecopyrightholders,noamountofinternalpolicingcouldprotectfanfictionfromthelegalmessthatwouldfollow.
Fanfictionwriters,therefore,havereasontobeincreasinglywaryinapost-Napsterworld,wherechangestocopyrightlawseeminevitable.
C.
TheCopyrightCrisisandthe"New"User-GeneratedContentThe"copyrightcrisis"thatbeganwithNapsterhitthemusicindustryhard,leavingmanythinkingthattheproblemisnotwithnewtechnologybutwiththestateofcopyrightlawitself.
58Evenso,withtheSupremeCourt'sdecisioninMetro-Goldwyn-MayerStudios,Inc.
v.
Grokster,Ltd.
,59standingontheshouldersofthetwenty-year-olddecisioninSonyCorp.
ofAmericav.
UniversalStudios,Inc.
,60copyrightlawdoesnotseemtobemovingforwardatthesamerateas53.
Ranon,supranote47,at445.
54.
Id.
at444.
55.
McCardle,supranote40,at441.
InJune1977,Paramountsentacease-and-desistlettertothepublishersofaStarTrekfanzine,butthendroppedthecaseupondiscoveringthatitwasnotaprofessionalpublication.
Id.
In1981,theheadoftheOfficialStarWarsFanClubsentacease-and-desistlettertothepublishersofafanzinebasedonStarWarscharacters,whichthenceasedpublication.
Id.
56.
Ranon,supranote47,at421.
57.
Tushnet,LegalFictions,supranote10,at664.
58.
Palfrey,supranote20,atA15.
59.
545U.
S.
913(2005)(holdingthedistributorofthefile-sharingtechnologyliableforinfringementbecausethesoftwaredidnothavesubstantialnoninfringinguses).
60.
464U.
S.
417(1984)(holdingthatSonywasnotliableforcopyrightinfringementbecausetheBetamaxrecorderdidhavesubstantialnoninfringinguses).
740VANDERBILTJ.
OFENTERTAINMENTANDTECH.
LAW[Vol.
10:3:729thetechnologyimplicatingit.
Meanwhile,inthewakeoftheNapster61andGrokster62lawsuits,themusicindustryisstillflailing,withsalesfallingeachyear.
63Asearlyas2001,moreblankCDsweresoldannuallythanprerecordeddiscs.
64Thefilmandtelevisionindustrieswerenotaffectedasquicklybythecopyrightcrisisaswasthemusicindustry,onereasonbeingthatvideofilesaremuchlargerand,therefore,moredifficulttodownloadandsharethanmusicfiles.
65Also,whereaslisteningtoapiratedsongonanMP3playerprovidesanearlyidenticalexperiencetolisteningtoastore-boughtCD,watchingapiratedcopyofafilmonacomputerscreendoesnotmimictheexperienceofamovietheater,orevenofaDVDonatelevision.
66However,newtechnologyhascaughtupwithfilmandtelevision,justasitdidwithmusic.
WiththeintroductionofBitTorrent,afile-sharingprotocolthatallowsuserstodownloadverylargefilesbyusinganetworkingscheme,67sharinglargefileshasbecomeincreasinglylesscumbersome;infact,themorepopularafileis,thequickeritistodownload.
68Likewise,technologysuchasAppleTVallowsuserstoviewcontentfromtheirPCsontheirtelevisions,andtherestrictionsthatmakeAppleTVcompatibleonlywithiTunes,likemostotherDigitalRightsManagement(DRM)measures(thatis,waystoenforcecopyrightterms,usuallywithencryption),canbecircumventedbyhackers.
69Also,withpopularnewgadgetslikeSlingboxmakingitpossibletowatchTVfromone'sPC,70moredevicestoflip-flopthatscenarioareprobablynotfarbehind.
61.
A&MRecords,Inc.
v.
Napster,Inc.
,239F.
3d1004(9thCir.
2001).
62.
Grokster,Ltd.
,545U.
S.
913.
63.
SeeWILLIAMFISHER,PROMISESTOKEEP:TECHNOLOGY,LAW,ANDTHEFUTUREOFENTERTAINMENT4-5(2004);seealsoJeffLeeds,PlungeInCDSalesShakesUpBigLabels,N.
Y.
TIMES,May28,2007,atE1(notingthatCDsalesdroppedtwentypercentbetween2006and2007).
64.
FISHER,supranote63,at4-5.
65.
Id.
at5.
66.
Id.
67.
wiseGEEK,WhatIsBitTorrent,http://www.
wisegeek.
com/what-is-bittorrent.
htm(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008).
68.
BernhardWarner,FileSharingIt'sGreatBusiness,THEGUARDIAN(London),Mar.
9,2006,at5.
69.
Q&A:WhatIsDRM,BBCNEWS,Apr.
2,2007,http://news.
bbc.
co.
uk/1/hi/technology/6337781.
stm(definingandlistingsomeproblemswithDRM);PostingofBenDrawbaughtoEngadget,http://www.
engadget.
com/2007/04/10/how-to-play-divx-and-xvid-on-your-apple-tv/(Apr.
10,2007,12:04)(explaininghowtohackAppleTV).
70.
"Slingbox"isacommercialnamefortechnologythat"allowspeopletousetheInternettowatchitsTVshowsfromanywhereintheworld,viatheirlaptopsorcellphones.
"DawnC.
Chmielewski,TVMayBeaTougherChallenge,L.
A.
TIMES,Jan.
10,2007,atC1.
2008]EVERYTHINGINEEDTOKNOW741Notmuchtimehaspassedsince"filesharing"wasanewandstrangeterm,thepresidentoftheRecordingIndustryAssociationofAmericadeclaredNapstera"temporaryphenomenon,"andthemediagnasheditsteethforthe"epicbattles"yettocomeincourtrooms.
71Now,bigcopyrightholdersarebeingdiligentaboutspottingthenext"crisis,"beforeDVDsandcablegothewayofthemusicalbum.
AndthenewestscareisUGC.
Infact,manyoftheleadingcopyrightholdershavecometogetherinanattempttoconsolidatetheireffortstoeliminateinfringementonUGCWebsites.
72"User-generatedcontent"hasbecomesomethingofabuzzword.
Formost,itimmediatelybringstomindYouTube,theleadingdistributorofuser-uploadedvideocontent.
73However,UGCisbroaderthanthat;itistheproductofthemovementtowardsaparticipativeWebculture,cultivatedbynewtechnologythatisaccessibleandaffordablebythegeneralpublic.
74OthertypesofUGCincludeblogentries,socialnetworkingprofiles,wikis,75discussionboardpostings,andpodcasts.
76However,noteverythingpostedontheInternetisUGC,asclarifiedbyitsthreecentralcharacteristics:"(1)contentmadepubliclyavailableovertheInternet,(2)whichreflectsa'certainamountofcreativeeffort',and(3)whichis'createdoutsideofprofessionalroutinesandpractices.
'"77Thefirstrequirementexcludesthingslikeapersonale-mailorashortstorythatsomeonewritesbutnevershowsanyone.
Thesecondrequiresthatusers"addtheirownvaluetothework,"78whichactuallyexcludesthesortofinfringementaboutwhichcopyrightholdersaremostconcerned.
Copyingaportionofatelevisionshow71.
Cohen,supranote14.
72.
SeegenerallyUserGeneratedContentPrinciples,supranote17(statingthatthefirstobjectiveincomingtogetheraroundtheirlistedprinciplesis"theeliminationofinfringingcontentonUGCServices").
73.
EricAuchard,YouTubeVisitsLargerthanRivalsCombined:Survey,REUTERSUK,June28,2007,availableathttp://uk.
reuters.
com/article/technologyNews/idUKN2742598120070628pageNumber=1(describingsurveyfindingsthat,asofMay2007,YouTube'sshareoftheonlinevideomarketwas60.
2%.
).
74.
Seeinfratextaccompanyingnotes75-80(listingexamplesofaffordableandparticipativetechnology).
75.
A"wiki"issoftwarethatallowsuserstoeditandcreatecontentonaWebpageusingonlyaWebbrowser.
WhatisWiki,http://wiki.
org/wiki.
cgiWhatIsWiki(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2007).
76.
Theactualdefinitionofuser-generatedcontentisoftendebated.
See,e.
g.
,PostingofAlxKlivetoAlxKlive'sWorldTVBlog,http://worldtv.
com/blog/rants_raves/youtube_trends_report.
php(Aug.
23,2006,11:09)(debatingthedefinitionof"user-generatedcontent").
77.
PARTICIPATIVEWEB,supranote21,at4.
78.
Id.
at8.
742VANDERBILTJ.
OFENTERTAINMENTANDTECH.
LAW[Vol.
10:3:729andpostingittoYouTubeisnotUGC,whereastakingscenesfromatelevisionshowandsplicingthemtogetherintoamusicvideoisUGC,evenifViacomandsimilarcopyrightholdersoftentreatthetwosituationsasoneinthesame.
79Thethirdrequirementaddressesmotivation—UGCis"producedbynon-professionalswithouttheexpectationofprofit,"(i.
e.
,noncommercialuse).
80Creatorsmaybemotivatedsimplybythedesiretoexpressthemselves,ortoachievefameornotoriety.
81JustastheInternetallowedfortheexplosionoffanfictionandNapsterfacilitatedmusicpiracy,itisnewtechnologythathascultivatedUGCintosomethingubiquitous.
However,unlikeNapster,Grokster,andevenBitTorrent,thereisnosingletechnologyresponsibleforthechange.
Simplebloggingsoftware,usedonsitessuchasLiveJournalandBlogger,hasgiveneveryoneavoice.
82Wikipediaprovidedaplatformforcollaborativeknowledge-building.
83iPodsandiTunes,alongwithaffordablerecordinghardware,havepavedthewayforpodcasting.
84Affordabledigitalcamerashavemadeiteasierandcheapertouploadpicturesontothewebthantodevelopthem.
85SimpleeditingprogramssuchasiMovieandWindowsMovieMaker,alongwithaffordabledigitalvideocamerasandhostingsitessuchasYouTube,havechangedhowwethinkof"homemovies.
"86In2001,scholarLawrenceLessigpredictedthat"[t]echnologycouldenableawholegenerationtocreate—remixedfilms,newformsofmusic,digitalart,anewkindofstorytelling,writing,anewtechnologyforpoetry,criticism,politicalactivism—andthen,throughtheinfrastructureoftheInternet,sharethatcreativitywithothers.
"8779.
SeeRebeccaTushnet,PaymentinCredit:CopyrightLawandSubculturalCreativity,70LAW&CONTEMP.
PROBS.
135,144-45(2007)[hereinafterTushnet,PaymentinCredit]);supranote16andaccompanyingtext.
80.
PARTICIPATIVEWEB,supranote21,at8.
81.
Id.
82.
LiveJournal,http://www.
livejournal.
com(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008);Blogger,http://www.
blogger.
com(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008).
83.
Wikipedia,http://www.
wikipedia.
org(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008).
84.
SeegenerallyWhatIsPodcasting,http://www.
podcastingnews.
com/articles/What_is_Podcasting.
html(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008)(definingpodcastingastheprocessof"deliveringaudiocontenttoiPodsandotherportablemediaplayersondemand,sothatitcanbelistenedtoattheuser'sconvenience").
85.
SeeAdobeDigitalKidsClub:IntroductiontoDigitalPhotography,http://www.
adobe.
com/education/digkids/intro/(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008)(listingseveraladvantagesofdigitalphotography,includingitscost-savingbenefits).
86.
PostingofRickBroidatoLifehacker,http://lifehacker.
com/software/digital-video/alpha-geek-video-editing-101-220595.
php(Dec.
11,2006,09:30PST).
87.
LAWRENCELESSIG,THEFUTUREOFIDEAS9(RandomHouse2001).
2008]EVERYTHINGINEEDTOKNOW743Thankstothetechnologyavailablesincethattime,thisisexactlywhathashappened.
However,ontheflipsideofthetechnologyexplosionistheothercircumstancethathasboostedUGC:theworldisflushwithcontent.
Contentiseverywhere.
Notonlyisiteasytocopy,butitisalsoeasytochange.
Someonecanwriteablogentrywithpoliticalcommentarythatcontainsanembeddedvideoofapoliticianappearingonatelevisionnewsprogram.
88SomeoneelsecantakethesongsfromTheBeatles'WhiteAlbum,mixthemupwiththesongsonJay-Z'sTheBlackAlbum,andcreateTheGreyAlbum;thistypeofmusicmixingisknownasa"mash-up.
"89SomeonecantakeclipsfromtheHarryPottermovies,splicethemtogetherwithdialoguefromtheSouthParkmovie,andcreateaparodyviewedbyover6millionpeople.
90However,Foxprobablyownsthatnewsfootage,twodifferentrecordcompaniesownTheWhiteAlbumandTheBlackAlbum,andWarnerBrothersandComedyCentralrespectivelyholdthecopyrightstotheHarryPotterfilmsandSouthPark.
Hereinliestheproblem.
MuchofUGCis100%original,butthatisnotwhathasthelargecopyrightholders,suchasFoxandViacom,anticipatingthenextcrisis.
InadditiontocasesofpurecopyingthathavebeenlumpedtogetherwithUGC(suchasthewholesaledistributionofentiretelevisionepisodesonYouTube),copyrightholdersaregoingafterderivativeworkslikethosedescribedabove.
Oneparticulartypeofworkiscalleda"fanvid,"whichinvolvestakingfootagefromtelevisionormovies,re-editingit"toexpress[a]particularslant"ontheoriginalwork,and"linking[the]series[of]imagestomusic[thatis]similarlyappropriatedfromcommercialculture.
"91Fanvidshavebeenaroundnearlyaslongasfanfiction;however,onlyinrecentyearshavetheybecomemucheasiertomakeanddistribute.
92HenryJenkins88.
See,e.
g.
,PostingofDavidKurtztoTalkingPointsMemo,http://talkingpointsmemo.
com/archives/063381.
php(Jan.
10,2008,19:04)(providingavideoclipofanewsshowaccompaniedbybriefpoliticalcommentary).
89.
SashaFrere-Jones,1+1+1=1:TheNewMathofMashups,NEWYORKER,Jan.
10,2005,availableathttp://www.
newyorker.
com/archive/2005/01/10/050110crmu_music.
90.
SeeYouTube,SouthPark&HarryPotter,http://www.
youtube.
com/watchv=Z8mvrFHcgsc(lastvisitedOct.
18,2007)(listingaviewcountof6,443,545).
Notably,thevideohassincebeenremoved.
91.
JENKINS,TEXTUALPOACHERS,supranote31,at225;seealsoLoganHill,TheVidder:LuminosityUpgradesFanVideo,N.
Y.
MAG.
,Nov.
12,2007,availableathttp://nymag.
com/movies/features/videos/40622/(displayingexamplesofspecificfanvidsproducedbyaprofiledcreator).
92.
SeePostingofHenryJenkinstoConfessionsofanAca-Fan,http://www.
henryjenkins.
org/2006/09/how_to_watch_a_fanvid.
html,(Sept.
18,2006,00:00)(describingthelaboriousprocessthatusedtoberequiredtocreateafanvidnearlytwenty744VANDERBILTJ.
OFENTERTAINMENTANDTECH.
LAW[Vol.
10:3:729describedtheformas"ideallysuitedtodemandsoffanculture,dependingforitssignificanceuponthecarefulweldingofwordsandimagestocommentontheseriesnarrative.
"93Severallargecopyrightholders,includingViacomandFox,haverecentlyhadusers'fanvidsremovedfromYouTube,citingcopyrightviolationsintheuseofclipsfromtelevisionshowsandmovies.
94Fanvidshavealsobeenremovedattherequestofthemusic'scopyrightholders.
95WhenacopyrightholdercomplainsaboutavideopostedbyaYouTubeuser,thatvideoisremovedfromYouTubewithoutwarning.
96Furthermore,repeat"infringers"havetheiraccountssuspendedandarepermanentlyblockedfromthesite.
97Fanvidsandsimilarvideostakelargeamountsoftime,care,andcreativitytomake.
Thepossibilitythattheycouldberemovedfrompublicviewingwithoutwarningislikelytohaveachillingeffectonthissortofcreativeeffort,muchlikethethreatoflitigationontheproductionoffanfiction.
Infact,thecopyrightissuesassociatedwithfanfictionarethesameasthoseassociatedwithUGC.
BecausewholesalecopyingdoesnottechnicallyconstituteUGC(thereisnocreativeeffortor"addedvalue"tothecontent),98thenarguablyallUGCthatisnotcompletelyoriginalcouldbeconsideredderivativeworks.
Thedefinitionforderivativeworkshasbeenonlyvaguelytested,andtermssuchas"abridgement,""condensation,""recast,""transformed,"or"adapted"couldcertainlyrefertothevarioususesofcopyrightedcontentexaminedhere.
99yearsago,anddiscussinghowdigitalproductiontoolsandWebsiteslikeYouTubehavemadefanvidsmucheasiertocreatetoday).
93.
JENKINS,TEXTUALPOACHERS,supranote31,at225.
94.
Seesupranote16andaccompanyingtext.
95.
SeePostingofAcastustoAvatarSpirit.
net,http://www.
avatarspiritmedia.
net/news_archive.
phpmonth=11&year=2006(Nov.
22,2006,04:19EST)(statingthatananonymoussourceatNickelodeondeniedremovingmashupsfromYouTubeandsuggestedthatrecordcompaniesmaybeatfault).
96.
SeeYouTube,TermsofUse,http://www.
youtube.
com/t/terms(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008)(statingthat,ifnotified,YouTubewillremoveanycontentthat"infringesonanother'sintellectualpropertyrights,"andthatYouTube"reservestherighttoremoveContentandUserSubmissionswithoutpriornotice");see,e.
g.
,PostingofNathanWeinbergtoInsideGoogle,http://google.
blognewschannel.
com/p=2295(May3,2006)(describinghowhisvideoswereremovedonYouTubewithoutanywarning);PostingofRichJuzwiaktoFourFour,http://fourfour.
typepad.
com/fourfour/2007/02/flushed.
html(Feb.
12,2007)(describinghowhisvideoswereremovedandhisaccountsuspendedwithoutanywarning).
97.
YouTubeHelpCenter,WhatIsYourPolicyonCopyrightInfringement,http://www.
google.
com/support/youtube/bin/answer.
pyanswer=55772&topic=10554(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008).
98.
PARTICIPATIVEWEB,supranote21,at8.
99.
17U.
S.
C.
§101(2000).
2008]EVERYTHINGINEEDTOKNOW745FanfictionitselffitsalloftherequirementsofUGC—itispublished,creative,andnoncommercial.
100TheonlyrealdifferencebetweenYouTubeandfanfictioncommunitiesisthatthelatterhavebeenarounddecadeslonger.
Thesecommunitieshavedevelopedasetofsocialnormsanddependonself-regulatingbehaviortodealwithissuessuchasplagiarism,attribution,andunauthorizedcommercialuse.
101ThesanctionsimposedbyfandomitselfmaybefarmorefrighteningtothepotentialLoriJareosofthefanfictionworldthananylawyerscouldbe.
Fansarenottryingtosubvertcopyrightholders;theplightoffansistolovesomethingsomuchthattheywanttomakesomethingmorefromit.
102Disney,Viacom,Fox,andtheothercopyrightholderswhowishtostampout"allinfringinguser-uploadedaudioandvideocontent"withoutanexceptionfortransformativeworksmaybenefitfromtakingastepbackfrom"crisis"modeandconsideringwhatharmtheyareactuallytryingtoavoid.
103Fanfictionandcopyrighthavepeacefullyco-existedfordecades,andthereisnoreasonwhyothertypesofderivativeworkscannotcontinuetodothesame.
II.
THESELF-REGULATINGCOMMUNITY:SOCIALNORMSANDCOPYRIGHTLAWA.
FandomandSocialNormsOneofthereasonsthatfanfictionhasmanagedlargelytoescapethenoticeofthebigcopyrightholdersisthecost-prohibitiverealityoftakinglegalaction.
Suchanendeavorwouldpresentthesamelogisticalproblemsthatmusiccompanieshavehadpursuingindividualpeer-to-peerdownloaders,andwithoutthesecurityofknowingthatthelawwillcomeoutinthecopyrightholder'sfavor.
104100.
SeePARTICIPATIVEWEB,supranote21,at8(listingthethreecentralcharacteristicsofUGC).
101.
SeeinfraPartII.
A(providingexamplesofsocialnormsinfancommunities).
102.
SeeJENKINS,TEXTUALPOACHERS,supranote31,at50-51(comparingfanactivitiestothestoryofTheVelveteenRabbit).
103.
SeegenerallyUserGeneratedContentPrinciples,supranote17(notingthatUGCservicesshouldhave"thegoalofeliminatingfromtheirservicesallinfringinguser-uploadedaudioandvideocontent").
104.
TrackingdownindividualNapsterusershastraditionallybeendifficultforlawenforcement,and"policeinmanycountrieshaveoftenbeenreluctanttopursuecopyrightinfringementcasesbecausethepenalties"donotpresentadeterrent.
EdwardTaylor,MusicIndustryIsDevelopingToolforTrackingUseofFile-Sharing,WALLST.
J.
,Feb.
16,2001,availableathttp://www.
detritus.
net/contact/rumori/200103/0319.
html.
746VANDERBILTJ.
OFENTERTAINMENTANDTECH.
LAW[Vol.
10:3:729Thoughgrowinginpopularity,fanfictionstillverymuchexistsinasubculture;105thereislittlereasontosenda"message"liketheonethemusicindustrysoughttosendtothegeneralpublictothislimitedgroupoffans.
Moreover,theseveryfansrepresentthemostenthusiasticconsumersofthecopyrightholder'scontent,andalienatingthemcouldonlydomoreharmthangood.
Anotherreasonthatmanyfandomcommunitieshaveavoidedthespotlightisbecausetheparticipantspreferitthatway.
Mostfanfictionwritersrealizethattheirworksexistinalegalgrayareaandthatthe"wrongcase"couldbringaboutalegaljudgmentthatwouldhavefarreachingimplicationsfortheentirecommunity.
106Whereassomemayseeklegitimacy,othersseefandomactivitiesashavingvalueonlywithinthecommunityandprefertokeepitthatway.
107Notonlywouldmainstreamattentionpotentiallyattractthenoticeofthecopyrightholders,butitwouldalsoattracttheunwantedcriticismofthosewhomightdisagreewithmore"questionable"fanfictioncontent,suchasstoriescontainingeroticelements.
108Furthermore,likethoseinvolvedinotherpredominantlyonlineactivities,fanfictionwritersusuallyoperateentirelybypseudonym,oftenhidingtheirinvolvementfromreal-lifefriendsandfamily.
109Fandomsareextremelyclose-knitcommunities,andmembersprotectthemselvesbyoperatingunderaspecificsetofself-regulatingguidelines—theirownsocialnorms.
110105.
HenryJenkins,TransformingFanCultureintoUser-GeneratedContent:TheCaseofFanLib,May22,2007,http://www.
henryjenkins.
org/2007/05/transforming_fan_culture_into.
html[hereinafterJenkins,TransformingFanCulture](notingsomefans'displeasureoverFanlib'sgoaltobringfanfictiontothe"mainstream").
106.
Id.
107.
Id.
108.
Thoughoutsidethepurviewofthisnote,writersoferoticfanfictionhavebeencensoredbysomeWebsites,sometimesduetooutsidepressure.
SeegenerallyLevaCygnet,ThePurityPoliceandFanfic,FIREFOXNEWS,May30,2007,http://firefox.
org/news/articles/407/1/The-Purity-Police-and-Fanfic/Page1.
html(describinghowLiveJournaldeletedseveralfanfictioncommunitiesthatcontainedstorieswiththemessuchasincest);FanHistoryWiki,FanFiction.
net,http://www.
fanhistory.
com/index.
phptitle=FanFiction.
Net(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008)(notingthatin2002,FanFiction.
netbannedallNC-17storiesfromitssite).
Itshouldbenoted,however,thatintheUnitedStates,authorsdonothave"moralrights"intheirworks—i.
e.
,ifaderivativeworkisfairuse,theauthorhasnolegalrecourseiftheyfindthecontenttobequestionable.
RonaldB.
Standler,MoralRightsofAuthorsintheUSA,May29,1998,http://www.
rbs2.
com/moral.
htm.
109.
SeeVanessaE.
Jones,TheNewAdventuresofOldSkywalker:AsFanFictionGainsRespect,OpportunitiesExpandfortheGenre'sWriters,BOSTONGLOBE,Oct.
16,2007,atE1(notingthestigmaattachedtofanfictionandtheexistenceofpseudonymsinthefanfictioncommunity).
110.
PostingofIcarusancaliontoLiveJournal,http://icarusancalion.
livejournal.
com/626928.
html(May20,2007,14:08UTC)(notingthatmembershipisanimportant2008]EVERYTHINGINEEDTOKNOW747ConsiderthecaseofFanLib,oneofthemostblatantexamplesofthecollisionofUGCandfanfiction.
Thissitelaunchedinthespringof2007andpurportstoprovide"afreeservicewhereentertainmentfanscometogethertocreateandsharestories,art,andothermediarelatedtotheirfavoritemovies,televisionshows,andbooks,"aswellaspartnerwith"mediacompanies,publishers,andsponsors.
"111Onthesurface,thisseemedlikeagreatidea,asitwouldbuildonthesuccessofbusinessmodelslikeYouTubewhilereapingthebenefitsofdecades'worthofexistingfanfiction.
Thesiteownersevencontactedestablishedfanfictionwritersandinvitedthemtosubmittheirworktothesite.
112Itseemedlikeawin-winforallpartiesinvolved;thesitewouldgetfreecontentwhilesellingadvertising,andthefanswouldbehappy"justbeingrecognized.
"113However,intryingtorevolutionizefandom,FanLibmanagedtoignoremostofthecommunity'sexistingnormsandsucceededinalienatingtheveryfanstheyintendedtocourt.
114AsMITprofessorHenryJenkinsobservedinhisanalysisoftheproblem,FanLibhaddoneitshomeworkbythestandardsofthe[virtualcommunity]world:theyhadidentifiedapotentialmarket;theyhaddevelopedabusinessplan;theyhadevenidentifiedpotentialcontributorstothesite;theyhaddevelopedaboardofdirectors.
Theysimplyhadn'treallylistento,talkedwith,orrespectedtheexistinggrassrootscommunitywhichsurroundedtheproductionanddistributionoffanfiction.
115Fanlib'splantotapintoanexistingmarketseemedtohaveeverythingbutactualknowledgeaboutthatmarket.
Someofthemistakeswereobviousones.
Forexample,FanLibinitiallymiscalculatedboththegenderandageoftheirkeydemographic.
116Moreimportantly,however,thefansaccusedtheWebcredentialinthefancommunity,anddiscussingFanlib'sfailuretotakeintoaccountexistingnorms).
111.
Fanlib.
com,AboutUs—Introduction,http://www.
fanlib.
com/aboutUs.
do(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008).
112.
PostingofIcarusancalion,supranote110.
113.
JonFine,PuttingtheFanstoWork,BUS.
WK.
,Mar.
13,2006,availableathttp://www.
businessweek.
com/magazine/content/06_11/b3975037.
htm.
114.
SeegenerallyPostingofIcarusancalion,supranote110(summarizingtheproblemswithFanLibfromafan'sperspectiveandprovidinglinkstooveradozenothernegativecommentariesregardingFanLib).
115.
Jenkins,TransformingFanCulture,supranote105.
116.
Id.
Withaboardofdirectorscomposedentirelyofmen,Fanlib'smarketingseemedmale-centric,featuringthetransformationoffandomfromaninety-eightpoundweaklingtoamuscularbodybuilder—however,theoverwhelmingmajorityoffanfictionwritersarewomen.
SeePostingofIcarusancalion,supranote110("FanLibalsofailedtoresearchthedemographicoftheirwriters,withapatronizingtoneandsitedesignaimedatteenagers,wheremanyofthefanfictionwriterstheyinvitedwereprofessionalsanduniversitystudentsintheir20s,30s,andolder748VANDERBILTJ.
OFENTERTAINMENTANDTECH.
LAW[Vol.
10:3:729site'screatorsofbreakingthegoldenruleoffandom:"thoushaltnotprofitfromfanfiction.
"117Manysawthebusinessplanasblatantlyexploitativeofthewriters,orattheveryleastathreattothecommunity'spreferencetostayoutofthepubliceye.
118OnefanfictionwriterhighlightedtheproblemwithFanLib'sfailuretotakeintoaccounttheexistingcommunitynorms:"Probablyasaresultofpast'ceaseanddesist'lettersagainstthem,fanfictioncommunitiesarecloseknit,wheremembershipwithinthecommunityisanimportantcredential,onewhichFanLiblacks.
.
.
.
"119Jenkinsagreed,notingthatFanLib'srealmisstepwastoutingfantraditionswhiletreatingfansasindividualsratherthanrespectingthecommunityasawhole.
120Infact,JenkinsarguesthatthisinattentiontoexistingtraditionsistheproblemwiththenewwaveofmediafervoroverUGCingeneral:"Theindustrytendstoseetheseusersinisolation—asindividualswhowanttoexpressthemselves,ratherthanaspartofpre-existingcommunitieswiththeirowntraditionsofparticipatoryculture.
"121Thesetraditions,suchasthe"thoushaltnotprofit"rule,essentiallyfunctionasconstraintsonthecommunity.
Inthesamewaythatlawnotonlycommandsbehaviorbutexpressesthevaluesofacommunity,sotoodosocialnorms,yetbyconstraininginadifferentway.
122117.
Jenkins,TransformingFanCulture,supranote105("[Mediaproducers]haveadoptedastanceofbenignneglect—willingtoturnablindeyetotheproliferationoffanfictiononlineaslongaspeoplearen'tmakingmoneyfromit.
Asfansnote,however,FanLib'seffortstocommercializefanfictionrepresentedtheworstcasescenario:ahighlypublicized,forprofitventurewhichleftfanfictionwritersevenmoreexposedthantheyhavebefore.
").
118.
Id.
("[A]scompaniesconstructazoneoftoleranceovercertainformsoffanactivities,theywillusethemtopolicemoreaggressivelythosefanactivitiesthattheyfindoffensiveorpotentiallydamagingtotheirbrand.
Fanshavelongassertedtheirrightstoconstructandsharefantasiesthatmaynotbeconsistentwiththeideologicalnormsofmediacompanies.
");seealsoPostingofChrisVallancetoBBCPods&Blogs,http://www.
bbc.
co.
uk/blogs/podsandblogs/2007/05/fanlib_and_fan_fiction.
shtml(May23,2007,10:08)("Thereweremanyconcernsvoicedbyfanficwritersbutakeyissueseemstobethatacommercialpresenceinfanficwilldrawattentiontoaspacethathasoperatedasaclose-knitcommunitybelowtheradarofcopyrightlawyersandrightsholders.
");PostingofAlmostnevertoLiveJournal,http://almostnever.
livejournal.
com/572926.
html(May14,2007,18:23UTC).
119.
PostingofIcarusancalion,supranote110.
120.
Jenkins,TransformingFanCulture,supranote105("FanLib'srhetoricseemstobecaughtbetweenthesetwoconceptionsofthe'user,'talkingaboutfantraditionsbutdealingwithfansasisolatedindividualsandnotrespectingthecommunityasawhole.
").
121.
Id.
122.
LESSIG,CODEVERSION2.
0,supranote26,app.
at340.
2008]EVERYTHINGINEEDTOKNOW749Socialnormsarethenormativeconstraintsimposedthroughthe"manyslightandsometimesforcefulsanctionsthatmembersofacommunityimposeoneachother.
"123Norms"govern[]sociallysalientbehavior,"suchthatdeviatingfromthatstandardmakesone"sociallyabnormal.
"124Indiscussingthe"burgeoningprivacycrisis"causedinpartbythegrowthoftheInternet,academicStevenHetcherpointedoutthat,becausetheprivacycrisisdevelopedina"legalvacuum,"inthattherewaslittlepositivelawspeakingdirectlytotheissue,"informalsocialnorms[had]thepotentialtoplay"animportantroleinhowtheprivacyissuesdeveloped.
125Asimilarvacuumexistsinthelegalgrayareaoffanfiction,andnormsplayanextremelyimportantroleinthewaythatthecommunitydealswithcopyrightissues.
The"thoushaltnotprofit"rulebrokenbyFanLibdoesnotexistmerelytokeepwritersfrombeingexploited,butalsotoprotectthecommunityasawholeagainstcopyrightclaims.
Themajorityoffanfictionwritersareawarethattheactivityislegallydubiousandthatprofitingfromitwouldonlyattractnegativeattention.
126Aslongasnomoneyisbeingmade,someassumethatwhattheyaredoingistechnicallyillegalbutnottrulywrongsinceitcausesnoharmtothecopyrightowners.
127Othersassumethatfanfictionisafairuseand,thus,non-infringing.
128Thecommunityasawholehasagreedthat,eitherway,itshouldalwaysbenot-for-profit,andimposessanctionsonthosethatdeviatefromthisnorm.
ThecaseofFanLib,whereanoutsiderattemptedtoprofitfromfanfiction,isanunusualsituation;mostoftheproblemsthatarisearewithinfandomitself.
Thenoncommercialnormisanimportantonewithinthecommunity;fanfictionwritersoftenbegintheirworkswithdisclaimersthatemphasizethattheseworksarefreelydistributedandnot-for-profit.
129Deviationsfromthisnormcanhaveseriousresultsfortheoffender—publicridicule,condemnation,andevenbanishment.
130InthecaseofLoriJareo,theself-publishedStarWars123.
Id.
(definingsocialnorms).
124.
Id.
125.
STEVENA.
HETCHER,NORMSINAWIREDWORLD243(2004).
126.
SeePostingofIcarusancalion,supranote110(statingthatfanfiction"liesinalegalgrayarea,"andwarningthatfanfictioncouldbethreatenedbyFanLib'sattempttogainprofitsfromit);PostingofCesperanzatoLiveJournal,http://cesperanza.
livejournal.
com/161806.
html(May17,2007,08:43UTC)(expressingopinionthatfanfictionisnotanillegalactivityandwarningfanfictionwritersofthenegativeconsequencesofpubliclyclaimingfanfictionisaformofcopyrightinfringement).
127.
Tushnet,PaymentinCredit,supranote79,at141.
128.
Id.
129.
Ranon,supranote47,at423.
130.
Seeinfranotes137-43.
750VANDERBILTJ.
OFENTERTAINMENTANDTECH.
LAW[Vol.
10:3:729writer,theattempttoprofitfromherworkmayhavehadmorefar-reachingeffectsthanfacingfandomscorn.
Sheworksinthepublishingindustry,andbecauseoftheenormousamountofcontroversyconcerningherfandomfauxpas,someonesearchingtheInternetforinformationonherwillcomeacrossthescandalfirst.
131PerhapsfearofsharingJareo'sfate—aseriesoffar-reachingpubliccondemnations—providesevenmoreincentiveforpotentialcopyrightinfringerstofollowtherulesthanwouldthepossibilityoflegalaction.
Infact,suchpublicdisplaysofmockeryhavebecomemorecommoninfandominrecentyears.
BecausemuchofthefanfictioncommunityhasmovedfromusenetandmailingliststobloggingsitessuchasLiveJournal,fandomhasbecomeincreasinglyself-reflective—bringingthediscussionoffandom,aswellasitswriters(ratherthanjusttheirworks),totheforefrontofthecommunity.
132Assuch,membersofthecommunityhaveabuilt-inplatformandaudienceforimposingthe"slightandsometimesforcefulsanctions"ofthecommunity'snorms.
133PerhapsmostnotableisFandomWank,agroupblogwherefanspostentriesdevotedtomockingfellowfans.
134Anobserverdescribesthepurposeoftheblogasprovidinganoutletto"pointandlaughatfanstheyconsider'wanky';thatcoversamultitudeofsins,fromdaringtotakeyourfandomseriouslytojustbeingdumb.
"135Asaspotforthese"sinners"tobe"harpoonedandlampoonedandhumiliated,"FandomWankanditspostsareaprimeexampleofthesocialsanctionsthatmembersofacommunitycanusetoenforcenorms.
136Forexample,thepostdedicatedtoJareo'sself-publishednovelhasover700comments,withoutakindwordinsight.
137131.
AGooglesearchof"LoriJareo"producesaWikipediaentryonJareo(primarilyabouttheStarWarsscandal)asthefirsthit,followedbyanumberofblogpostsaboutthesame.
Google,http://www.
google.
com/searchhl=en&q=lori+jareo&btnG=Google+Search(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008).
132.
SeegenerallyFanHistoryWiki,LiveJournal,http://www.
fanhistory.
com/index.
php/Livejournal(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008)("LiveJournalfundamentallychangedthewaymanyfanfictioncommunitiesoriented,bringingthepersonalaspectoffen'slivestoamuchcentralpartofthefanfictioncommunity.
").
133.
LESSIG,CODEVERSION2.
0,supranote26,app.
at340.
134.
JournalFen,FandomWank,http://www.
journalfen.
net/community/fandom_wank/(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008).
135.
FandomWankWiki,FandomWank,http://wiki.
fandomwank.
com/index.
php/Fandom_wank(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008).
136.
FandomWankWiki,TheDifferenceBetweenFandomWankandGroupsLikeBadficsupport,http://wiki.
fandomwank.
com/index.
php/The_difference_between_fandom_wank_and_and_groups_like_badficsupport(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008).
137.
PostingofThePinkMarauder,supranote2.
2008]EVERYTHINGINEEDTOKNOW751MostfandomincidentsdonotgoasfarasJareo's(whosestorywaspickedupbysomeverypopularmainstreambloggers),butthemockingonFandomWankorothervenuesisoftenenoughtomakesomeoneleavethecommunity,perhapsevengivingupwritingaltogether.
Forexample,inanattempttoprofitfromherfanfiction,awriterwhowasinthemiddleofanunfinishedfanfictionnovelaskedherreaderstodonatemoneysothatshecouldtaketimeofffromworkinordertowritefull-time,theimplicationbeingthatshewouldnotcompletethestoryifshewasnotpaidforit.
138Whatfollowedincludedmocking,name-calling,andparody,withmorethanoneaccuserallegingcopyrightinfringement.
Oneanonymouscommenterwrote,"Letmetakethesecharacters,whichARENOTMINE,andmakemoneyoffofthem.
Unreal.
"139Thewriterinquestionsubsequentlydeletedherjournal.
140Therehavebeenmanysimilarincidents,allwithsimilarresults.
Evenincaseswherecopyrightlawmaynotcomeintoplay,suchaswith"realperson"fiction(inwhichtherearenocopyrightedcharactersinvolved)orinstanceswhereawriteristradingonfamemorethandirectlyprofitingfromthefiction,thenormishighlyingrained.
141Oneiratefaninacommunityfor"FanficRants"summeduptheissueinanopenlettertootherwriters:YOUDONOTMAKEMONEYOFFOFFANFIC.
EVER.
Doyourealizethetroubleyoucouldbringdownonthefanfic'industry',suchasitis,ifyoudidNo,ofcourseyoudon't,'causeyou'respecialandcopyrightlawsapparentlydon'tapplytoyou,orsomething.
Sorepeataftermeuntilthisisthroughyourthick,fangirlskull.
YOUDONOTMAKEMONEYOFFOFFANFIC.
Thankyouforyourattentiontothisimportantmatter.
Untilthelawyersandcourtsgetthecopyrightlawssortedoutandredefinedtoproperlycoverordisallowfanfiction,keepyourdamnheaddownanddon'tdrawattentiontous.
Wecouldallgetintroubleif138.
PostingofEmbitcatoJournalFen,http://www.
journalfen.
net/community/fandom_wank/776590.
html(Aug.
10,2005,00:56UTC).
139.
PostingofAnonymoustoJournalFen,http://www.
journalfen.
net/community/fandom_wank/776590.
htmlpage=2#comments(Aug.
10,2005,16:11UTC).
140.
PostingofEmbitca,supranote138.
141.
See,e.
g.
,PostingofDragonfangirltoJournalFen,http://www.
journalfen.
net/community/fandom_wank/1005443.
html(Sept.
25,2006,23:11UTC)(providingastoryinwhichawritersellsFullmetalAlchemistfanfiction,supposedlyatcost,andsparksacopyrightdebate);PostingofLunar_wolftoLiveJournal,http://community.
livejournal.
com/fanficrants/973069.
html(July28,2005,01:29UTC)(providinganexampleofcommunitymembersaccusingaself-publishednovelofbeingInuyashafanfictionwiththenameschanged);PostingofViggorlijahtoJournalFen,http://www.
journalfen.
net/community/fandom_wank/152652.
html(Sept.
1,2003,09:45UTC)(describingacaseinwhichawritersoldCD-ROMswithcopiesofherN*SyncfanfictiononeBay);PostingofWhite_serpenttoJournalFen,http://www.
journalfen.
net/community/bad_penny/11003.
html(Aug.
6,2006,23:29UCT)(suggestingthatawell-knownfanfictionwriterreceivingdonationsfromfansafterherlaptopwasstolenwasineffectprofitingfromherfanfiction).
752VANDERBILTJ.
OFENTERTAINMENTANDTECH.
LAW[Vol.
10:3:729someonewithacopyrightonsomethinggetsabeeuptheirassaboutthis.
Soknockitoff.
142Thesethoughtsexemplifyboththehighlyingrainednoncommercialnormforfanfiction,aswellasthegeneraldesireoffanfictionwritersnottoattractattentiontothemselves.
Whateverattractedtheireofthiscommentatorwaslikelynotonalargeenoughscaletoattractlawyers,asinJareo'sattempttoprofit.
However,beingridiculedinapublicforuminsuchawaycouldbesufficientlyembarrassingastodissuadetheallegedinfringerfrombreakingthecommunityrulesagain.
However,attemptstocommercializefanfictionarenottheonlythingthatdrawscriticismfromthefanfictioncommunity.
Theotherprevalentsocialnormrelatedtocopyrightlawwithinthecommunityisonegoverningattributionandplagiarism.
143Infandom,therearetwosituationsinwhichattributionisparticularlyimportant:(1)attributiontothecopyrightowner(oftennegativeattribution,bywayofdisclaimersofownershipinterestinthepiecestakenfromtheoriginalwork)144and(2)attributiontothecreator(who,duetothenoncommercialnatureofthework,ispaidincredit—forexample,recognitionorcirculationofthework—ratherthancash).
145Thefanfictioncommunitytakesplagiarismveryseriously.
146Simplybybeingpresentedasfanfiction,theseworksareunlikelytobemistakenfororiginalworks,butitisstillcommonpracticetoincludedisclaimers(generallysomethingalongthelinesof"Idonotownthesecharacters,thispersondoes,pleasedonotsueme").
147Althoughdisclaimersdonothaveaneffectonpotentiallegality,theyshowcasetherespectthatthecommunityhasfortheoriginalauthor.
148Fanfictionauthorsconcedethattheyareborrowingworldsandcharacters,butarealwaysquicktonotewherethoseelementsoriginatedratherthantakinganycreditoftheirown.
149Caseswhere142.
PostingofYuuotoLiveJournal,http://community.
livejournal.
com/fanficrants/3449486.
html(Sept.
24,2006,00:30UTC).
143.
Attributionisthemeansthroughwhichacreatoriscreditedforhisorherwork;theCopyrightOfficehasfoundthat"attributioniscriticallyimportanttoauthors,"especiallythosewhofreelydistributetheirwork.
GregLastowka,DigitalAttribution:CopyrightandtheRighttoCredit,87B.
U.
L.
REV.
41,83(2007).
144.
Tushnet,PaymentinCredit,supranote127,at154.
145.
Id.
at152.
146.
SeeFandomWankWiki,Plagiarism,http://wiki.
fandomwank.
com/index.
php/Plagiarism(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008)(describingplagiarismas"oneofthegreatestsinsinalloffandom").
147.
Tushnet,PaymentinCredit,supranote79,at154.
148.
Id.
149.
Id.
2008]EVERYTHINGINEEDTOKNOW753fanfictionallegedlyplagiarizesbywholesalecopyingorfailstocitesourcematerialhavebroughtaboutsomeofthemostseveresanctionswithinfandom.
150Inonewell-knowncaseintheHarryPotterfanfictioncommunity,fansaccusedapopularfanfictionwriterofliftinglinesorscenesfromvarioustelevisionshowsandnovelswithoutproperattributiontotheoriginalsources.
151Thefall-outfromthisincidentlastedmorethanfiveyearsandcontinuedtohaunttheauthor,evenwhenshewentontopublishoriginalnovels.
152Plagiarismisalsotakenveryseriouslywhenitoccursstrictlywithinthecommunity,suchaspostingsomeoneelse'sfanfictionasyourownorredistributingsomeoneelse'sworkwithoutpermission—basicallyafailuretoattributeproperlytothecreatorratherthantotheoriginalcopyrightowner.
153Thesocialsanctionsaremuchthesameaswiththenoncommercialnorm,consistinglargelyofpublicridiculeandcondemnation.
Forexample,onepopularfanfictionwriterwhosebloghasareadershipofover2,000fansthreatenedtorevealaplagiaristasaformofpunishment:Ifthelinksaren'tdeadbytomorrowmorning,thenIwillpostthelinksIwassent,andtwothousandpeoplewillknowwhatyoudid.
I'dbetthatwillprettymuchkillyourcredinfandom,sopleasetobeseeingthisas,ifyouwill,srsbzness.
Ican'tspeakfortheotherplagiarisedauthors,butI'mwillingtoguessthattheflapyou'll150.
SeeFandomWankWiki,PlagiarismandAllThat,http://wiki.
fandomwank.
com/index.
php/Plagiarism_and_All_That(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008)(summarizingasetofplagiarismaccusationsthatledtoawell-knownwriterbeingbannedfromFanFiction.
net;asanotherforcefulformofridicule,ananonymouspersonregisteredthedomainofhernameandredirectedittoinformationaboutthescandal).
151.
PostingofWhite_serpenttoJournalFen,http://www.
journalfen.
net/community/bad_penny/8985.
html(Aug.
4,2006,13:46UTC).
152.
SeegenerallyFanHistoryWiki,CassandraClaire,http://www.
fanhistory.
com/index.
phptitle=Cassandra_Claire(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008)(describingtheallegedplagiarismindetail).
Theoriginalaccusationssurfacedin2001,andalengthyaccountoftheentireaffairbroughtitbackintothespotlightin2006.
SeePostingofWhite_serpent,supranote151.
Evenafterchanginghernameslightly,discussionsofhernewlypublishedoriginalnovelsamongfansmentionedthescandal.
SeePostingofSeto_fangirltoJournalFen,http://www.
journalfen.
net/community/fandom_lounge/309198.
html(July21,2006,14:15UTC).
Additionally,aGooglesearchfortheauthor'snewname,CassandraClare,turnsupseveralpagesabouttheplagiarismissueonthefirstpageofhits,suchastheFanHistoryWikientryonClareandpostingstoJournalFenaboutClareandthescandal.
SeeGoogle,http://www.
google.
com/searchhl=en&q=Cassandra+Clare&btnG=Google+Search(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008).
153.
TheStopPlagiarismcommunityonLiveJournalexistsforthe"investigationintoandcondemnationofplagiarists,"andprovidesfanswithaplacetopostwhentheyfindthatonefanhasplagiarizedtheworkofanother.
StopPlagiarism,http://community.
livejournal.
com/stop_plagiarism(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008).
754VANDERBILTJ.
OFENTERTAINMENTANDTECH.
LAW[Vol.
10:3:729getfromthemisnotonetenthoftheflapIcouldcreatewiththreeURLsandtheword"plagiarism.
"154Thisblogentryhighlightsboththeperceivedimportanceofmaintainingcredibilityinfandom(ifdestroyingitcanbeseenasathreat)andhowplagiarismisindeedataboowithinthecommunity.
Iftheallegedplagiaristheredecidedtotakedownthestoryortoattributetheauthorcorrectly,itwasnotbecauseofathreatoflegalactionbutalmostcertainlybecauseofthethreatofcommunitysanctions.
Thesetwosocialnorms,governingnoncommercialuseandattribution,demonstratehowthefanfictioncommunityhasorganicallydealtwithcopyrightissuesfordecades.
Althoughtheydoinvolveadesireforfandomtostay"undertheradar"andawayfromthepryingeyesofthelaw,theyalsodemonstratearespectfortheoriginalauthors'rightsratherthananattempttocircumventthem.
B.
NoncommercialUseandAttribution:TrackingCreativeCommonsAsitturnsout,thenormofnoncommercialuse,aswellasothernormsinthefanfictioncommunity,trackcopyrightlaw'sfairuseprinciples—suchastheideasofadditionofnewmaterialandtheconceptofmarketeffect.
155Attribution,thoughnotafairuseprinciple,alsohasitsplaceincopyrightlaw.
156TheSupremeCourthassuggestedthatcopyrightlawincludesprotectionforanauthor'sinterestinreceivingcreditforhiswork,157andtheCopyrightOfficehasstatedthatattributioncansometimesreplacemonetarycompensationtolegitimizeanunauthorizeduseinthecaseoforphanworks.
158154.
PostingofCopperbadgetoLiveJournal,http://copperbadge.
livejournal.
com/1406645.
html(Aug.
23,2007,09:28UTC).
155.
Tushnet,PaymentinCredit,supranote79,at142-45.
156.
Thefollowingfactorsdeterminewhetheraworkfallsunderfairuse:(1)thepurposeandcharacteroftheuse,includingwhethersuchuseisofacommercialnatureorisfornonprofiteducationalpurposes;(2)thenatureofthecopyrightedwork;(3)theamountandsubstantialityoftheportionusedinrelationtothecopyrightedworkasawhole;and(4)theeffectoftheuseonthepotentialmarketfororvalueofthecopyrightedwork.
17U.
S.
C.
§107(2000).
157.
SeeDastarCorp.
v.
TwentiethCenturyFoxFilmCorp.
,539U.
S.
23,35(2003).
158.
SeeU.
S.
COPYRIGHTOFFICE,REPORTONORPHANWORKS110-12(2006),availableathttp://www.
copyright.
gov/orphan/orphan-report-full.
pdf.
2008]EVERYTHINGINEEDTOKNOW755Thebasicideasbehindfandom'streatmentofcopyrightmaytracktofairuseandbasiccopyrightlaw,butittracksevenmorecloselytosomethingelse.
Considerthreekeypiecestogether:thefreedomtocreatederivativeworks,therequirementthatthenewworkbenot-for-profit,andtherequirementthattheworkbeattributedtotheappropriatesources.
ThiscouldbeadescriptionofthemostfrequentlyadoptedtypeofCreativeCommonslicense:Attribution-Noncommercial-ShareAlike.
159CreativeCommons(CC)isanon-profitcorporationthatprovidesfreelyavailablelicensingtoolsforcreativeworks.
160Accordingtoonescholar,thisis"[a]rebellionagainstbroadcopyrightrightsandtheoverlycomplexownershipsystem.
"161Thebasicideabehindthemovementisthatnotallcopyrightholderswanttoexercisealloftherightsthatintellectualpropertylawprovidesthem,162hopingtobuild"alayerofreasonablecopyrightontopoftheextremesthatnowreign.
"163CClicensesprovidecopyrightholderswithawaytotelltheworld"somerightsreserved,"ratherthanthetraditional"allrightsreserved.
"164Theyaredesignedtopermitcertainusesofcreativeworksthatwouldotherwisebeavailableonlytotheoriginalcopyrightownerunderexistinglaw.
165Allthatisrequiredtouseoneoftheselicensesistoselecttheonethatsuitsyourpreferenceandincludeastatementofthatlicenseinyourwork.
166MarkingaworkwithaCClicensedoesnotwaivecopyright,butrathergivescertainfreedoms.
167Forexample,LawrenceLessigreleasedhisbookFreeCultureunderaCClicensethatallowedanyonetodistributeitfreely.
168Eventhoughthe159.
AsofJune13,2006,By-NC-SAwasthemostcommonlydeployedlicenseaccordingtoYahooqueries,representing29.
01%ofallCClicenses.
CreativeCommonsWiki,LicenseStatistics,http://wiki.
creativecommons.
org/License_statistics(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008).
160.
CreativeCommons,FrequentlyAskedQuestions,http://wiki.
creativecommons.
org/FAQ#About_Creative_Commons(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008)[hereinafterCreativeCommons,FAQ].
161.
LydiaPallasLoren,BuildingaReliableSemicommonsofCreativeWorks:EnforcementofCreativeCommonsLicensesandLimitedAbandonmentofCopyright,14GEO.
MASONL.
REV.
271,273(2007).
162.
CreativeCommons,FAQ,supranote160.
163.
LESSIG,FREECULTURE,supranote45,at282.
164.
CreativeCommons,FAQ,supranote160.
165.
Seeid.
166.
Id.
SincealargenumberofCClicensespertaintocreativeworkpostedonline,CCprovides"html"codeforeachtypeoflicensethatwillgeneratethe"somerightsreserved"button.
Id.
167.
LESSIG,FREECULTURE,supranote45,at283.
168.
JemFiner,DownloadRevolution,GUARDIAN(London),July14,2004,at19,availableathttp://www.
guardian.
co.
uk/comment/story/0,,1260735,00.
html.
756VANDERBILTJ.
OFENTERTAINMENTANDTECH.
LAW[Vol.
10:3:729bookwasavailableasafreedownload,thesalesoftraditionalprintversionsofthebookstillexceededthepublisher'sexpectations.
169CreativeCommonsprovidesfourconditionsthatcanbemixedandmatchedtoprovidethemostappropriatelicenseforagivenwork:(1)"Attribution"requiresthatanyonemakinguseoftheworkmustgivecreditinthewaytheauthorrequests;(2)"Noncommercial"meansthatanyuseoftheworkmustbefornoncommercialpurposesonly;(3)"NoDerivativeWorks"allowsonlyverbatimcopiesofthework,notderivativeworksbasedonit;and(4)"ShareAlike"allowsderivativeworks,butonlyiftheyaredistributedunderthesamelicensethatgovernstheoriginal.
170Therefore,anAttribution-Noncommercial-ShareAlikelicense,theonemostfrequentlyadopted,allowsotherstocopy,distribute,display,orperformacopyrightedworkandderivativeworksbasedonit,butonlyiftheygiveappropriatecredit,donotprofitfromit,andreleaseitunderthesamelicense.
171Thesechoicesestablisharangeoffreedomsthatnotonlygobeyondthedefaultofcopyrightlaw,butgobeyondtraditionalfairuseaswell.
172ThetermsofaCClicensemightseemintuitivelyfamiliartofanfictionwriters,astherestrictionsarethesameonesthattheyapplytotheirownwork.
Infact,fandomnormsaremorerestrictivethanwhatisprovidedbytheAttribution-Noncommercial-ShareAlikelicensebecausethelicenseallowswholesalecopying.
However,user-generatedcontentmusthave"valueadded,"whichinthecaseoffanfictionmeansnotonlyderivativesallowed,butderivativesonly.
III.
DEFENSES,LICENSES,NORMS,ANDTHENEWGENERATIONOFUSER-GENERATEDCONTENTThefairusedoctrine,CreativeCommons,andthesocialnormsassociatedwithfanfictionalldevelopedbecauseofdeficienciesintraditionalcopyrightlawthatstifledtheverycreativitythatthelawwasdesignedtopromote.
173Itisnotsurprising,therefore,thatthey169.
Id.
170.
CreativeCommons,LicenseYourWork,http://creativecommons.
org/about/license/(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008).
171.
Seeid.
172.
LESSIG,FREECULTURE,supranote45,at283.
173.
SeeHETCHER,supranote125,at243(notingthatsocialnormscanplayanimportantroleinalegalgrayarea);Loren,supranote161,at272-73("TheUnitedStatesConstitutiondefinesthepurposeoftheCopyrightActtobethepromotionofknowledgeandlearning,yetcertainaspectsofthecurrentcontoursofcopyrightlawseemill-fittedtobestaccomplishingthatgoalinthetechnologicalandculturalrealityoftoday.
.
.
.
Therebellion.
.
.
hasspreadtoamovementknownastheCreativeCommons.
");Tushnet,LegalFictions,supranote10,at661("Overprotectionstiflestheverycreativeforcesit'ssupposedto2008]EVERYTHINGINEEDTOKNOW757havecommonelements,designedtoencourageinnovationandcreativity,whilerespectingtherightsofartists.
Theproposedsolutioninthisnoterecognizesallthreeasprovidingpartialsolutionstotheproblemofhowcopyrightholderscanremainstrictonseriouscopyrightviolations,whilestillallowingforappropriatetransformativeUGC.
ConsiderLoriJareoandherunauthorizedStarWarsnovel.
Heractionswouldprobablynotfallunderfairusebecauseofthecommercialnatureofherworkandthepotentialnegativemarketimpactontheoriginalcopyrightholder.
BecauseLucasfilmspublishesauthorizedStarWarsnovelsofitsown,herbookwouldbeindirectmarketcompetitionwith,aswellasprobablymistakenfor,an"official"StarWarspublication.
Likewise,ifStarWarswerereleasedunderanAttribution-Noncommerial-ShareAlikeCClicense,Jareo'sworkwouldstillbeinviolationofthetermsofthelicensebecauseofhercommercialuseandhermaintenanceofherowncopyrights.
174Moreover,Jareo'streatmentbyfansandbloggersspeakstohowpoorlyshefaredunderthecommunity'sexistingnorms.
ItmayhavebeentraditionalcopyrightlawthatultimatelybroughthernoveltoahaltwhenLucasfilms'lawyerssentacease-and-desistletter,buttheselessrestrictivenotionsofcopyrightmayhaveeventuallyachievedtheexactsameeffect.
Infact,itislikelythatthereasonthattherearenotmorecaseslikeJareo'sisnotmerelyfearoftraditionalcopyrightenforcementactions,butalsofearofsocialsanctionsinthefanfictioncommunity.
Alternately,socialsanctionsmaysolvetheproblembeforecopyrightholdersevenhearabouttheissue.
Meanwhile,bigcopyrightholdersseemtobeconcernedthatUGConYoutubeisthenextwaveinthe"copyrightcrisis.
"175However,thereisaspectrumofUGC.
Ononeendiscompletelyoriginalmaterial(nothreattocopyrightowners),andattheotherendiswholesalecopying(obviousinfringement).
176Theproblemfortraditionalcopyrightlaw,however,iswhatfallsinthemiddle:nurture.
TheSupremeCourthasevenrecognizedthat'thesoleinterestoftheUnitedStatesandtheprimaryobjectinconferringthemonopolylieinthegeneralbenefitsderivedbythepublicfromthelaborsofotherauthors.
'Congresshasthereforecodifieda'fairuse'exceptiontocopyrightprotectionin17U.
S.
C.
§107.
").
174.
Havingbeenunabletoobtainacopyofthebook,IcannotsaywhetheritcontainsanyexplicitattributiontoGeorgeLucas.
Thecover,however,doesnot.
Itreads"AnotherHope:ANovel,"butitdoesnotindicatethatitisaStarWarsnovel.
SeeBarnes&Noble,http://search.
barnesandnoble.
com/booksearch/isbnInquiry.
aspisbn=1933456027(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008)(listingJareo'sbookanddisplayinganimageofthecover).
175.
SeeUserGeneratedContentPrinciples,supranote17.
176.
SeeTushnet,PaymentinCredit,supranote79,at144-45(notingthedifferencebetweencopying,suchastranscription,andtheaddedvalueoffanwork).
758VANDERBILTJ.
OFENTERTAINMENTANDTECH.
LAW[Vol.
10:3:729transformativeandderivativeworks.
Someofthesevideosmayfallunderfairuseandsomemaynot.
Aswithfanfiction,neitherthecopyrightownersnorthecreatorswillknowwherethatlinefallsuntilthereispositivelawontheissue.
Betweenthechillingeffectsresultingfrombigcorporationshavingvideosremovedwithoutwarningandthecost-prohibitivenatureofgoingtocourt,thismaynothappenforalong,longtime.
ThebottomlineisthatfearoverUGCcouldleadtolobbyingforstrictercopyrightlaws.
FanfictionwritersarejustifiablyconcernedthatiftraditionalcopyrightlawdoesexpandtogivecopyrightownersdefinitecontrolovertransformativeworksonWebsitessuchasYouTube,thenacloserlookatallfanworkwillfollow.
177Acrack-downon"new"UGCcouldendupaffectingthesamefanfictioncommunitythathasbeenaroundfordecades.
However,whataboutcopyrightholderswhodonotwantcontrolovertransformativeworksJustasmanyauthorsturnablindeyeto,orevenencourage,fanfiction,somemediacorporationshavepubliclystatedthattheyhavenoproblemwithfanvidsandmash-ups.
178CreativeCommonswasspecificallydesignedtoaidcopyrightholderswhoarewillingtoreleasesomeoftheirrights.
Thesecopyrightholderswanttomaintaintheirrightsinthematerial,whileallowingtheirfansthelatitudetoexpressthemselvesandtheircreativity.
Infact,thoseartistswhoalreadyutilizeCClicensesoftenwishtoinspireotherswiththeirworks.
179Manysuchartistsacknowledgeintellectualdebtstoothercontentcreatorsandseeallowingthetransformationoftheirownworksasmoreimportantthanmaintainingthecompletecontrolaffordedtothembycopyrightlaw.
180177.
See,e.
g.
,PostingstoJediCouncilForums,supranote8(indicatingthatfansfearedthatJareo'spublishedfanfictionwouldbringnegativeattentiontothecommunityasawhole).
178.
SeePostingofAcastus,supranote95(notingthatananonymoussourceatNickelodeonvoicedapprovalofmashupsonYouTubeanddeniedhavingthemremoved);seealsoJENKINS,CONVERGENCECULTURE,supranote23(indicatingthatLucasfilmshastraditionallyencouragedfanvids).
179.
SeeMinjeongKim,TheCreativeCommonsandCopyrightProtectionintheDigitalEra:UsesofCreativeCommonsLicenses,13J.
OFCOMPUTER-MEDIATEDCOMM.
187,202(2007),availableathttp://www.
blackwell-synergy.
com/doi/pdf/10.
1111/j.
1083-6101.
2007.
00392.
x("To[manyCClicensors],allowinglaterauthorstomakederivativeworksfromtheiroriginalworksunderCClicenseswasmoreimportantthanexercisingfullcontrolundercopyrightlaw.
.
.
.
Manycreatebecauseofaloveofcreating,andmanysharetheirworksbecausetheybelieveinsharing.
").
180.
Id.
2008]EVERYTHINGINEEDTOKNOW759However,asCClicensingcurrentlyexists,thereisno"derivativesonly"option,181perhapsbecausetheorganizationisoperatingundertheassumptionthatanyderivativeworkwouldbetransformativeenoughtobeconsideredfairuse.
AnAttribution-Noncommercial-ShareAlike-DerivativesOnlylicensewoulddoawaywithanyofthechillingeffectsofthefairusedoctrine'srelianceonlitigationandwouldgivethecopyrightholderstrictcontroloverpiracyandwholesalecopying.
Infact,suchalicensewouldperfectlytrackthecurrentnormsinfancommunities,requiringattribution,noncommercialuse,andavoidanceofwholesalecopying.
Notonlywoulditclarifysomeofthelegalgrayareasurroundingfanfictionwriters'works,butitcouldproducegoodwilltowardscopyrightholdersthatadoptedsuchastance.
Thiscouldresultinmorefanworks,morepublicityfortheoriginalwork,and,ultimately,apositivemarketeffectforthosecopyrightholders.
Additionally,iffanfictionwerecreatedfromaworkreleasedunderaShareAlikelicense,thenitwould,bydefault,bereleasedunderthatsamelicense.
Thefanfictionwritersthemselveswouldthenalsohavecopyrightprotection.
182Asitstands,however,mediacompaniesandpublishersmaynotbereadytoembraceCConalargescale.
Perhapstheyshouldbeencouragedbythefactthattheproposedlicenseinsomeformalreadyexists—withinthenormsandrulesofthefanfictioncommunities.
LucasfilmsdoesnothavetoworktoohardtopolicethefanfictioncommunitytomakesurethatnooneisprofitingfromderivativeworksbasedonStarWarsbecausethefansaredoingthatworkforthem.
Likewise,J.
K.
RowlingprobablydoesnothavetoworryaboutsomeonepostingastoryfeaturingHarryPottercharactersandpassingitoffashisownoriginalcreation,becausetheoddsarethatitcontainsadisclaimergivingRowlingfullcreditfortheoriginalworks.
ThecreatorsofrealUGCarenotdistributingcopiesofcopyrightedcontentwithoutpermission;theyareartists,writers,andfilmmakers.
"New"formsofUGC,suchasthecontentonYouTube,arealreadybenefitingfromthesamepatternsofnormsthatfanfictionhasdevelopedoverdecades,andwilllikelycontinuetodoso.
183Themediaindustrytends181.
SeeCreativeCommons,LicenseYourWork,supranote170(listingtheconditionscreatorscanapplytotheirwork,butlackinga"derivativesonly"condition).
182.
Asitstandsnow,if,forexample,someoneattemptedtoprofitfromsomeoneelse'sfanfiction,theoriginalfanfictionwriterwouldprobablynothavealegalremedy,astheydidnotholdthecopyrightintheirworkinthefirstplace.
Copyrightprotectiononlyexistsfor"originalworksofauthorship.
"17U.
S.
C.
§102(2000).
183.
SeegenerallyTushnet,PaymentinCredit,supranote79,at145-47(discussingfanvids).
FanvidsareoneofthemostprevalenttypesoftransformativeworksonvideositessuchasYouTube,andarisefromthesamefancommunitiesasfanfiction.
Seegenerallyid.
760VANDERBILTJ.
OFENTERTAINMENTANDTECH.
LAW[Vol.
10:3:729tothinkof"content"asacommodity,"isolatedfromthesocialrelationswhichsurround[]itsproductionandcirculation.
"184However,thismaterialactually"emergesfromasocialnetworkoffans"whohaveagreatdealofrespectforthecontentcreators.
185Thesearethefansthatconsume,thatbuybooks,moviesandmusic,andthatkeepthecopyrightholdersinbusiness.
Thekeysaretoencouragethem,ratherthantoalienatethem,andtoeliminateanychillingeffectsthatmaystifletheircreationofnewworks.
Inpreviouslegaltreatmentsoffanfiction,theproposedsolutiontoeliminatingthesechillingeffectswasablanketexceptionwithinthefairusedoctrine.
186However,sincefairuseisadoctrineconsideredonacase-by-casebasis,suchanexceptionmaynotcoveralltypesofUGC,particularlythosenewformsthatwillappearinthefuture.
Technologywillcontinuetopresentnewkindsofcontentandnewcopyrightproblemsatarapidpace,andthelawcanonlydosomuchtokeepupwithit.
Moreover,whereasfairusemeansthatyouneednopermissionintheory,inpracticethefearofbeing"litigate[d].
.
.
withinaninchofyourlife"inalegaldebateastowhatisorisnotafairusecanhaveachillingeffectonanytransformativework.
187Alternately,thewidespreadadoptionofCreativeCommonslicenses,orsomeothermethodofproviding"somerightsreserved"ratherthan"allrightsreserved,"wouldbeanidealwaytoallowcopyrightholderstomaintainthecontrolthattheydesirewhileallowingthemtoaccommodatetheirconsumersandfans.
Theaimwouldbenottofight"allrightsreserved"licenses,but"tocomplementthem.
"188Theproblemwithmuchofcopyrightlawisthatalthoughitmadesenseinthecontextoftechnologythatexistedwhenthelawwascreated,itdoesnotadequatelyaddressdigitaltechnology.
189CreativeCommonsgivespeopleawaytobuildnewrulesthatmakesenseforthem.
190Suchachange,however,wouldbeaslowone.
Inthemeantime,copyrightholdersstillneedtobeabletoweedoutinappropriateusesoftheirworks—inessence,tomakethedistinctionbetweeninfringementandtransformationwithoutlitigatingeverypotentialcaseoffairuse.
184.
Jenkins,TransformingFanCulture,supranote105.
185.
Id.
186.
Forlawreviewarticlesthatsuggestthatfanfictionshouldbeconsideredfairuse,seeRanon,supranote47,at442-51,andTushnet,LegalFictions,supranote10,at654,664.
187.
LESSIG,FREECULTURE,supranote45,at98-99.
188.
Id.
at284.
189.
Id.
190.
Id.
2008]EVERYTHINGINEEDTOKNOW761RecognizingtherealityofhowlongitcouldtakeforawidespreadacceptanceofaCreativeCommonsregimetotakehold,thereisanothersolution,onethatalsoservestoeliminatethechillingeffectscausedbyDMCAtakedownnoticesanddisappearingYouTubevideos.
Thelegalsystemdoesnothavetheresourcestoensurethatnotasinglefanfictionauthorissellingstories,thateveryembeddedvideoinablogisattributedtothecorrectsource,orthateveryvideopostedonYouTubehas"addedvalue"ratherthanbeingasimplecopy.
However,themembersofthecommunitiesthemselvesdohavetheresources—andthedesire—topolicesuchthings.
Giventime,allcommunitiesofUGCmayprescribetosocialnormsasstrictlyasthefanfictioncommunity.
Moreover,copyrightholderswhodonotwanttoleavesuchthingsinthehandsofthefancommunitycouldsimplyprescribetothesamesetofnormswhenmakingtheirdecisionsaboutwhentoenforcecopyright.
Usingthefandomnormsasaframework,thecopyrightholdercouldspotanoncommercial,attributed,andtransformativework,andcouldchoosetoleaveitalone.
ViacomandotherbigcontentholdersmaybepanickedoverUGC,butiftheygivetransformativeworks,suchasfanfictionandfanvids,areprieve,thentheycanfocusoncopyrightviolationsthatcancausethemmoresubstantialharm,suchasmoviedownloadsandotherwholesalecopying.
IV.
CONCLUSIONThefateofLoriJareo'sunauthorizednovelisjustoneexampleofhowthefancommunitycanpolicecopyrightviolationssothatthecopyrightholderdoesnothaveto.
However,evenwith"new"UGC,thesamerulescouldapply.
IfJareo'sworkhadbeenaStarWarsfilmratherthananovel,andshewasstillchargingpeopletoviewit,fansprobablywouldhavebeenjustasoutraged,ifnotmoreso.
Infact,Lucasfilmsisonecopyrightholderthathastherightideawhenitcomestotransformativeworks—ittoleratesandevenencouragesfanfilms,solongastheyarenot-for-profit.
191Becausethisstancedoesnotfitcleanlyintocopyrightlaw,itisonlyan"unofficial"one.
Yet,ifaNoncommercial-Attribution-DerivativesOnlyCClicenseexisted,perhapsLucasfilmswouldconsiderreleasingitsfilmsundersuchalicense.
Meanwhile,thecompanylikelydoesnothavetodevotemanyresourcestofindingcommercialfanfilms;thelegionsofStarWars191.
Videomaker,FanFilms,http://www.
videomaker.
com/article/12722/(lastvisitedFeb.
16,2008)("Infact,Lucasfilm[s]hasteamedupwithAtomfilms.
comtocreateawardsforthebestStarWarsfanfilmseachyear.
").
762VANDERBILTJ.
OFENTERTAINMENTANDTECH.
LAW[Vol.
10:3:729fanswouldprobablyfindthemfirst.
Thesocialnormsthatexistwithinthatcommunity—suchastheonestatingthataspiringfilmmakersabsolutelycannotprofitfromtheirworks—derivefromthefans'respectforthecopyrightholder.
Thefanscreatingnewcontentaretransformingtheoriginalwork,notcopyingit.
Attheendoftheday,bigcopyrightholders'currentpanicoverUGCisprobablynotoverUGCatall,butoverpiracy.
ThefearisthatYouTubeisjustthenextNapster,butwhatbigcopyrightholdersdonotrealizeisthatmuchofwhatexistsonYouTubehasexistedfordecadesinothermediums,suchasfanfiction.
Notallofitispiratedmaterial.
Thecopyrightholdersaretryingtopreventdirectpiracy,buttheproblemisthatcopyrightlawtreatsthatwrongandthe"wrong"oftransformationinthesameway.
192Ifcontentholderscannotmakethisdistinctionthemselves,thenperhapstheyshouldtrusttheUGCcreatorsthemselves—theirfans—todoitforthem.
Iffanfictioncouldpeacefullyco-existwithcopyrightlawfordecades,thenthereisnoreasonwhynewformsofUGCshouldnotbeabletodosoaswell.
CaseyFiesler192.
LESSIG,FREECULTURE,supranote45,at139.
J.
D.
Candidate,VanderbiltUniversityLawSchool,2009;M.
S.
,GeorgiaInstituteofTechnology,2005.
TheauthorwishestothanktheeditorialstaffoftheVanderbiltJournalofEntertainmentandTechnologyLawfortheirsupportthroughoutthisprocess,aswellasProfessorStevenHetcherforhisencouragementandguidance.
ShealsowishestoexpressgratitudetohergraduateprogramatGeorgiaTechforfirstcultivatingherinterestinthissubjectmatter.