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CultureMandala:TheBulletinoftheCentreforEast-WestCulturalandEconomicStudiesTheBulletinoftheCentreforEast-WestCulturalandEconomicStudiesVolume3Issue2ChinaSpecialArticle88-1-1999Suzhou:AculturalandeconomiccentreofSouthernChinaR.
JamesFergusonBondUniversity,James_Ferguson@bond.
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RecommendedCitationFerguson,R.
James(1999)"Suzhou:AculturalandeconomiccentreofSouthernChina,"CultureMandala:TheBulletinoftheCentreforEast-WestCulturalandEconomicStudies:Vol.
3:Iss.
2,Article8.
Availableat:http://epublications.
bond.
edu.
au/cm/vol3/iss2/8Suzhou:AculturalandeconomiccentreofSouthernChinaAbstractExtract:Beijinghastheheavenlyworldofgovernment,Shanghaitheearthyworldofcommerce,butinbetweenstandsSuzhou,aregionalcentrewithanexcellentbalanceofbusinessandculturallife.
This,ofcourse,isaparaphraseofthefamoussaying:'Upinheaventhereisparadise,downbelow,SuzhouandHangzhou.
TheidiomiswellknowntotheinhabitantsofSuzhou(formerlytransliteratedas'Soochow'),whichremainsaprosperous,thrivingcity.
Itretainsmuchofitsancientcharacter,whileatthesametimebeingengagedinmodernreformandindustrialdevelopment.
SuzhoustandsasanexampleofalargenumberofChinesecitieswherethemodernreformsofChinaaretakingplaceandwillsucceed,fail,orbeadaptedtolocalneeds.
KeywordsSuzhou,Chinesecities,regional,urban,modernisationThisarticleisavailableinCultureMandala:TheBulletinoftheCentreforEast-WestCulturalandEconomicStudies:http://epublications.
bond.
edu.
au/cm/vol3/iss2/8TheCultureMandala,Vol.
3no.
2,August1999,pp51-75CopyrightR.
JamesFerguson1999RegionsandDevelopmentsinChina:Suzhou:ACulturalandEconomicCentreof'Southern'ChinabyR.
JamesFerguson(1)IntroductionBeijinghastheheavenlyworldofgovernment,Shanghaitheearthyworldofcommerce,butinbetweenstandsSuzhou,aregionalcentrewithanexcellentbalanceofbusinessandculturallife.
This,ofcourse,isaparaphraseofthefamoussaying:'Upinheaventhereisparadise,downbelow,SuzhouandHangzhou.
'(2)TheidiomiswellknowntotheinhabitantsofSuzhou(formerlytransliteratedas'Soochow'),whichremainsaprosperous,thrivingcity.
Itretainsmuchofitsancientcharacter,whileatthesametimebeingengagedinmodernreformandindustrialdevelopment.
SuzhoustandsasanexampleofalargenumberofChinesecitieswherethemodernreformsofChinaaretakingplaceandwillsucceed,fail,orbeadaptedtolocalneeds.
ThissecondtierofregionalcitiesarenotaswellknownasBeijing,Shanghai,HongKong,orGuangzhou(Canton).
YetcitiessuchasSuzhou,Hangzhou,Nanking,Qufu,Jinan,Harbin,Fuzhou,WuhanandXianarealldistinctiveurbanandadministrativecentreswiththeirownspecialregionalflavour,uniquehistories,andspecialopportunitiesforculturalandeconomicactivities.
YetoutsideChina,someofthesecitiesareoftenlittlemorethannames,buriedwithinthegeneralimpressioncreatedbyaneconomicallyreinvigoratedChina.
SuzhouRegion(3)Suzhouisoneoftheseimportantregionalcities,withanurbanpopulationofover880,000andservinganadministrativeregionincluding3urbandistricts,onesuburbandistrict,3countriesand165townshipsandtownsembracingatotalofover5.
7millionpeople.
(4)ThecityislocatedinthelowerYangtze(ChangJiang)valley,inJiangsuprovince,andformsonehubinanextendedcommunicationnetworkofroads,railwaysandcanals.
Itissituatednotfar(73km)fromShanghaiInternationalAirport,andclose(36km)toShuoFangairportinthewest.
(5)NotfarawayisZhangJiaGangPortontheYangtzeriver,providinganumberofheavybirthsformassshipmentofgoods.
(6)ThisporthasextensivefacilitiesandinfreightvolumeisthelargestriverportinChinaandthesixthlargestofallportsinChina.
(7)OtherdevelopmentsincludetheupgradingofLiujiagang,QiyakouandXupuports.
(8)Thoughnowviewedasgeographicallypartofcentral-eastChina,historicallySuzhouwasregardedaspartofthesouthernculturalcomplexwhichdifferedinmanyrespectsfromthesociallifeofthenortherncapital.
AroundthecityofSuzhoutherearerichricefields,andtheYangtzedeltaasawholeboastsastrongPage1of231Ferguson:SuzhouProducedbyTheBerkeleyElectronicPress,1999agriculturalsector,includingsilkandcottonproduction.
Asidefromtraditionaltextileindustries,theregionisnowamajorcentrefornewindustrieswithsubstantialforeigninvestment.
(9)TheancientcoreofurbanSuzhouisflankedbytwoindustrialparks,aSino-SingaporeanprojectknownastheSuzhouIndustrialParkintheeast,andtheSuzhouNewDistrictinthewest.
Internationaltourismisnotyetfullydeveloped,thoughthecityboastsseveralinternationalhotels,includingtheSuzhouHotel,theSheratonSuzhouHotelandTowers,theGloriaPlazaHotel,aswellasalargenumberofmoremodestbutfriendlyestablishmentssuchastheDongwuHotel.
Tothewest,LakeTaihuhasdevelopedalargeintegratedsystemofresorts,(10)designedforChineseandoverseasvisitors.
TheentireregionisalocusforChineseandregionalvisitors,towhomthemanyscenicareasinandaroundthecityarewellknown.
(11)Inabriefarticleitispossibletodonomorethanoverviewthehistoryandcontemporarythelifeofthisfamouscity,brieflymentionsomeofitsachievementsinartandliterature,andsummariseitseconomicprospects.
Suzhou,thoughinsomewaysauniquecase,alsosharesmanyoftheopportunitiesandchallengesexperiencedbyanumberofregionalcitiesinmodernChina.
AnEnduringUrbanHistoryTheearlyKingdomofWu(sometimescalledGou-wu)ismentionedinChineseannalsfromthe7thcenturyB.
C.
onwards,andwasatfirstviewedasaproto-Chinesestate(12)onthesouthernsideofthemainculturalareaoftheearlycentralChinesedomainsoftheSpringandAutumnperiod.
SuzhouitselfwasfoundedastheWucapitalinthe6thcenturyB.
C.
bytheorderofKingHeLü,whoissupposedlyburiedatthenearbyTigerHill,histomblyingunderthedeepcreviceoftheswordpond.
(13)HeLü'sprimeminister,WuZixu,wasorderedtobuiltaninfluentialcapital,andafterdivinationsandinspectionofwaterandsoilconditions,asitewaschosenandthecitycompletedin508B.
C.
(14)Theearlyhistoryoftheregionhasbeenwell-summarisedbyLeoMoser:-ThekingdomofWuabsorbedsomeaspectsofevolvingSiniticcultureasearlyastheZhoudynasty.
Soonitskings,whoresidednearpresent-daySuzhou,wereclaimingarelationshiptotheroyalhouseoftheZhou.
ChinesecustomsandlanguagewerebeginningtohavesomeimpactontheWucourtaswell.
DuringtheSpringandAutumnperiod(722-418B.
C.
),Wuhadbecomeoneofthelargerouterstatestothesouthoftheso-calledinnerstates(thezhongguo).
ThismadeitacompetitorofthekingdomofChu,toitswest.
Forashorttimeduringthisperiod,thekingsofWu,althoughoutsiders,hadmanagedtoestablishadegreeofhegemonyovermuchoftheentireChinesesystemofstates.
In473B.
C.
,however,Wuwasattackedbyitssouthernneighbour,Yue,astatethatmaywellhavespokenalanguagemuchthesameasthatnativetoWu,althoughYuewasnotassinicized.
WufelltotheYueonslaught.
TheterritorythathadbeenWu,was,inturn,takenfromtheYuebyChuforces.
Stilllater,liketherestoftheChudomains,theWulandswereincorporatedintotheshort-livedQinempireofQinShiHuang.
Forthefirsttime,WuterritorywasfullysubordinatedwithintheSiniticpoliticalworld.
FromtheQin,itwaspassedtotheHandynasty.
DuringtheHan,theWuareawasrathercompletelysinicized,andtheoldernon-Siniticlanguageseemstohavebeenlargelyreplaced.
(15)Afterthistime,WuwasthenameofoneoftheThreeKingdomswhichcompetedforpre-eminence,thoughthiskingdom,withitscapitalatNanjing,comprisedamuchlargerterritorythantheearlierstate,includingpartsofNorthVietnam.
(16)ItwasduringtheThreeKingdomsperiod(220-265A.
D.
)thatBuddhismbecamepopularinthestateofEastWu,withtemplesandtheirattendantpagodasbeingbuiltfromthattimeonwards.
ThefirstBuddhisttemplewastheTempleofBeneficence,i.
e.
thetemplenexttotheGreatNorthernPagoda,builtbyKingSunQuanforhismother.
(17)Bythe19thcenturytherewere284templesinSuzhouandthenearbycountryside.
(18)Onlysomeofthesearestillreligiouslyactive,andmanyarenowtouristsitesratherthanplacesofpilgrimage,inspiteofageneralrelaxingofstricturesonreligiouspracticeoverthelastthreedecades.
AsmallnumberofmosquesandactivechurchesarealsofoundinPage2of232CultureMandala:TheBulletinoftheCentreforEast-WestCulturalandEconomicStudies,Vol.
3,Iss.
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bond.
edu.
au/cm/vol3/iss2/8thecity.
OneofthefinestBuddhistcomplexes,includingfinehalls,pavilionsandlargebellswillbefoundinthetownshipofZhouzhuang,apreservedcomplexofwaterways,mansionsandmoon-gatesthatdrawsenormoustouristactivity.
(19)OneofthefewactiveteachingcentresofBuddhismintheregionistobefoundatDivineRockTemple,whichwasfoundedin503,partlydestroyedin1860and1966,andrestoredin1980,with156monkshavinggraduatedinthedecadedownto1990.
(20)Althoughfirstfoundedin514B.
C.
,itwasnotuntiltheSui(581-618A.
D.
)andTang(618-907A.
D.
)DynastiesthatSuzhoubecameanimportantcommercialcentreofsouthernChina.
(21)TheeclipseoftheearlyindependentkingdomofWuwasnottheendofthepoliticalimportanceoftheregion,whichwiththefalloftheTangDynastyforatimeestablisheditselfasanindependentstatewithitscapitalofHangzhou:-LateintheFiveDynastiesperiod,thekingdomofWu-yueextendeditscontroldownthecoasttoFuzhou.
Itsforcesdestroyedtheshort-livedstateofYin,whichthenoccupiedwhatistodaytheMineiportionofFujian.
ThehighpointofSiniticWuculturecameduringtheSouthernSongdynasty(1127-1276),whentheregionformedthegeographicalcoreofwhatwassurelythemosthighlyculturedstateintheworld.
TheWu-speakingpeopleshavethusleftamajorlegacyforallhumancivilization.
TheSouthernSong,withitscapitalatpresent-dayHangzhou,playedaparticularlyimportantroleintransmittingBuddhismandotherculturalandartisticvaluestoJapan.
DuringtheSong,thepresent-dayWu-speakingpeopleswereallowedtoremainunitedinasingleprovince,ratherthanbeingsplitastheyarenowintotwoprovinces.
HangzhouremainedtheadministrativecapitalofthevastunitoftheMongolempirethatMarcoPolocalledManji.
.
.
.
(22)MarcoPolorecordedavividimpressionofthecityof'Su-chau'(Suzhou)intheprovinceof'Manzi'duringthethirteenthcentury:-MovingonfromhereweshalltellyounextofalargeandsplendidcitycalledSu-chau.
Thepeoplehereareidolaters,subjecttotheGreatKhanandusingpapermoney.
Theylivebytradeandindustry,havingsilkingreatquantityandmakemuchsilkenclothfortheirclothing.
Therearemerchantshereofgreatwealthandconsequence.
Thecityissolargethatitmeasuresaboutfortymilesincircumference.
Ithassomanyinhabitantsthatnoonecouldreckontheirnumber.
IgiveyoumywordthatthemenoftheprovinceofManzi,iftheywereawar-likenation,wouldconqueralltherestoftheworld.
Buttheyarenotwar-like.
Icanassureyouratherthattheyarecapablemerchantsandskilledpractitionersofeverycraft,andamongthemarewisephilosophersandnaturalphysicianswithagreatknowledgeofnature.
Letmetellthatinthiscitytherearefully6,000stonebridges,suchthatoneortwogalleyscouldreadilypassbeneaththem.
Intheadjacentmountainsrhubarbandgingergrowingreatprofusion,sothatoneVenetiangroatwouldbuyfortypoundsofginger,ofexcellentquality.
Thecityexercisesauthorityoversixteenothers,alllargeandbusycentresoftradeandindustry.
(23)Thisdescriptionofthebridges(thoughtheirnumberisexaggerated),thesilkindustry,andgeneralwealthofSuzhouseemgenerallyaccurate.
FrancesWood,however,hasarguedthattherearenomountainsnearSuzhou,thatgingerisusuallygrownfurtherwest,andthatrhubarbneverhasbeenproducedthere.
(24)Thepointconcerningrhubarbcanbeconceded,butthehillsnearLakeTaihuarefertileandtodayproducearangeofagricultureproducts,includingcitrusandstonefruits.
Onthisbasis,itwouldbepossibleforSuzhoutohavebeenalocalmarketforawiderangeofagriculturalproducts,perhapsvaguelysketched,thoughnotaccurateinalldetails,byMarcoPolo'sDescriptionoftheWorld.
(25)Thewealthoftheregionwasindeedbasedonavariedeconomy:-Intheinlandareas,dikingandpolderinghaddrainedtheswampsanddecreasedthesalinecontentofthesoil,sothatthefieldsweresuitableforrice.
Anetworksofcanalsanddrainagesystemswasconstructed,withhighembankmentstoprotectfieldsandsluicegatestocontrolthePage3of233Ferguson:SuzhouProducedbyTheBerkeleyElectronicPress,1999waterforirrigation.
Thekingdomproducedasuperabundanceofriceanditexportedittoanumberofotherstates.
Silkwasanotherofthecelebratedproductsofthearea.
Sericulturebasedonmulberrygrownontheembankmentswasalocalagriculturalsideline,andsilkweavingcontributedtothedevelopmentofhandicraftindustriescenteredonSuzhou.
(26)Alreadyby1229A.
D.
,SuzhouwasoneofthegreatcitiesofChina,withalikelypopulationof300,00,risingtowards500,000inthesixteenthcentury.
(27)Suzhoubecameamajorentrepot,rivallingcitiessuchasCantonandWuhan.
(28)LocatednearthenexusoftheYangtzeRiverandGrandCanal,itthereforepartookofthegreatflowsoftradewhichlinkedtheeast-westtradeoftheYangtzebasinandthenorth-southofaxisoftradealongthecoastregions.
ThesouthernsectionoftheGrandCanalhadbeenopenedinJuly1415,butduetochangesinthecourseoftheYellowRiver,declinedinimportanceafter1840.
(29)WhiletheGrandCanalremainedopen,Suzhouwasacruciallinkinthelife-lineconnectingHangzhouandBeijing.
ThisshipmentofgoodsthroughtheregionofSuzhouincludedawiderangeofitems.
Riceflowedoutoftherichriceproducingarea,muchofitgoingnorthinlaterimperialtimestoBeijing,especiallyafterpunitivelevieswereplacedontheregionafterfailedrevolts.
ThisricetributecontributedtoalargepartofthebargeactivityalongtheGrandCanal,andSuzhouwasthemainregionalcollectionpoint.
(30)YetattimesricewasimportedinthelowerYangtzeareafromotherprovinces,largelyduetothreereasons:'populationgrowthmadepartsofEast-centralChinathemostdenselypopulatedareasinthecountry;theimperialgovernmentforcedriceexportsaspartoftaxrevenuestoPeking;andalargerproportionoffarmersinEast-centralChinathanelsewherewereengagedincommercialagricultureofproductsotherthangrain.
'(31)YetlocaltradenetworksdevelopedrapidlyduringtheChingperiodaswell.
Withinaradiusofsome50milesasmanyasfortydailymarketsortownswithwarehousesandstoreswerelocated.
(32)Fromthe18thcenturySuzhouhadabranchoftheJianghaiguan,theriverandseacustomsservice(33),allowingittobeinvolvedinregionalandinternationaltrade.
Withtheseconsiderationsinmind,wecanseewhySuzhouwasasizeableurbanconglomerateeveninChingtimes,withasmanyas500,000toamillionpeoplelivinginandaroundthecity.
(34)ItbecameoneofthethreemostpopulouscitiesinChina.
However,Suzhou,likemostChinesecities,hasalsohaditsshareofturmoilandsuffering.
In1356SuzhoucameunderthecontrolofZhangShicheng,arebelandsaltmerchantwhoproclaimedhimselfinrevoltagainsttheYuangovernmentanddeclaredhimselfkingoftheentireregion.
Suzhouwascontrolledbytherebelsuntil1366.
WhentheJongwuemperorregainedcontrolofthecity,heremovedlargenumbersofthelocalnoblesandleviedaheavylandtaxwhichprovidedsomeone-tenthoftheentirerevenuesoftheempire.
(35)Inlaterperiodstherewerestrongappealsbylocalnoblesforthereductionoftheseheavytaxes,usuallywithoutsuccess,andsometimeswithseverepunishmentsbeinggiventothosewhodaredprotest.
(36)TheremovaloftheMingadministrativecentrefromthesoutherncapitalofNankingtoBeijingwouldalsofurtherreducethepoliticalimportanceofSuzhou(37),thoughthecityremainedaregionaladministrativecentre(invaryingdegrees)throughthefollowingcenturies.
In1860,theprogressofTaipingrebellionbroughtaboutoneofthemostviolentperiodsofSuzhou'shistory.
SpreadingfromtheirmainbaseatNanking,Taipingforcesmovedintotheareainforce,causinglargenumbersofrefugeestoflee,especiallytoShanghai.
(38)TherewerealsointernaluprisingsinSuzhou,butunliketheSmallSworduprisinginShanghai,thelocaluprisinginSuzhouwasnotsuccessful.
However,Taipingarmiesattackedanddestroyedpartsofthecity,especiallyintheareaoftheNorthernPagoda.
(39)Folkloreaccountssuggestthatuptohalfamilliondeathsaccompaniedthisdestructivephase,perhapsmainlyinthewesternsuburbs.
(40)ForatimeLiXiucheng,aprinceoftheTaipingHeavenlyKingdom,hadhisofficialresidenceintheZhongWangmansioninthenorthofthecity.
Thislargebuilding,withpaintedroofbeams,wasopenedin1960astheSuzhouMuseum,andnowhousesawiderangeofarchaeologicalitems,pottery,painting,fansandremnantsoftheTaipingperiodinthecity.
Thecollectionincludessomethirtythousandculturalrelicsandahundredthousandancientandmodernbooks.
DuringtheTaipingperiod,manywealthy'gentry'fledtoShanghaiandinresponsetotheirrequestsaforceoftwenty-fivehundredAnhweiArmy'roughnecks'underLiHung-changwassenttoShanghaiin1862.
(41)Withthehelpofforeignadventurersandappointees,includingforatimetheyoungLieutenantCharlesPage4of234CultureMandala:TheBulletinoftheCentreforEast-WestCulturalandEconomicStudies,Vol.
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bond.
edu.
au/cm/vol3/iss2/8Gordon,Li'scombinedforcesmanagedtoputpressureontheTaipingduring1863.
Thoughgarrisonedbyforty-thousandoftheTaipingtroops,Suzhouwastakenfromthemon5December1863,largelyduetoquarrellingamongtherebelleaders.
(42)TheaftermathoftheintenseconflictprovidessomeofthemoreluridepisodesofChinesehistory.
(43)TheTaipingforceswereeliminatedon19July1864,inamassiveattackonNankingwhichdestroyedmuchofthatcityandaccordingtosomereportskilledoverahundredthousandpeople.
(44)TheseeventsalsogaveLiHung-changthemilitaryandadministrativecommandsheneededtobeginaspectacularcareerthatwouldmakehimoneofthemostpowerfulmeninChinaduringthelasthalfofthe19thcentury.
Likewise,theregionofSuzhoudidnotescapefromturbulenceduringthetwentiethcentury.
DuringtheSino-Japanesewar,theJapanesedevelopedamajoroffensivebreakingoutofShanghaiandspreadingwestuptheYangtzeRiver,leadingtothedisastrousfallofNankinginDecember1937.
ThenatureofthewarfareinthisregionhasbeenwellsummarisedbyMarvinWilliamsen:-ChinesecommandersattemptedtoestablishdefensivelinesfiftymilestothewestonalinefromFushanontheYangtzetoSoochow,andontotheShanghai-Hangchowrailroadline,butitprovedimpossibletodoso.
ThedisorderinChineseformationswastoogreat,commandandcontrolhaddeterioratedtoobadly,andJapanesepressurefromtheairandonthegroundwascontinuousanddeadly.
SoochowwasabandonedwithoutafightonNovemberthe19th.
AsJapaneseforcesrelentlesslypursuedtheiropponents,whathadbeencharacterizedasa"positional"waratShanghaibecameawarofrapidmovement.
Japaneseaircraftseemedtobeeverywhere,reconnoitringChinesetroopmovementsaswellasstrafingandbombing.
Theroadswestwerecloggedwithpanic-strickenrefugees.
(45)TheregionalsowitnessedoneofthetumultuouslastphasesofCivilWarinApril1949,whenoveramillionsoldiersoftheRedArmycrossedtheYangtzeRiver,withforcesstrikingfromthewestthroughAnkingornorthviaChinkiangovera400-milelongfront,andthenconvergingtooccupytheareasaroundChangchow,beforemovingontotakeShanghai.
(46)Itisclear,then,thatSuzhouhaslivedthroughtimesofachievementandturmoil.
Thecitytodayhastheappearanceofacommunityabletoendurehardshipaswellasenjoysuccess.
Bearinginmindthesurvivalofthiscitythroughthemillennia,itisnotsurprisingthatSuzhouhasdevelopedaculturewhichreflectsboththegeneraldevelopmentofChina,aswellasmakingitsownuniqueregionalcontribution.
Furthermore,SuzhouhasbeenabletoadapteffectivelytomodernisationandChina'sopeningtotheworldeconomy.
AnAncientCentreofCultureThereareseveraldistinctivefeaturesofSuzhouanditspeople.
FewoftheWupeoplejoinedthelarge-scalemigrationsofthecoastalChinese,perhapsbecauseduringthesameperiodthenearbycityofShanghaiofferedsimilareconomicopportunities(47)butwithoutthehardshipofsojournsoverseas.
TheirhistoryhasalsoleftadistinctliteraryandculturallegacyinSuzhou.
Suzhouispartofabroaderregionofover85millionspeakersoftheWudialect,mainlyinZhejiangProvinceandpartsofsouthernJiangsu.
(48)ThedialectofSuzhou(calledSuhuaorSubai)isfamousasasoftlyspoken,refineddialectwithitsownliteraryandoperatictraditions.
(49)Likewise,Suzhou,asanimportantsoutherncity,wasacentreofSongandMingculture,atrendwhichcontinuedthroughtotheearlyChingperiod.
Suzhouwasthesourceoftwenty-sevenofthefirstrankofscholarsduringtheChingdynasty,makingitaforemostcentreofscholarship.
(50)Thiscity,alongwithHangzhou,wasamajorfocusforacademicandpopularpublishingduringtheseventeenthcentury.
ItwasherethattheHuanduzhaipublishinghousewasactive,especiallyinthelaterpartofthecenturywhenWangAngwaswriting.
(51)WangAngwas'aleadingpopularizerofmedicalknowledgeduringtheChing',perhapspickingthisareabecauseitwasbothpracticalandlesslikelytodrawnegativeattentionfromtheChingauthorities.
(52)Today,Suzhouremainsthecentreofastrongpublishingindustry,includingtheGuWuXuanPublishingHouseandtheSuzhouUniversityPress,(53)aswellasacentreofpaperproduction.
(54)Page5of235Ferguson:SuzhouProducedbyTheBerkeleyElectronicPress,1999Thecityisespeciallyfamousforitscraftsmenandartists,andisthecentreoftheWumenSchoolofPainting,whichgreatlyinfluencedlandscapepaintingthroughouttheMingandChingDynasties.
(55)Withthemarkedchangeinseason,rangingfromhotsummerstocoolwinterswithoccasionsnowfalls,theareahasaparticularlyimpressiverangeofatmosphericandlightconditions.
Surroundedbylakesandrivers,theskyisoftenmisty,andanimpressionisticlightmakestheareaidealforlandscapepainters.
Theancientcanalsandhouses,tree-linedstreetsandnumerousgardensprovidesuitablebackdropsforawiderangeoflocalartists.
Specialisedlocalcraftsincludetheproductionofsilkembroidery,finefansandlanterns,specialisedmusicalinstruments,mahoganyfurniture,brocadeandsilkhand-weaving,themakingoftraditionalstagecostumes,specialisedpaints,andwood-blockprints.
Suzhoualsohasafinetraditionofcalligraphy.
(56)OtherlocalartformsincludeKunquOpera,SuzhouOpera,localdialectformsofballadsingingandstorytelling(Pingtan).
TheWuSchoolofMedicineandclassicalarchitecturewerealldevelopedtoahighdegree.
(57)Noraretheseartformsmerelyculturalrelics,onlypreservedinsmallsnippetsforthetouristindustry.
Artistsarestillextremelyactiveincapturingthedifferingaspectsofthecity,andoperaperformancesstillplaytopackedChineseaudiencesinhallsadjacenttotheNorthernPagoda,thoughadmittedlyappealingtotheoldergenerationmorethantheyoung.
Overall,SuzhoucametorepresenttheheightofcultureandrefinementinmanyareasofChineseculturallife.
AssummarisedbyF.
W.
Mote:-SoochowdrewtoitandfosteredtheartsofChina-theliteraryartsaboveall,butalsomusicandpainting,calligraphy,thecraftarts,thedecorativearts,andtheminorartsthatcontributedtotheelegantlife.
Also,Soochowsustainedlearning,themechanismforachievingsocialstatusandofficialcareers,andtheprestigeaffectationofallwhocouldaffordit.
Itlavishedwealthongardensandartcollectionsandreligiousinstitutions;itscitizen'sdress,theirmansions,theirdelicatefoods,theirpleasureboatsandpleasurehousesandtheatricalsandfestivalswerereputedtobethefinestinallChina.
Ifsomeofthosestatementswerealsomadeaboutotherplaces.
.
.
itonlyprovesthatSoochowwasfirstamongmanyrivalsinthemulticenteredurbanlifeofChina.
(58)Forallthesereasons,Suzhou,atleastuntiltheriseofShanghai,cameclosetodominatingthefinancial,commercial,intellectualandculturallifeoftherichestregionofChina,(59)inspiteofSouthernandNortherncapitalsbeinglocatedelsewhere,andtherelativeimportanceofbothNankingandHangzhou.
Itisthishistorywhichhelpsaccountforacertainrefinedself-confidencethatseemstobethehallmarkofSuzhoucitizenstoday.
SomeofthesefactorsarereflectedintheFolkCustomMuseuminSuzhou(locatednotfarfromtheLionGroveMuseum),whichishousedinanumberoflinkedmansionsinthenorthern-easternpartofthecity.
Thedisplaysareunusualinfocusingonurbantraditions,withthemarriagecustoms,foods,banqueting,festivalsandartisticskillsofitsbustlingmiddle(andupper)classbeingrepresentedthroughartefacts,photos,modeldisplaysandChineseexplanatorytexts.
Suzhou,ofcourse,isfamousforitscanals,gardens,andhistoricallandmarks.
Thecityiscrossedbyanetworkofcanals,largelyunchangedfromearliercenturies,thoughinsomecasesroadsandmodernbridgeshavepartlycoveredthecanalsystem.
AncientpoetsspokeofSuzhou's390bridges,pastgazetteerslistedsome400,andcurrentlytherearesome168.
(60)Thecanals,bridges,andhistoryofthecityhavetraditionallydrawncomparisonswithVenice,anditisnotsurprisingthatVeniceandSuzhouenjoyasister-cityrelationship.
(61)Altogether,thecityandenvironshavesome400historicalandculturalsites,with69beinglistedasnationalorprovincialmonuments.
(62)FamousbridgessuchasthePreciousBeltBridge,southofSuzhouandcrossingtheDaiDaiRiver,andtheMiduBridgecrossingtheGrandCanal,datebackrespectivelytothe11thand13thcenturies.
(63)ThegardensofSuzhouconstituteanartformintheirownright,andhaveinfluencedothertypesofclassicalChinesegarden,aswellasbeingonesourceofinspirationforZengardensinJapan.
(64)ThecollectivebrillianceoftheseSuzhougardensissuchthattheyhavebeenlistedasaUNESCOWorldPage6of236CultureMandala:TheBulletinoftheCentreforEast-WestCulturalandEconomicStudies,Vol.
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bond.
edu.
au/cm/vol3/iss2/8Heritagesite,oneofthenineteensuchlistedsitesthroughoutChina.
(65)Recently,China'sWorldHeritageResearchCommitteewasestablishedatSuzhoutoincreasescientificmanagementoftheseculturalrelics.
(66)ThiscorrelateswithacomprehensiveeffortbytheStateRelicsBureautobegintostandardisemanagementofChina's300,000historicalstructures,andtoproducedatabanks,atlasesandtrainingcoursesonthisheritage.
(67)TraditionalMusiciansPerformatTheMaster-of-the-NetsGardenTheseheritagesitesinSuzhouincludetheMaster-of-the-Netsgarden,asmall,compactgardenandvillawithpavilionslookingaroundacentralpoolofabsoluteserenity.
Smallbridgeslinkwalkwaysandopenhalls,whileaboveanancienttree(reputedtobeninehundredyearsold),leftwithonebranchoflivinggreenery,pushesintotheclearautumnsky.
OneofthefavouritefeaturesofthegardenisthePavilionofGreetingtheMoonandBreeze,whichisbuiltoutoverthewater.
Behindit,moreover,isalargemirrorreflectingthegardenitself.
(68)ThissmallmansionwasoriginallybuiltbyShiZhengzhi,aretiredvice-ministerofdefencefortheSouthernSongDynasty,in1174,butthegardenwasfurtherdevelopedin1770.
(69)Today,itisatouristattractionforbothChineseandforeigners,andatleastsomeoftheolderpeoplesittingabovethecarp-filledpoolmaybelocalsenjoyingamomentofserenityinthemidstofthebusycity.
DuringAutumnevenings,beforetheweatheristoocold,therearetraditionalmusicandcultureshowsthatbrieflyre-enactapastthatseemsnevertobetoodistantintheChinesehistoricalimagination.
AnotherlargeandfamoustouristsiteistheHumbleAdministrator'sGarden,alargecomplexofgardensbasedonthemasterpiececreatedbyanationalcensorandenvoyoftheMingDynasty,WangXianchen,whohadbeenforcedtoretireduetoofficialcorruption.
(70)ThisisoneofthemostpopularsitesforvisitingChinesetourists,andincludesamuseumconcerningthelayoutandtheoryofChinesegardens.
Thetheoryofthesegardensincludesthenotionof'borrowing'adistantviewormonument,ineffecttherebyincorporatingitintothegardenstructure.
FromonesectionnearthecentralpondsinthegardenitispossibletogetagoodviewoftheNorthernPagoda,therebyborrowingthiselementintothemoreintimatescaleofthetreesandrocksoftheimmediatelandscape.
(71)Oneofthesmallerbutmoreintimategardens,istheLionGroveGarden,whichwasfirstlaidoutin1336.
TheEastGardenislessbusythanmost,andhasateahousethatallowsapeacefuloverviewofamouldedlandscapeofrocksandtrees.
Closertothecentreofthecity,inthemiddleofathrivingshoppingareawithnumerousdepartmentstories,clothingstallsandtheubiquitousKentuckyFriedChicken,standsSanqingHalloftheXuanmiaoTaoistTemple.
ItisanimposingwoodenhallwiththetypicalupwardcurvingroofthatseemscommonforolderstructuresinSuzhou.
Firstbuildin276A.
D.
,(72)itwaslaterrebuiltundertheEmperorChunxioftheSouthernSong.
ItisthelargeststandingtemplehallinthelowerYangtze.
Page7of237Ferguson:SuzhouProducedbyTheBerkeleyElectronicPress,1999From1371itwasaprovincialofficesetuptoadministerTaoistaffairs,andinturnbecameoneofthecentraltemplesofthePureUnitySect.
(73)However,theassociatedbuildingsareatpresentindisrepair.
DeclaredaCulturalRelic,itiscurrentlybeingrebuiltandmaintained,inpartthroughthesupportoftheSuzhouCityTaoistAssociation.
Justbehindthehall,whichislargelyoccupiedbythirty-footstatuesofTaoisteffigieskeptbehindglass,thereisalargeopenshed.
Insidearefoundsmallerstatuesofheroesandgods.
Therearetwolargealtarsforburningincenseandcandles,andinthecentreaplacetokneelbeforethemainaltar.
Anoldmaninblack,wearingatraditionalpriest'shatwithanangledflatcrown,seemeddelightedwhenaWesternwomanaskedhowtoperformanincenseoffering.
HewastheofficiatingTaoistpriest,andheshowedherthepathbetweenthevariousstations,thentheproperwaytoshowrespectwiththefistedhand,coveredbythepalm.
TwoChinesetourists,perhapsfromTaiwan,askedforadviceonwhattodo.
Butitwasclearthatthiswasmorethanjustatouristsite.
AgroupoffivelocalChinese,cladinoff-whitesack-cloth,soonfiledintothealtararea,perhapstoperformaceremonyforadeadrelative.
ThelevelofactivityfoundinsuchtemplessuggeststhatTaoismhasbecomelessimportantasaninstitutionalreligionthaninthepast,butretainsitsmorediffuseculturalinfluenceonChineselife.
ThisviewissupportedbytrendsfromnearbyShanghai,wheretherewere3,716Taoistnovicesandnunsin1949,andonly426in1993.
(74)Ofcourse,TaoismandBuddhismretainastrongculturalinfluence,andalargenumberofChinesemayvisitatempleorshrineatsomestageoftheirlife,evenifirregularly.
(75)ReligiongenerallyhasmadesomethingofacomebackinChina,andislikelytocontinuetogrowgradually,especiallyProtestantismandBuddhism.
(76)TheXuanmiaoTempleitselfisdueforrenovationsandaremodellingofthenearbystreetaspartofSuzhou'scomprehensiveconservationplan(seefurtherbelow).
(77)TheFamousNorthPagoda,SuzhouThecity,ofcourse,wasnotjustknownforitscanals,bridges,gardens,andrefinedculture.
Itisalsoacityoffamouspagodas,includingtheTwinPagodas,theGreatNorthernPagoda,andthefamousleaningpagoda,CloudRockPagoda,nearbyonTigerHill.
TheentiresetofsuchattractionshasledtoSuzhouanditsregionbeingamajorcentreoftourism,especiallydrawingChinesetouriststoitswell-Page8of238CultureMandala:TheBulletinoftheCentreforEast-WestCulturalandEconomicStudies,Vol.
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bond.
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au/cm/vol3/iss2/8preservedandnowfamoussites.
Someoftheseplaces,e.
g.
theCarvedMansion(78)nearLakeTaihu,andvariouslocationsonTigerHillhavebeenusedasfilmlocationsinChinesetelevisionserialsandforfeaturefilmproduction.
ManylocationsnearLakeTaihuhavebeenusedintelevisionseriessuchasRomanceofThreeKingdomsandOutlawsoftheMarsh,andformamajortouristcircuitfromnearbyWuxi.
(79)CertainlytheNorthPagodahelpedplaceSuzhouinthemindofWesterntourists,ascanbeseeninaguidebookwrittenbyHampdenduBosein1911:-OnthebanksoftheGrandCanaleightymileswestofShanghai,twelvemileseastoftheGreatLake,andfortymilessouthoftheYangtze,standsafar-famedcity,thesilkmetropolisoftheOrient.
Eveninthishurriedtwentiethcenturyacrowdofadmirersstandswithreverentawearoundthestatueofantiquity,andgazesuponitstoweringheights,whichseemtopiercetheclouds.
(80)Thepagoda,ofcourse,standsinabiggercompoundwhichfromtheeleventhcenturyhadbeenafamousBuddhistsite,thePao-enTemple,firstestablishedinthethirdcenturyA.
D.
(81)Oneofthemostimpressivelocalhallsistobefoundjusteastofthepagoda,theNanmuHalloftheGoddessofMercy,rebuiltin1612.
(82)Thoughitsoriginalstatueshavebeenlost,theyhavebeenreplacedbytwoimpressivestatues,whilemuchofthehallseemstobeinitsMing-Dynastycondition.
WhatHampdenduBosemaynothaverealised,however,isthatunlikethefuneraryortemplemonumentsofEgyptandGreece,thestones,bricksandwoodoftheGreatPagodawereinfactprobablynotveryancient.
LikemanysuchpagodasandtemplesinEastAsia,theyareregularlyrebuiltorevenremodelled,eithertorepaircumulativedamageortomakethemmoreglorious.
TheGreatPagodahadprobablybeenrebuiltorhadmajorrepairsin1078,1449,1582,1603,1671,and1900.
(83)FrederickMotehascorrectlypointedoutthatthisdemonstratesaratherdifferentattitudetothemonumentalpastthanisfoundinWesternhistoryandarchaeology:-Chinesecivilizationdidnotlodgeitshistoryinbuildings.
Evenitsmostgrandiosepalaceandcitycomplexesstressedgrandlayout,theemploymentofspace,andnotbuildings,whichwereaddedasarelativelyimpermanentsuperstructure.
Chinesecivilizationseemsnottohaveregardeditshistoryasviolatedorabusedwhenthehistoricmonumentscollapsedorburned,aslongasthosecouldbereplacedorrestored,andtheirfunctionsregained.
Inshort,wecansaythattherealpastofSoochowisapastofthemind:itsimperishableelementsaremonumentsofhumanexperience.
Theonlytrulyenduringembodimentsoftheeternalhumanmomentsaretheliteraryones.
(84)InSuzhouthishasledtoanintermixingoftheancientandmodern,withancientbuildingspreservedamidnewbuildingsandtown-housecomplexes.
Yeteventhesenewbuildingsoftenretainsmallfeaturesthatlinkthemtothepast:atraditionalroof-lineoranornatewindowscreeniscommoneveninthemostmodernbuildings.
Withintheconfinesoftheancientcityarea,mostofthebuildingshavebeenkepttolessthatfivestories,withsomesmallhigh-riseareasinthecommercialcentre.
Thesky-scrapershavebeenlefttoasmallcentraldistrict,ortoareasoutsidethecityproper,e.
g.
intheSuzhouIndustrialPark.
Thisseemstoconformwiththeintegratedindustrialandpreservationplandevelopedbythecity,inwhichtheancientcityretainsitsroleasacultural,tourist,andtraditionalindustrialandcommercecentre,withnewindustriesandtechnologicalprojectsbeingdevelopedintheareasoutsidethecityproper.
(85)Beyond,withinahundredkilometresofSuzhou,therearedozensofhistorictownsandvillages,manyofthemnownationallyfamous,includingsitessuchasMudu,Dongshan,Tongli,Shengze,Chenmu,Zhenzeandmanyothers.
(86)Atadeeperlevel,however,thisreuseandrebuildingononeancientsitehasbeengoingonforaboutonethousandyears.
FrederickMotecouldcorrectlynotethatthebasicfeaturesofthecentralareaofSuzhou,asrepresentedintheancientmapof1229A.
D.
correlatecloselywiththefeaturesvisibleinanarealphotographof1945.
(87)Thesameappliestodayifyoutakethetimetowalkaroundthecity,stillthebestwaytoreallyappreciatedailylifeinthisurbancentre.
Ancientcanalswithinthecitycanbereadilyidentified,ascansomeoftheancientgatesandtheroughoutlinesofwhatwouldhavebeenPage9of239Ferguson:SuzhouProducedbyTheBerkeleyElectronicPress,1999thelineoftheancientwalls,whichassumedtheir'presentextentandlocation'between626and875A.
D.
(88)ThebestpreservedofthegatesisthefamousPanmenland-and-watergateinthesouth-westoftheoldcity.
Thewallsremainedintactdowntotheearly1950s,whenitwasstillpossibletowalkaroundthecityalongthem.
MostofthewallswouldonlybetorndownduringthephaseofmodernisationwhichtransformedChinesewalledcitiesduringthefollowingdecade.
Originally,thecityhadeightlandandeightwatergates.
(89)Thelineofriversandcanalsthatformedaninnermoteforthecitycanbeeasilyidentified,ascantheGrandCanalwhichstillswarmswithrivertraffic,oftendrivenbyunderpowereddieselmotors.
Thissenseofmingledpastandpresent,oftheancientandthebrisklymodernside-by-side,maydisorienttheexpectationsoftourists,whomaypreferpristinemuseumcitiespreservedentire.
However,theSuzhoulandscapeprovidesamorerealisticsenseofcontemporaryChina,wheretheancientandthepost-modernareoftenlinkedtogethercasually,withoutanysenseofprofanation.
Inthe1970sitcouldbenotedthatin'theremarkablecontinuityofSoochowasacity,theimpermanenceofthecity'sindividualpartsandthestabilityofitsformandphysicalpresence,aswellasthepervasivenessofitspastinthemindsoftheliving,aretypicalofChinesecities,andofChinesecivilization.
'(90)ThatremainstrueofSuzhoutoday,evenwhentwohugenewindustrialareashavebeenaddedtotheeastandwestofthecity.
Itispossibletowanderalonganancientstreetliningacanalhundredsofyearsold,andseeanInternetPubwherepeoplepayafewyuantosurfthenetorplaytheirfavouritecomputergames.
TothecitizensofSuzhou,thereisnothingincongruousaboutthispicture.
AContemporaryEconomicCentrewithHistoricalRootsSuzhouhaslongbeenacentreofmajortextileindustries,includingsilkandcottonproduction,aswellasofembroidery,paperandhandicraftproduction.
(92)Historically,silkhashadamajorroleinthesocialandculturallifesincetheearliesttimes.
SilkproductionmayhavebegunataprimitivelevelintheregionasearlyasthelateNeolithicperiod,asindicatedbystoneartefacts.
SincetheThreeKingdomsperiod(A.
D.
222-A.
D.
280)theregionwasinvolvedintheexporttradealongtheSilkRoad,withChinesesilkeventuallytradedasfarasJapan,Persia,GreeceandRome.
Tworouteswereutilised,oneleadingbylandthroughCentralAsia,theotherbasedonnavalroutestoSoutheastAsia,thentoportsoftheIndianOcean,RedSeaorPersiangulf.
(93)SilkweavingskillswerehighlydevelopedbytheTangDynasty,perfectedintheSong,andremainedhighlyskilledthroughtheMingandQingperiods.
Suzhouwasoneofthefamous'threeweavingbureaux'southoftheYangtzeRiver,andsilkwasproducedforroyalaswellasnobleusage.
ItispossiblethatsilkfromthisregionreachedJapanasearlyasthefirstcenturyB.
C.
,andthatWudressstyleseveninfluencedtheformationoftheJapanesekimono.
Silkproduction,exportandresearchremainsverystronginSuzhouandthesurroundingareastoday.
Inrecognitionofthis,alargeSilkMuseumwasopenedinthecityin1991,largelyduetotheeffortsofQianXiaoPing,professorandexpertinsilkandsilkdesign.
Themuseumcontainsaneffectivedisplayofancientandmodernfabrics,aswellastechniquesinthegrowing,productionandweavingofsilk.
Bythe19thcenturySuzhouwasakeyexampleofearlycapitalistdevelopment,bringingtogethercapital,resources,labour,andtraderoutes.
Itwas'infactsustainedbycapitalfromShanxi,Huizhou,andNingbofinanciers,andbycheapsojournerlaborfromotherpartsofChina'.
(94)Upto20,000workerswereemployedintheshort-termmarketofthedyingandcalenderingworkshopsinSuzhou.
(95)ItisnotsurprisingthatitwasinSuzhouthatbanknoteswereusedinlieuofsilverasmediumofexchange,andbecamepartofawidertradingsysteminresponsetoshortagesofsilverinChinaafter1830.
(96)Thetraditionaleconomicbaseofthecityhasbeensummarised:-Theextensionofthecityinspaceisperhapsmostclearlyseenintheeconomiclifeofthesociety.
Citieswereorganizationalnodesinthenetworksofmarketinganddistribution,andinfinanceandbankingsystems.
Yet,inthecaseofSoochow,thecommercialandbankingconcentrationwasoutsidethecity,inthesuburbstothewestofthecitywalls,extendingsomedistancealongthePage10of2310CultureMandala:TheBulletinoftheCentreforEast-WestCulturalandEconomicStudies,Vol.
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Asforcraftindustry,silkweavingwasconcentratedwithinthenortheastcornerinsidethewalls,butcottonweavingwasoutsidethecity,ratherdispersed.
ThemanufactureofthefamousSoochowdyedandprintedcottontextileswasspreadevenfarther.
Skilledlaborhiringpoints,mostlyforlaborershiredforveryshorttermsorbytheday,werebothwithinthecityandoutsideit.
Specializedmarketsforproductssuchasfish,fancyfruitsandvegetables,andcertainmanufactureswerelocatedinmarkettownstenandfifteenmilesawayandfurther;theyoftenservedSoochowasspecificallyandasimportantlyasSoochowinotherwayscontributedtotheirexistence.
Insidethecity,theeliteclasses,whetherofofficialdomorofcommerceandindustry,displayednodistinctlyurbanmodesofdress,ofhousing,oroflifestyle;outinthesmallmarkettowns,orintrulyruralsettings,thosewouldbenodifferent.
Withoutattemptingtodescribeeconomiclifeinanydetail,itispossibletoconcludethattheextensionofthecity'sactivitiesandsocialattitudeswentfarbeyondthecity,eventhoughinanessentiallyagrariansociety.
(97)Thesetraditionalindustriesremainaprominentpartofeconomiclifeandexportingindustriestoday.
Suzhousilkisrecognizednationallyandinternationallyasoneofthebestintheworld,andSuzhouprovidesuptoonethirdofChina'sexportofthisproduct.
(98)Silkproduction,ofcourse,hascontinuedatanumberoflevels.
SilkembroideryisproducedintraditionalandnewpatternsattheSuzhouEmbroideryResearchInstitute,housedinanoldmansionrepletewithcourtyardsandquietworkshops.
UtilisingChineseandWesternimages,skilledworkersstillproducethefamousdouble-sidedembroideries,withbothsidesreplicatingexactlythesameimage.
Usingthousandsofstitchesandhundredsofhoursoflabour,theseSuzhouembroideriesareoftenusedasstategifts,ortoadornofficialoccasions.
Thesetraditionalskillsarereadilyadaptedfornewdemandsandstyles.
InSuzhouSilkFactoryNo.
1,forinstance,awiderangeofitemsrangingfromtraditionalChinesegarmentstomodernhighfashionareshowcased,asdemonstratedintheFactory'sextensiveshowrooms.
Alongsidetheseproducts,thefactoryalsoproducesfamoussilk-paddeditems,whichareexportedallovertheworld.
Norareancienttechniquesrigidlyadheredto.
AmajorsilkandtextiletechnologyprogrammeissituatedinoneofthecampusesofSuzhouUniversity,andleadstheworldintotheresearchofsilkanditsuses.
SilkProductioninSuzhouAsidefromthesetraditionalindustries,Suzhouhasalsoconsciouslyplannedtoembracenewindustriesandwidenitsindustrialbase.
Suzhou,ofcourse,isanopeneconomiczone,(99)andthereforecanbenefitdirectlyfromtheopen-doortradepolicyandopportunitiesforforeignPage11of2311Ferguson:SuzhouProducedbyTheBerkeleyElectronicPress,1999investment.
Thisincludes'developmentinmachinebuildingindustry,electronicsindustry,pharmaceuticalindustry,chemicalindustry,lightindustry,buildingmaterialsindustry,andmetallurgicalindustry'.
(100)Between1978and1994,thecityexperiencedanaverageannualeconomicexpansionof21.
5%,withaverageper-capitaincomesurpassing12,600yuanandexceedingtheperformanceofothercitiesinEasternChina.
(101)By1996,overall'economicmight'placedtheregionthirdstrongestnationally,afterShanghaiandBeijing.
(102)FromJanuarytoOctober1998SuzhouattractedUS$3.
02billioninforeigninvestment,rankingitsecondafterShanghaiinattractingsuchfunding.
(103)BytheendofSeptember1998,some5,257foreign-fundedenterpriseswereoperating.
(104)TheinvestmentplanforSuzhouhaslargelybeenfacilitatedthroughthecreationoftwolargeindustrialparks:intheeastajointSino-Singaporeventure,theSuzhouIndustrialPark,andthewesternregionaldevelopmentownedbytheSuzhoumunicipalgovernment,theSuzhouNewDistrictProject.
TheSuzhouIndustrialPark(SIP)waslaunchedasamajorprojectbringingSingaporeanandotherinternationalinvestmentintotheregion.
TheIndustrialPark,ajointprojectrunbyaSingaporeanconsortiumandagroupofChinesecompanies,owning65%and35%respectively,wastobecompletedoveratwentyyearperiod,involvingatotalcostofUS$20billion,andwithaprojectedtotalpopulationof600,000.
(105)Some130companieshavecommittedthemselvestosetupintheIndustrialPark,withcompaniessuchasHarrisSemiconductor,Hitachi,Sumitomo,Samsung,RJRNabisco,Black&Decker,AdvancedMicro,Vickers,Solectron,L'OrealandmorerecentlyZFFriedrichshafenAg(ownerofZFDriveTech)havingbeenattractedtojointheproject.
(106)TheIndustrialParkhasbeenpromotedatthehighestlevelsinSingaporeandChina,withpublicsupportfromPRCPresidentJiangZeminandSingaporeSeniorMinisterLeeKuanYew,andhasrunanefficientoperationwhichhassoughttolimitoverheadcosts.
TheSuzhouIndustrialParkhasastreamlinedadministrationwhichincludesaliaisonofficewhichdealswithsome80CommunistPartyunitsthroughoutChinaandabout20governmentdepartmentsinSingapore.
(107)Nestledinamongthemodernwarehouses,officetowersandwideroadsalsostandsawell-appointed,evenluxurious,InternationalSchool,theSuzhouSingaporeInternationalSchool,whichcatersfortheneedsofforeignfamilies.
ItusesEnglishandChineselanguageprograms,withcurriculalargelybasedontheSingaporeaneducationalsystem.
Infact,theSuzhouIndustrialParkhasaimedtocreateacompleteserviceandresidentialcommunity,relyingonbothlocalandinternationalexpertise.
However,returnsandinvestmentinSuzhouIndustrialParkhaveslowedinrecentyears,andactivitiesintheareaarenotyetdeeplyintegratedwithinSuzhoulife.
Inlate1998thisledtolocalcallsformoresupportfortheproject,withtheMayorChenDemingarguingforstrongerlocalsupport,whilelocalChineseCommunistPartychiefLiangBaohauaskedformoreefforts'toboostthegrowthoftrade,tourismandotherservice-orientedindustriesinthepark'.
(108)Thisproject,ofcourse,isonepartofawiderSingaporeaneffortinChinaasawhole,withSingaporebeingtheforemostoftheASEANnationsintradewithChina.
Overall,SingaporewasChina'sfifthlargestinvestorwithUS$8.
75billionbeingcommittedin1997.
(109)TheChineseambassadortoSingapore,MadamChenBaoliu,statedinOctober1998thattheSuzhouIndustrialParkwasbackontrack,duetotheconcernedeffortofbothsides.
(110)Atthesametime,therehavebeensomeoveralldownturnsineconomicactivityduetotheimpactoftheAsianeconomiccrisisontradewithChina,includingareductionintradeof5.
2%andaninvestmentreductionof42%inthefirsthalfof1998.
(111)ThisledtofurtherproblemsfortheIndustrialParkbymid-1999.
ByJune1999SingaporeannouncedthatitwasnowonlywillingtocompleteaportionoftheSuzhouIndustrialPark,leavingtherestforitsChinesepartners.
Inaninterview,SeniorMinisterLeeKuanYewnotedthatnegotiationshadfailedtoresolvetheproblemofcompetitionfromthenearbySuzhouNewDistrictProject,which,accordingtoHongKongcorrespondentLohHuiYin,hasbeen'copyingmarketingideasfromtheSIPaswellasgoingafterthesameinvestors'.
(112)Ironically,thesuccessofbothdevelopmentsmayhavebroughtthemintocompetition.
Singapore'schangeofpolicycouldbeinterpretedaspartofanotherroundofnegotiationdesignedtoensurethelong-termviabilityoftheSuzhouIndustrialPark.
Attheveryleast,Singaporewillcompleteonesectionofthepark,replicatingalargeindustrialestate,andmeetingtheneedsofPage12of2312CultureMandala:TheBulletinoftheCentreforEast-WestCulturalandEconomicStudies,Vol.
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(113)SuzhouNewDistrict,onthewesternsideoftheoldcity,hasdrawnmorethan320foreign-fundedenterprisesfromthirtycountriesandregions,withatotalofsomeUS$4billioncommittedtotheproject.
(114)Majoroverseascorporationshavebeeninvolved,includingMotorola,Acer,Philips,FujiFilm,LogitechInc.
,SonyChemicalsSuzhouCo.
Ltd,andSchindlerCo.
LtdofAustria.
(115)Operationsinclude'theelectronicinformation,mechatronics,bio-medicine,machine-building,light,textileandhightechindustries.
'(116)Inordertosupporthigh-technologyfirms,someUS$482millionhasbeencommittedininfrastructuredevelopment,withnewwaterworksandabondedwarehousecomingintooperationbylate1999.
(117)Exports,revenuesandprofitsfromtheNewDistrictremainedstrongthrough1998,inspiteoftheAsianfinancialcrisis.
Asidefromtheseindustrialtrends,thewealthofthecountrysideshouldnotbeignored.
TheSuzhouregionremainsoneofthemostdiverseandintensifiedagriculturalproductionareasintheworld.
Thisisreflectedinhundredsofprosperousvillagesandtownshipswhichsaturatethecountryside.
Ricepaddy,marketgardens,glass-housesandfishfarmsdotalandscapewell-wateredbythousandsofinterconnectedcanals.
TheregionofSuzhouhassome900,000farmersandrurallabourers,whohadaverageincreasesof27.
1%intheirincomethroughtheearly1990s,resultinginamoderateleveloflivelihoodbythemid-1990s.
(118)Itseemsclearthatthesearenotpeasantsinthetraditionalsense,butcomparativelyprosperoussmallfarmerswhohavegreatlybenefitedfrommodernisation,themarketeconomy,andsomeleveloflocalautonomyanddemocratisation.
InChinaasawhole,thesepeopleretainconsiderableimportance.
Today,thesefarmingcommunitiesoftencombinesmallindustriesandworkshopactivitiesalongsideapatternoffarmingproductionnowaidedbytechnology,education,agriculturalscience(119)andnewinvestmentinputs,(120)creatingaproductivecapabilitythatfeedsintocityeconomies.
(121)Thesefactorsfindreflectioninthesolidtwoandthreestoryhousesthatdotthecountryside,nowoftenfilledwithallthemodernamenities,thoughtractor-trailersaremorecommonthancars.
Inrecentdecadesthestudents,teachersandworkersofcitieslikeSuzhouwerestillexpectedtogooutandhelpthefarmerswiththeharvest.
Today,withbumpercropsgrowingthroughoutthelowerYangtze,nooneseemstobeneededtohelpthesefarmers,whocontinuetoharvestthericewithlittlemachinery.
Agriculturalreform,theforemostofChina'sFourModernisations,hascontinuedtomaintainthetraditionalfertilityandruralwealthoftheregion.
ThecityofSuzhouremainsamajorcentreofeducation,withsometendifferentinstitutionsofhigherlearningandfifteencollegesforcontinuingeducation.
(122)AsintherestofChina,parentsinSuzhoumakeintenseeffortstoensurethattheirchildrenreceivethebesteducationpossible.
Thecutoffpointisnotbetweenhighschoolanduniversity,butintheintensecompetitiontoproceedfrommiddlelevelschoolstohigherlevelschooleducation.
Fromthebetterhighschools,moststudentsproceedtoauniversityeducation.
SuzhouUniversityitselfisalargeinstitutionwithaverywiderangeofprogrammesincludingforeignlanguages,Chineselanguageandliterature,philosophy,law,education,history,science,agriculture,publicadministration,engineering,andahighlyrespectedmedicalschool.
(123)Presently,SuzhouUniversityhassome24,000students,8,500adulteducationstudents,andsome3,200facultyandstaff.
(124)SuzhouUniversityhasbeenchosenasoneofthe100keyuniversitiesforChinainthe21stcentury(the'211Project'),therebytakingoverawiderangeofeducationalactivitiesthroughoutthecityandregion.
FormerlyknownastheDongWuUniversity,itwasfoundedin1900.
Itnowhas18specialistschools,52graduateprograms,10doctoralprogramsandonepost-doctoralprogram,(125)plusadepartmentofphysicaleducation.
Theseresourcesarelocatedonseveralcampuseswithinthecity,occupyingatotalof89hectares.
WithintheUniversitytherearesomesurprises.
Onthebeautifulmaincampus,thereistheAustralianStudiesCentre,whichincludesarenovatedseminarroomwithcomputers,awiderangeofbooksandjournals,andtheopportunitytoundertakehigherstudiesinAustralianliteratureandculture.
ThisCentre,inconjunctionwiththeCentreforEast-WestCulturalandEconomicStudies(BondUniversity,Australia)hasrecentlylaunchedtheAssociationofSino-AustralianComparativeCulturalStudies,designedtopromoteeducationalandculturalactivitiesbetweenthetwocountries.
Page13of2313Ferguson:SuzhouProducedbyTheBerkeleyElectronicPress,1999TheAustralianStudiesCentreofSuzhouUniversityhasasitschairmanProf.
WangGuofu,ascholarwhoisperfectlyfluentinEnglishandAustralianculture.
HewasoneofthefirstChinesetobeselectedtoundertakethe'ScholarstoStudyAbroad'programmeforhighereducationinAustralia,(126)andhassincevisitedAustraliaseveraltimesonresearchtrips.
HeandhisresearchnetworkformanactivelinkbetweenAustraliaandChina,notonlyshowingtheuniquepleasuresofstudyingAustralianculture,butalsothewayAustraliacanprovideausefulandpositivewindowonthewiderAnglo-Europeanworld.
TheAustralianStudiesCentrewasestablishedwithsupportedfromtheAustralia-ChinaCouncil,anorganisationwhichmaintainsstrongon-goingconnectionswiththeCentre.
ProfessorWanghasbeeninvolvedinthestudyandtranslationofAustralianliterature,andin1998wontheAustralia-ChinaCouncilPrizeforhistranslationefforts.
ThiswasawardedinOctober1998atthe6thConferenceofAustralianStudiesinChina,aconferenceheldbyTheAustralianStudiesAssociationofChina.
ProfessorWang'smostrecentlargeprojecthasbeenthetranslationoftheMacquarieDictionaryintoChinese.
Thisdictionary,originallyresearchedandpublishedinAustralia,hastheadvantageofbeinganextremelycomprehensivetreatmentofEnglishandAmericanusages,aswellasaddinguniquewordsthathavecomeintouseinAustralia.
ItisregardedasoneofthemostextensiveChineseguidesto'WorldEnglish'nowavailable.
TheCityoftheFuture:BalancingNeedsandOpportunitiesSuzhou,asanancientandmoderncity,hasalsobecomeawareoftheneedtopreserveitscultureandenvironment,bothforthebenefitofitsinhabitants,aswellastopromotetradeandtourism.
I.
M.
Pei,arenownedarchitect,hasheadedanadvisorycommitteeinlaunchingan11-yearprojecttopreservetheancientpartofthecity(calledGusuCity).
Torunfrom1999-2010,theprojectaimstoreducetheimpactofthehighurbanpopulationandlocalindustriesonthestrainedstructureoftheoldcity.
(127)TaskswhichhavebegunalreadyincludethedredgingofoldcanalsandtheirreplenishmentwithfreshwaterfromLakeTaihu,theshuttingdownorreplacementof130environmentallyunsoundfactories,andtheremovalofsomeworkingplacesandresidentsintotheadjacentSuzhouNewDistrictandtheSuzhouIndustrialPark.
(128)Futuretasksincludethelayingofnewdrainagepipes,thecreationoftwosewagetreatmentplants,andtheupgradingtomodernpipelinesforgas,water,power,cableTVandotheramenities.
(129)Likewise,theSuzhouIndustrialParkhasshownconcernforsoundenvironmentalmanagementinhavingturneddownsome50investmentproposalswhichfailedtomeetenvironmentalconcerns,includingoneprojectworthsomeUS$200millionbecauseofpotentialradioactivityhazards.
(130)Urbanandindustrialdevelopment,ofcourse,stressesbothurbaninfrastructureandthenaturalenvironment.
TheentireLakeTaihubasinhashadtofaceseriousresourceandenvironmentalproblemswiththegrowingpollutionofLakeTaihuitselfandrelatedgroundwaters.
Amajorresourceofwaterforupto34millionpeopleaswellasascenicresourceforupto10milliontourists,thesewatershavebeguntosufferfromindustrialandagriculturallybasedpollution,whichhasboostednitrogenandphosphorouslevels,aswellasfromincreasedlevelsofblue-greenalgae.
(131)Theseproblemsarebeingtackledthroughthe'NinthFive-YearPlanonControllingTaihuLakeWaterPollution'andtherelated'ProgramThroughtotheYear2010'.
Thattheseprogramswereconductedseriouslycanbeseeninthefactthatof1035majorpolluters,mostmetthenewguidelines,whilesome42productionunitswereshutdownand101stoppedproductionanddeclaredbankruptcy,thoughitistruethatsomeunitstriedtore-openlateron.
(132)Effortshavealsobeenmadetoreducehouseholdwastewaterflows,thoughtheconstructionofnewsewageplantshasbeensomewhatslowerthanhoped.
(133)Likewise,Suzhouhasbeencarefultobalanceitsindustrialandagriculturalproduction.
Oneoftheimpactsofmodernisation,industrialisation,andthedevelopmentoftheinformationsectorhasbeenasignificantdecreaseincultivatedlandsthroughoutChina,asalternativeandoftenmorelucrativeformsofemploymentdrawawayworkers.
Between1978and1995,Suzhouitselfhadlostsome88,000hectaresoffarmland(133),inmanycasestootherformsoflanduse.
Inordertomaintainagriculturalprosperityaswellasregionalfoodsecurity,Suzhouofficials'proposedanewconceptbasedonbalancebetweenpopulationgrowthandthegrainsupply,andbetweentheuseofexistingPage14of2314CultureMandala:TheBulletinoftheCentreforEast-WestCulturalandEconomicStudies,Vol.
3,Iss.
2[1999],Art.
8http://epublications.
bond.
edu.
au/cm/vol3/iss2/8landandreclaimingwasteland,amethodtoenabletocitytoachieveself-sufficiencyingrainandnon-staplefood,aswellassustainableeconomicdevelopment.
'(135)By1995,thisprogramresultedintotalgrainoutputofsome2.
66milliontons,withaper-capitayieldof500kg.
(136)WesternersoftenviewChina'scitiesasclassicexamplesoftheproblemscausedbyrapidmodernisation,populationgrowthandincreasedpollution.
Whilethismaybetrueinsomecases,itisnolongertrueofSuzhou.
Amiddle-sizedcity,ithasbeguntoaddresstheseriousenvironmentalproblemswhichfacetheregion,andhaspromotedavisionofmodernisationcombinedwithahighqualityoflife.
Thishasbenefitedfromcertainindigenousadvantages,includinganeducatedandrelativelyprosperouspopulation,acarefulzoningofindustrialdevelopment,andavigorousexporttrade.
Likewise,thesurroundingcountrysideprovidesaplethoraofagriculturalandaquaticresources.
SuzhouremainsoneofChina's'greencities'(137)inthatitisstilllargelyabletofeeditselffromitsadjacentterritories,ratherthanrelyingsolelyonfoodsimportedthroughlongsupplychains.
Itisstillpossibletoseefreshgoods,includingfruitandvegetables,broughtintothecityintheearlymorningbybicycle,withvendorsthensellingthemdirectlyonthestreets.
Ofcourse,awiderangeofsophisticatedprocessedfoodsisavailable,someofthemmanufacturedinnearbyShanghai,othersimportedinternationally.
Continuedimplementationoftheseenvironmental,agriculturalandurbanplanningprogramswillbeneededifthesedevelopmentalproblemsaretobefullyresolved.
Suzhouseemshappyinsupportingitslocal,nationalandinternationalnetworks,side-by-side.
Overall,itisthismixofself-sufficiencyandoutward-directednessthatgivesSuzhouitsresilienceinfacingChina'snextmillennium.
TakenasamodelofregionaldevelopmentineasternChina,Suzhoudemonstratesthatcautiousoptimisminthefuturemustbebasedonsoundresources,aneducatedpopulation,andanabilitytoadapttochangewhileretainingaclearsenseofcontinuitywiththepast.
Footnotes1.
R.
JamesFergusonisAssistantDirectoroftheCentreforEast-WestCulturalandEconomicStudies,andlecturesinInternationalRelationsatBondUniversity.
Hisemailaddressis:james_ferguson@bond.
edu.
au2.
FAN,Tingshuetal.
(eds.
)CulturalGalaxyofSuzhou,Suzhou,GuWuXuanPublishingHouse,1993,p4.
3.
Mapadaptedfromdetail,courtesyofPCLMapLibrary.
4.
Fordetails,see"TheGeneralSurveyofSuzhou",InternetHomepage,athttp://www.
china-window.
com/Suzhou_w/SURVEY/index.
html&FAN,Tingshuetal.
(eds.
)CulturalGalaxyofSuzhou,Suzhou,GuWuXuanPublishingHouse,1993,p2.
5.
FAN,Tingshuetal.
(eds.
)CulturalGalaxyofSuzhou,Suzhou,GuWuXuanPublishingHouse,1993,p4.
6.
Ibid.
,p5.
7.
"TheGeneralSurveyofSuzhou",InternetHomepage,athttp://www.
china-window.
com/Suzhou_w/SURVEY/index.
html8.
Ibid.
9.
Evenby1996,upto40%ofSuzhou'sindustrialenterpriseswereforeign-funded,withMitsubishi,Toyota,Sony,Matsushita,DuPont,Siemens,Philips,Samsung,LotechElectronicsandotherfirmsmakingforeigninvestmentcommitmentsofUS$5.
65billion.
ThismadetheSuzhouareathethirdhighestinsuchinvestmentsinChinaafterShanghaiandGuangzhou,FENG,Jing"WhySuzhouIsMagneticToForeignInvestors",BeijingReview,18-24November1996,Page15of2315Ferguson:SuzhouProducedbyTheBerkeleyElectronicPress,1999p21.
Inrecentyears,thishasalsoincludedconsiderablenewinvestmentfromTaiwan,makingSuzhoutheleaderforsuchinvestmentnationallyin1998,XIAO,Zhang"TaiwanInvestmentBucksTrendtoSupportSuzhouDevelopment",BusinessWeekly,20-26December1998,p5.
10.
AlsodrawingoversomeUS$800millioninoverseasinvestment,HAN,Baocheng"TaihuLakeTouristHolidayResort",BeijingReview,3-9June1996[InternetAccess].
11.
Forausefuloverview,see"Suzhou,China",InternetHomepage,athttp://www.
clientserver.
ucr.
edu/csprog/hp/janec/suzhou.
htm12.
MOSER,LeoJ.
TheChineseMosaic:ThePeoplesandProvincesofChina,Boulder,WestviewPress,1985,p14413.
MOSER,LeoJ.
TheChineseMosaic:ThePeoplesandProvincesofChina,Boulder,WestviewPress,1985,p151;FAN,Tingshuetal.
(eds.
)CulturalGalaxyofSuzhou,Suzhou,GuWuXuanPublishingHouse,1993,p49.
14.
FAN,Tingshuetal.
(eds.
)CulturalGalaxyofSuzhou,Suzhou,GuWuXuanPublishingHouse,1993,p16.
15.
MOSER,LeoJ.
TheChineseMosaic:ThePeoplesandProvincesofChina,Boulder,WestviewPress,1985,p144.
16.
FITZGERALD,C.
P.
China:AShortCulturalHistory,London,CressetPress,1965,pp256-259;MOSER,LeoJ.
TheChineseMosaic:ThePeoplesandProvincesofChina,Boulder,WestviewPress,1985,p144.
17.
FAN,Tingshuetal.
(eds.
)CulturalGalaxyofSuzhou,Suzhou,GuWuXuanPublishingHouse,1993,pp120-121.
18.
Ibid.
,p121.
19.
SeethephotographicexpositionfoundinWU,Wenetal.
Suzhou,Beijing,ForeignLanguagesPress,1998.
20.
FAN,Tingshuetal.
(eds.
)CulturalGalaxyofSuzhou,Suzhou,GuWuXuanPublishingHouse,1993,pp133-134.
21.
Ibid.
,p4.
22.
MOSER,LeoJ.
TheChineseMosaic:ThePeoplesandProvincesofChina,Boulder,WestviewPress,1985,p144.
23.
POLO,MarcoTheTravelsofMarcoPolo,trans.
RonaldLatham,Harmondsworth,Penguin,1972,p212.
Theaccountwasapparentlyputinwritingby'MesserRustichelloofPisa'fromtheverbalstatementsofMarcoPolowhiletheywereinaGenoeseprison,Ibid.
,pp33-34;WOOD,FrancesDidMarcoPoloGoToChina,London,Secker&Warburg,1995,p39.
24.
WOOD,FrancesDidMarcoPoloGoToChina,London,Secker&Warburg,1995,p90.
25.
ForthemoderndebateoverwhetherMarcoPoloeveractuallywenttoChina,andtheviewthathewasrelyingonfamilyrecordsandpossibleArabicsources,seeWOOD,FrancesDidMarcoPoloGoToChina,London,Secker&Warburg,1995,pp140-151.
FrancesWood'sthesisthatMarcoPolodidnotreachChinaisrejectedinHALL,RichardEmpiresoftheMonsoon:AHistoryoftheIndianOceanandItsInvaders,N.
Y.
,HarperCollins,1996,pp43-48.
26.
JOHNSON,LindaCookeShanghai:FromMarketTowntoTreatyPort,1074-1858,Stanford,StanfordUniversityPress,1995,p3027.
MOTE,FrederickW.
"AMillenniumofChineseUrbanHistory:Form,TimeandSpaceConceptsinSoochow",RiceUniversityStudies,59no.
4,Fall1974,p39.
28.
ROZMAN,GilbertUrbanNetworksinCh'ingChinaandTokugawaJapan,Princeton,PrincetonUniversityPress,1973,p130.
29.
JOHNSON,LindaCookeShanghai:FromMarketTowntoTreatyPort,1074-1858,Stanford,StanfordUniversityPress,1995,p164.
30.
Ibid.
,p59.
Page16of2316CultureMandala:TheBulletinoftheCentreforEast-WestCulturalandEconomicStudies,Vol.
3,Iss.
2[1999],Art.
8http://epublications.
bond.
edu.
au/cm/vol3/iss2/831.
ROZMAN,GilbertUrbanNetworksinCh'ingChinaandTokugawaJapan,Princeton,PrincetonUniversityPress,1973,pp130-131.
32.
Ibid.
,p227.
33.
JOHNSON,LindaCookeShanghai:FromMarketTowntoTreatyPort,1074-1858,Stanford,StanfordUniversityPress,1995p158.
34.
ROZMAN,GilbertUrbanNetworksinCh'ingChinaandTokugawaJapan,Princeton,PrincetonUniversityPress,1973,p227.
35.
JOHNSON,LindaCookeShanghai:FromMarketTowntoTreatyPort,1074-1858,Stanford,StanfordUniversityPress,1995,p35.
36.
MA,Xueqiang"SquiresandShanghaiSocietyintheMingandChingDynasties",inZHANG,Zhonglietal.
(eds.
)SASSPapers,Volume7,Shanghai,ShanghaiAcademyofSocialSciences,1998,pp293-294.
37.
JOHNSON,LindaCookeShanghai:FromMarketTowntoTreatyPort,1074-1858,Stanford,StanfordUniversityPress,1995,p42.
38.
Ibid.
,p7.
39.
Ibid.
,pp274-345.
40.
MOTE,FrederickW.
"AMillenniumofChineseUrbanHistory:Form,TimeandSpaceConceptsinSoochow",RiceUniversityStudies,59no.
4,Fall1974,pp39-42.
41.
SEAGRAVE,SterlingDragonLady:TheLifeandLegendoftheLastEmpressofChina,N.
Y.
,VintageBooks,1992,pp109-112.
42.
Ibid.
,p113.
43.
Ibid.
,pp113-114.
44.
Ibid.
,p114.
45.
WILLIAMSEN,Marvin"TheMilitaryDimension,1937-1941",inHSIUNG,JamesC.
&LEVINE,StevenL.
China'sBitterWar:TheWarWithJapan1937-1945,N.
Y.
,Armonk,1992,p144.
ForanassessmentofthegeneralstrengthsandweaknessesoftheChinesemilitaryresponsetotheJapaneseinvasion,seeCH'I,Hsi-sheng"TheMilitaryDimension,1942-1945",inHSIUNG,JamesC.
&LEVINE,StevenL.
China'sBitterWar:TheWarWithJapan1937-1945,N.
Y.
,Armonk,1992,pp157-184.
TheTaiwaneseviewoftheactivityofNationalistarmiesatthattimeprovidesthefollowingbriefaccount:'AportionofenemyforcescrossedKun-chengLaketoattackSoochow.
InconjunctionwithenemyforcesatHu-pu,enemyforcesadvancingfromTai-tsangpressedagainstChan-shuandFu-shan.
Inordertoavoidadecisivebattle,ourforcesmovedtowardWu-hsi-Chiang-yinlineatnightandorderedthe15thand21stArmyGroupstomovetowardAn-chi,Hsiao-feng,Ning-kuoandHsuan-cheng,southwestofTaiLake.
OnNovember25,Wu-hsifell',HSU,Long-hsuen&CHANG,Ming-kai(Compilers)TheHistoryoftheSino-JapaneseWar(1937-1945),Taipei,ChungWuPublishingCo.
,1972,p211.
46.
BARBER,NoelTheFallofShanghai,N.
Y.
,Coward,McCann&Georghegan,1979,pp40-144.
47.
MOSER,LeoJ.
TheChineseMosaic:ThePeoplesandProvincesofChina,Boulder,WestviewPress,1985,p143.
48.
Ibid.
,p144.
49.
Ibid.
,p151.
50.
FAN,Tingshuetal.
(eds.
)CulturalGalaxyofSuzhou,Suzhou,GuWuXuanPublishingHouse,1993,p200.
SeealsoMA,Xueqiang"SquiresandShanghaiSocietyintheMingandChingDynasties",inZHANG,Zhonglietal.
(eds.
)SASSPapers,Volume7,Shanghai,ShanghaiAcademyofSocialSciences,1998,pp290-291,p300.
51.
WIDMER,Ellen"TheHuanduzhaiofHangzhouandSuzhou:AStudyinSeventeenth-CenturyPublishing",HarvardPage17of2317Ferguson:SuzhouProducedbyTheBerkeleyElectronicPress,1999JournalofAsiaticStudies,56no.
1,June1996,p78.
52.
Ibid.
,p114.
53.
Since1992SuzhouUniversityPresshaspublishedover400titlescomprisingatotalofmorethan11millioncopies.
54.
See"SuzhouPapyrusPaperReadies100,000tonCoatedFinePaperMill,"TAPPIJournal,79no.
5,May1996,pp81-85.
55.
FAN,Tingshuetal.
(eds.
)CulturalGalaxyofSuzhou,Suzhou,GuWuXuanPublishingHouse,1993,p171.
56.
Ibid.
,pp165-167,pp172-180.
57.
Ibid.
,p11,pp182-196.
58.
MOTE,FrederickW.
"AMillenniumofChineseUrbanHistory:Form,TimeandSpaceConceptsinSoochow",RiceUniversityStudies,59no.
4,Fall1974,p45.
59.
Ibid.
,p56.
60.
MOTE,FrederickW.
"AMillenniumofChineseUrbanHistory:Form,TimeandSpaceConceptsinSoochow",RiceUniversityStudies,59no.
4,Fall1974,p43;FAN,Tingshuetal(eds.
)CulturalGalaxyofSuzhou,Suzhou,GuWuXuanPublishingHouse,1993,p9.
61.
OthersistercitiesincludeVictoriainCanada,KanazawaandIkadainJapan,andPortlandintheUnitedStates,FAN,Tingshuetal(eds.
)CulturalGalaxyofSuzhou,Suzhou,GuWuXuanPublishingHouse,1993,p6.
62.
Ibid.
,p11.
63.
Ibid.
,pp26-28.
64.
MOSER,LeoJ.
TheChineseMosaic:ThePeoplesandProvincesofChina,Boulder,WestviewPress,1985,p151.
65.
Historically,theremayhavebeenasmanyas271gardensinSuzhou,withsome19officiallyopentothepublic,FAN,Tingshuetal.
(eds.
)CulturalGalaxyofSuzhou,Suzhou,GuWuXuanPublishingHouse,1993,p7.
66.
"HeritageResearch",ChinaDaily,23November,p3.
67.
"StateDevelopingSystemtoProtectSites",ChinaDaily,23November1998,p2.
68.
Forfurtherdescription,seeFAN,Tingshuetal.
(eds.
)CulturalGalaxyofSuzhou,Suzhou,GuWuXuanPublishingHouse,1993,p54.
69.
Ibid.
,p51.
70.
Ibid.
,pp37-38.
71.
Forafurtherdescription,seeIbid.
,p40.
72.
Ibid.
,p140.
73.
Ibid.
74.
LUO,Weihong"TheDevelopmentofReligioninShanghaiintheSituationofReformandOpening:ItsPresentandFuture",inZHANG,Zhonglietal.
(eds.
)SASSPapers7,Shanghai,ThePublishingHouseoftheShanghaiAcademyofSocialSciences,1998,p426.
75.
Ibid.
,pp428-429,p438.
Page18of2318CultureMandala:TheBulletinoftheCentreforEast-WestCulturalandEconomicStudies,Vol.
3,Iss.
2[1999],Art.
8http://epublications.
bond.
edu.
au/cm/vol3/iss2/876.
LUO,Weihong"TheDevelopmentofReligioninShanghaiintheSituationofReformandOpening:ItsPresentandFuture",inZHANG,Zhonglietal.
(eds.
)SASSPapers7,Shanghai,ThePublishingHouseoftheShanghaiAcademyofSocialSciences,1998,pp439-440.
Some13,000ChristianchurcheshaveopenedthroughoutChinasince1979,"ReligiousFreedomGuaranteed",ShanghaiStar,11December1998,p7.
77.
ZHU,Linyong"'Paradise'SuzhouGettingaFacelift",ChinaDaily,10December1998,p9.
78.
AlsocalledtheLastingSpringMansion,completedin1925butusingtheepitomeofearlierwoodandstonecraftsmanship,FAN,Tingshuetal.
(eds.
)CulturalGalaxyofSuzhou,Suzhou,GuWuXuanPublishingHouse,1993,p40,p83.
79.
SUN,Yifei"WuxiTaihuLakeTVandFilmTour",TravelChina,10no.
17,29April1998,p9.
80.
HampdenC.
duBose,inMOTE,FrederickW.
"AMillenniumofChineseUrbanHistory:Form,TimeandSpaceConceptsinSoochow",RiceUniversityStudies,59no.
4,Fall1974,p45.
81.
MOTE,FrederickW.
"AMillenniumofChineseUrbanHistory:Form,TimeandSpaceConceptsinSoochow",RiceUniversityStudies,59no.
4,Fall1974,p49.
82.
FAN,Tingshuetal.
(eds.
)CulturalGalaxyofSuzhou,Suzhou,GuWuXuanPublishingHouse,1993,p153.
83.
MOTE,FrederickW.
"AMillenniumofChineseUrbanHistory:Form,TimeandSpaceConceptsinSoochow",RiceUniversityStudies,59no.
4,Fall1974,p50.
84.
Ibid.
,p51.
85.
FAN,Tingshuetal.
(eds.
)CulturalGalaxyofSuzhou,Suzhou,GuWuXuanPublishingHouse,1993,p13.
86.
Ibid.
,pp69-98.
87.
MOTE,FrederickW.
"AMillenniumofChineseUrbanHistory:Form,TimeandSpaceConceptsinSoochow",RiceUniversityStudies,59no.
4,Fall1974,p53.
88.
Ibid.
,p53.
89.
FAN,Tingshuetal.
(eds.
)CulturalGalaxyofSuzhou,Suzhou,GuWuXuanPublishingHouse,1993,p3.
90.
MOTE,FrederickW.
"AMillenniumofChineseUrbanHistory:Form,TimeandSpaceConceptsinSoochow",RiceUniversityStudies,59no.
4,Fall1974,p55.
91.
ForacriticalviewonthelegalandethicalimplicationsoftheInternetinChina,seeWANG,Dehua"TheLawinCyberspaceandItsEffectonEthics",inZHANG,Zhonglietal.
(eds.
)SASSPapers7,Shanghai,ThePublishingHouseoftheShanghaiAcademyofSocialSciences,1998,pp200-212.
92.
JOHNSON,LindaCookeShanghai:FromMarketTowntoTreatyPort,1074-1858,Stanford,StanfordUniversityPress,1995,p9.
93.
SeeChaudhuri,K.
N.
AsiaBeforeEurope:EconomyandCivilisationoftheIndianOceanfromtheRiseofIslamto1750,NewYork,CambridgeUniversityPress,1990;FRANCK,IreneM.
&BROWNSTONE,DavidM.
TheSilkRoad:AHistory,N.
Y.
,FactsonFile,1986.
94.
JOHNSON,LindaCookeShanghai:FromMarketTowntoTreatyPort,1074-1858,Stanford,StanfordUniversityPress,1995,p13.
95.
Ibid.
,p58.
96.
Ibid.
,p229.
97.
MOTE,FrederickW.
"AMillenniumofChineseUrbanHistory:Form,TimeandSpaceConceptsinSoochow",RiceUniversityStudies,59no.
4,Fall1974,p55.
Page19of2319Ferguson:SuzhouProducedbyTheBerkeleyElectronicPress,199998.
Fordetails,see"TheGeneralSurveyofSuzhou",InternetHomepage,athttp://www.
china-window.
com/Suzhou_w/SURVEY/index.
html&FAN,Tingshuetal.
(eds.
)CulturalGalaxyofSuzhou,Suzhou,GuWuXuanPublishingHouse,1993,p5.
99.
FAN,Tingshuetal.
(eds.
)CulturalGalaxyofSuzhou,Suzhou,GuWuXuanPublishingHouse,1993,p12.
100.
Ibid.
,pp5-6.
101.
HAN,Guojian"Suzhou:AnAncientCityWithAModernOutlook",BeijingReview,15-21January1996,p24.
102.
Ibid.
103.
"OverseasInput",ShanghaiStar,11December1998,p10.
104.
Ibid.
105.
LOH,HuiYin"Singapore'ToFinishOnlyPortionofSuzhouPark'",TheStraitsTimesInteractive,10June1999[InternetAccess];"TheTroubleWithSingapore'sClone",3January1998[InternetAccessviaInfotracSearchBank].
106.
ZHANG,Dingmin"Investors'FaithUnshaken",ChinaDaily,17May1999[InternetAccess];LI,Rongxia"NewReportsfromSuzhouIndustrialPark",BeijingReview,30June-6July1997,pp15-16:"AutoPartfirmSetUpinSuzhou",ChinaDaily,15June1999[InternetAccess].
107.
"ChinaPraisesSuzhouPark",TheStraitsTimes,23October1998,p3.
108.
"SuzhouPark'CanUseMoreSupport",TheStraitsTimes,22October1998,p14.
109.
KOH,KokKiang"SingaporeLeadsASEANinTradewithChina",TheStraitsTimes,22October1998,p14.
110.
Ibid.
111.
Ibid.
112.
LOH,HuiYin"Singapore'ToFinishOnlyPortionofSuzhouPark'",TheStraitsTimesInteractive,10June1999[InternetAccess].
113.
Ibid.
114.
ZHANG,Dingmin"SuzhouZoneFostersHigh-techFirms",BusinessWeekly,13-19December1998,p5.
115.
FENG,Jing"WhySuzhouIsMagneticToForeignInvestors",BeijingReview,18-24November1996,p22.
116.
Ibid.
117.
ZHANG,Dingmin"SuzhouZoneFostersHigh-techFirms",BusinessWeekly,13-19December1998,p5.
118.
LI,Rongxia"SuzhouPursuesGrainSelf-Sufficiency",BeijingReview,7-13October1996,p13.
119.
Suzhouscientistsandagro-technicianshavedevelopednewstrainsofwheat,cotton,pigsandsilk-worms,LI,Rongxia"SuzhouPursuesGrainSelf-Sufficiency",BeijingReview,7-13October1996,p15.
120.
ThishasbeenfundedbydirectinvestmentfromtheCityadministrationof3.
31billionyuanfor1990-1995andsome10.
75billionyuaninagriculturalloansfor1991-1995fromagriculturalbanksandcreditcooperatives,LI,Rongxia"SuzhouPursuesGrainSelf-Sufficiency",BeijingReview,7-13October1996,pp13-14.
121.
Jiangsuprovince,forexample,has756townshipenterpriseswithexportlicenses,whichhandledsomeUS$3.
84billionworthofexportsduringthefirstfourmonthsof1999,while22%ofthetotalvolumeofSuzhou'sexportsectorwasbasedonlocaltownshipenterprises,"ExportsontheRiseinTownships",ChinaDaily,14June1999[InternetAccess].
SuzhouhasalsodevelopedmajorprojectswithTaiwaneseinvestorsintheneighbouringcityofQunshanandinthePage20of2320CultureMandala:TheBulletinoftheCentreforEast-WestCulturalandEconomicStudies,Vol.
3,Iss.
2[1999],Art.
8http://epublications.
bond.
edu.
au/cm/vol3/iss2/8WujiangEconomicDevelopmentZone,mainlyfocusingoninformationtechnologyexports,XIAO,Zhang"TaiwanInvestmentBucksTrendtoSupportSuzhouDevelopment",BusinessWeekly,20-26December1998,p5.
122.
Foralisting,plusasampleoffamousSuzhouliteratiandmoderntalents,see"TheGeneralSurveyofSuzhou",InternetHomepage,athttp://www.
china-window.
com/Suzhou_w/SURVEY/index.
html123.
SuzhouMedicalSchool,withitsfamousexpertiseindermatologicalscience,hasrecentlyenteredintoamajordealwithL'OrealBeautyProductsinajointUS$31milliondealtoproduceamajorlineofbeautyproducts,"BeautyProductsJoint-VentureOperationalinSuzhou",XinhuaNewsAgency,12May1999[InternetAccessviaInfotracSearchBank].
124.
Seefurtherdetailsin"ABriefIntroductiontoSoochowUniversity",throughSudaHomepage,athttp://www.
suda.
edu.
cn/yxsz/sdgke.
htm125.
Ibid.
126.
SeefurtherDAY,Annabel"China'sGangofNine:AReminiscencewithProfessorWangGuofu",anarticleinthisvolumeoftheCultureMandala.
127.
ZHU,Linyong"'Paradise'SuzhouGettingaFacelift",ChinaDaily,10December1998,p9.
128.
Ibid.
129.
Ibid.
130.
ZHANG,Dingmin"Investors'FaithUnshaken",ChinaDaily,17May1999[InternetAccess].
131.
LI,Rongxia"TaihuLakePollution-ControlProjectUnderway",BeijingReview,22-28March1999,pp13-15.
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LI,Rongxia"SuzhouPursuesGrainSelf-Sufficiency",BeijingReview,7-13October1996,p13.
135.
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136.
Ibid.
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