widespreadwww

Publicperceptionsofwhite-collarcrimeandpunishmentKristyHoltfreter,ShannaVanSlyke,JasonBratton,MarcGertzCollegeofCriminologyandCriminalJustice,FloridaStateUniversity,634WestCallStreet,Tallahassee,FL32306-1127,UnitedStatesAbstractAlthoughfinanciallossesfromwhite-collarcrimecontinuetoexceedthoseofstreetcrime,thecriminaljusticesystemhastraditionallyfocusedonthelatter.
Pastresearchsuggestedthatcitizensaremorelikelytosupportpunitivesanctionsforstreetoffendersthanwhite-collaroffenders.
Recentcorporatescandalshaveincreasedpublicawarenessofwhite-collarcrime,butwhetherpublicattitudeshavebeenalteredremainstobedetermined.
Usinga2005nationalsampleof402telephonesurveyparticipants,thecurrentstudyexaminedcitizenperceptionsofwhite-collarandstreetcrime,aswellasattitudesregardingapprehensionandpunishment.
Thisresearchextendedpriorstudiesbyalsoconsideringtheinfluenceofsociodemographiccharacteristicsaswellasperceptionsofwhite-collarcrimeandpunishmentonthepublic'ssupportforincreasingresourceallocation.
Implicationsforfutureresearchanddevelopmentofmoreeffectivewhite-collarcrimecontrolpolicyarediscussed.
2008ElsevierLtd.
Allrightsreserved.
IntroductionRecentstatisticsindicatethatoffensescollectivelyreferredtoas"white-collarcrime"resultinannuallossestovictimsinexcessof$250billion,comparedtoestimatesof$17.
6billionforlossesaccruedduetopersonalandhouseholdcrimes(Rosoff,Pontell,&Tillman,2004,p.
27).
Althoughthesedifferenceshavepersistedoverseveraldecades,thefocusofcriminaljusticeauthoritiesandmanycriminologistshasbeenonexplaining,preventing,andrespondingtopersonalandhouseholdcrimes.
Recentevidenceindicatesthatwhite-collarcrimeremainsa"lowpriority"comparedtoviolentcrimeandthreatstonationalsecurity,suchasterrorism(UnitedStatesDepartmentofJustice,2005).
Criticshavenotedthatpublicperceptionandperceivedriskofviolentvictimizationinthestreetshasdisproportionatelyfueledtheattentionofresearchersandcriminaljusticeagencies(Cullen,Clark,Mathers,&Cullen,1983;Cullen,Link,&Polanzi,1982;Friedrichs,2007;Holtfreter,2005;Sutherland,1940;Vaughan,1980).
Historically,acommonlyheldviewisthattheAmericanpublicperceiveswhite-collarcrimetoberelativelyharmlesscomparedtoviolentcrime.
Oneconsequenceassociatedwithcitizenperceivedriskofvictimizationispunitiveattitudesandsupportforharshersanctions(Ouimet&Coyle,1991;Sims,2003;Sprott&Doob,1997).
Althoughtherehasbeenaconsiderableamountofresearchonthepublic'sattitudestowardviolentcrime,littleisknownaboutcurrentAmericanperceptionsofwhite-collarcrime.
Recent,well-publicizedscandalsinmajorcorporations,suchasEnronandWorldCom,haveraisedpublicawarenessoftheeconomic,societal,andpersonalharmresultingfrom"crimeinthesuites"(Holtfreter,VanSlyke,&Blomberg,2005;Krantz,2003;O'Donnell&Willing,2003).
Arecentpublicopinionpollfoundthatover75percentofthosesurveyedbelievedex-WorldComCEOBernardEbbers'twenty-fiveyearsentenceforhisroleinthisextensivecorporatefraudwasfairornotharshenough(WallStreetJournalOpinionPoll,2005).
Whatremainstobedeterminediswhetherpublicperceptionofwhite-collarcrimehaschanged,andtheextenttowhichthisperceptiontranslatesintosupportforharsherpunishments.
Priorresearchquestionedwhetherconcordancebetweenpublicopinionandpunishmentoutcomesisindeeddesirable(Rossi&Berk,1985),andreportedthatitwasinfactgenerallythecase(Rossi&Berk,1997).
Resolvingthatlarger,philosophicaldebatewasbeyondthescopeofthepresentresearch.
Recentpublicopinionresearchhasprovidedinsightintowhite-collarcrimepolicyatthestatelevel(Holtfreter,Reisig,&Blomberg,2006).
Theunderstandingofcurrentpublicopinionatthenationallevel,particularlywhetherpopulousviewsofcrimeandpunishmenttranslateintosupportforAvailableonlineatwww.
sciencedirect.
comJournalofCriminalJustice36(2008)50–60Correspondingauthor.
Tel.
:+18506444299;fax:+18506449614.
E-mailaddress:kholtfre@fsu.
edu(K.
Holtfreter).
0047-2352/$-seefrontmatter2008ElsevierLtd.
Allrightsreserved.
doi:10.
1016/j.
jcrimjus.
2007.
12.
006governmentalresourceallocation,representsanimportant,albeitunderstudiedareaofresearchthatcanassistpolicymakers.
Usingdatafroma2005nationaltelephonesurveyof402adults,thisstudyexaminedpublicperceptionregardingwhite-collarandstreetcrime.
Theanalysesaddressedthefollowingquestions:(1)Whatistheextentofperceivedvictimizationriskforwhite-collarandviolentcrime(2)Wheredoespublicopinionliewithregardtothepunishmentofwhite-collarandstreetoffenders,andisthereadifferencebetweenperceivedsanctionsandnormativesanctions(3)Shouldthefederalgovernmentdevoteequaloradditionalresourcestowardcontrolandpreventionofwhite-collarcrimeIndoingso,thecurrentstudymovedbeyondbasicidentificationofcrimeandpunish-mentcorrelatestoalsoconsidertheinfluenceofpublicopinionongovernmentalresourceallocationasaspecificaspectofpunishmentpolicy.
First,thisarticleprovidesanoverviewofthefederalgovernment'srecentandpastexpendituresforwhite-collarandviolentcrime.
Thearticlecontinueswithareviewoftheextantpublicopinionliteratureonwhite-collarcrime,andthenproceedstoadescriptionofthedataandmethodology,followedbypresentationandinterpretationoftheunivariate,bivariate,andmultivariateresults.
Inconclusion,theimplicationsofthefindingsarediscussedinlightofpreviousresearchandwithregardtocurrentpunishmentandcrimecontrolpolicy.
FederalcrimecontrolexpendituresPriorresearchdocumentedacommonsentimentthatfederalexpendituresforwhite-collarcrimeare,atbest,insufficient,especiallyinlightofpublicopiniononwhite-collarcrimeseriousness(Carlson&Williams,1993;Cullenetal.
,1982;Grabowsky,Braithwaite,&Wilson,1987;Grindstaff,1974;Levi,1987;Miller,Rossi,&Simpson,1991;Newman,1957;Rebovich&Jiandani,2000;Rebovich&Kane,2002;Retting&Pasamanick,1959;Rossi,Simpson,&Miller,1985;Walker,1978).
Additionally,therateoffederalwhite-collarcrimeprosecutionshasdeclinedconsiderablysincetheClintonadministration,whichsomehavearguedsuggeststhatthecurrentBushadministrationhasfallenshortincurbingcorporateabuses(McClean&Elkind,2003;TransactionalRecordsAccessClearinghouse,2006).
Limiteddataonprecisefederalbudgetallocationswereavailable,whichmadeitdifficulttocomparewhite-collarcrimeresourceallocationtostreetcrime(CenterforCorporatePolicy,2005;Rebovich&Jiandani,2000).
Forexample,theDepart-mentofJusticefiscalyear2006budgetrequestdidnotspecificallymention"white-collarcrime"(UnitedStatesDepartmentofJustice,2005).
JusticeDepartmentprioritiesfor2006wererankedasfollows:preventterrorismandpromotethenation'ssecurity;enforcefederallawsandrepresenttherightsandinterestsoftheAmericanpeople;assiststate,local,andtribaleffortstopreventorreducecrimeandviolencerelatedtodrugs,terrorism,DNAtechnology,andhomelandsecurity;andensurethefairandefficientoperationofthefederaljusticesystem(UnitedStatesDepartmentofJustice,2005).
TheWhiteHouse2006federalbudgetrequesttoCongressincludedtheprosecutionofcorporatefraud(andothercriminalandcivillegalactivities)asoneofitsfivemajorprograms(UnitedStatesDepartmentofJustice,2005).
Thisrequestproposedanallocationof$1.
6millionfortheUnitedStatesAttorney,butfailedtostipulatewhichcrimestheseresourcesshouldbedirectedtoward(CenterforCorporatePolicy,2005).
Thelackofresourcestoinvestigateandprosecutewhite-collarcrimehasalsobeenaconcernofpractitionersatthestateandfederallevels(Calavita,Pontell,&Tillman,1997).
Levi(1987)arguedthatthislackofresourcesresultsfromfourfactors:theamountoftimeittakestoclearafraudcase,thehistoricaltendencyforpolicetofightstreetcrime,perceivedlackofpublicconcernoverwhite-collarcrime,andthelackofstrongpublicobjectionstotherelativedearthofresourcesallottedtowhite-collarcrime.
Therelevanceofthelattertwofactorsisexploredinmoredetailbelow.
Publicopinionresearchonwhite-collarcrimeAlthoughasignificantamountofliteraturehasaddressedpublicperceptionsofstreetcrimes,studiesexaminingpublicviewsofwhite-collarcrimehavebeenrelativelyscant.
Onefocushasbeenonwhetherperceivedriskofvictimizationinfluencespublicattitudes(Cavendar&Mulcahy,1998;Cullenetal.
,1982;Rebovich&Kane,2002).
Thereissufficientdocumentationthatperceivedriskinfluencespublicopinion(Rebovich&Kane,2002).
Recentstudiesfoundthatgeneralperceivedvictimizationrisk(e.
g.
,notspecifictowhite-collaroffenses)significantlyincreasespunitiveattitudes.
Forexam-ple,fearofvictimizationwasastrongpredictorofpunitiveorientationsinAmericanandforeignsamples(Costello,Chiricos,Burianek,Gertz,&Maier-Katkin,2002).
Thisstudyalsodemonstratedthatperceivedriskofvictimizationconsis-tentlypredictedpublicsupportformorepunitivesanctions.
Researchfocusedmorepreciselyonwhite-collarcrimecomparedpublicviewstostreetcrime(Rebovich&Jiandani,2000;Rebovich&Kane,2002).
Contrarytoearlierstudies,morerecentresearchhassuggestedthatAmericansnotonlyperceivewhite-collarcrimetobeserious,butinsomecases,evenmoreseriousthanstreetcrime(Rebovich&Kane,2002).
Thepublicalsodesiresequallyharshpunishmentsforwhite-collarandstreetoffenders,equalamountsofthecrimecontrolbudgettobedevotedtobothtypesofcrime,butstillexpectscommonoffenderstobesentencedmoreharshly.
Thesamenationalstudydemonstratedthatfeelingsofsafetyfromwhite-collarcrimevictimizationwereasignificantpredictorofpunishmentseverity(Rebovich&Kane,2002).
Subsequentoutcomesoftheseviews,particularlythoseaddressingimplicationsforcrimecontrolpolicy(e.
g.
,supportforincreasedgovernmentalresourceallocation)havenotbeenconsideredatthenationallevel.
Incontrast,priorresearchhasnotrevealedasignificantinfluenceofperceivedvictimizationriskonpunitiveattitudes,orthattheeffectvariedbysampledemographiccharacteristics.
Forexample,onestudy(Cullen,Clark,Cullen,&Mathers,1985)foundnoeffectofperceivedvictimizationriskonsupportforpunitiveresponsestooffenders.
Similarly,additional51K.
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/JournalofCriminalJustice36(2008)50–60researchfoundthatafearofcrimemeasurewasonlysignificantundercertaincircumstances(Cohn,Barkan,&Halteman,1991).
Anotherstudycomparingpublicopinionondifferenttypesofcrimerevealedgreaterperceivedriskofwhite-collarcrimevictimizationthanstreetcrime,naturalhazard,andnuisancecrimevictimization(Meier&Short,1985).
Ontheotherhand,offensesthatcausedgreaterpersonalinjuryorpropertydamagewereperceivedtobethemostserious.
Insum,thereappearstobemoderatelystrongconsensusamongresearchfindingsthatperceivedvictimizationriskisanimportantdeterminantofpunitivepublicattitudestowardcrimeandcriminals.
Thereisclearlysomeevidencethattheinfluenceofperceivedvictimizationriskonbothpunitiveattitudesandsupportforincreasedgovernmentalresourceallocationmayalsovarybysamplecharacteristics.
Whosupportspunishmentforwhite-collaroffendersAlargebodyofresearchhasshownthatpunishmentorientationsvarybydemographicandbackgroundcharacter-istics.
Thediversesetofcharacteristicsconsideredinpaststudiesincludedgender,race,age,education,income,maritalstatus,politicalideology,andreligion.
Manyofthesevariableshavebeenlinkedtocrimeseriousnessratingsandjudgmentsofappropriatesentences,butthestrengthanddirectionoftherelationshipshasvaried.
Forexample,somestudieshadfoundthatmenweremorelikelytosupportpunitivesanctions(Cullen,Clark,&Wozniak,1985;Keil&Vito,1991),whileothersconcludedthatwomenweremorepunitive(Cohnetal.
,1991;Milleretal.
,1991;Rossi,Waite,Bose,&Berk,1974),andstillothersfoundnogendereffect(Costelloetal.
,2002;Rebovich&Jiandani,2000;Rebovich&Kane,2002).
Someresearchhassuggestedthatthisrelationshipdependsonthetypeofcrime(Blumstein&Cohen,1980;Grabowskyetal.
,1987;Herzog,2003;O'Connell&Whelan,1996;Walker,1978),andotherstudiesidentifiedinteractiveeffects(Blumstein&Cohen,1980;Miethe,1984;Miller,Rossi,&Simpson,1986;Walker,1978).
Thecurrentstudy'sreviewofresearchexaminingtheeffectofperceivedvictimizationriskonpunitiveorientationsidentifiedage,gender,race,education,income,politicalideology,religion,communityfactors,andmaritalstatusmaybeimportantfactorsinunderstandingtheexactnatureoftheassociation.
Withrespecttoage,thebulkoftheevidencesuggestedthatageispositivelyandsignificantlyrelatedtobothperceivedvictimizationriskandpunitiveorientations(Cohnetal.
,1991;Costelloetal.
,2002;Keil&Vito,1991;Sprott&Doob,1997).
Onestudyalsofoundthat,amongthosewithmoreeducation,youngeragewassignificantlyassociatedwithpunitiveorientationsamongAmericans(Costelloetal.
,2002).
Inaddition,researchdemonstratedthatolderBlacksweresignificantlymorelikelytosupportpunitivemeasures(Cohnetal.
,1991).
Thefindingswerealsosomewhatmixedforgender,race,andincome,withaslightmajorityofstudiesconcludingthattheattitudesofWhitemalestendtobemorepunitive(Cohnetal.
,1991;Cullen,Clark,Cullen,etal.
,1985;Keil&Vito,1991;Rossietal.
,1985).
Thestudieshavebeenequallydividedwithrespecttoincome,findingthathigherincomerespondentsaregenerallymoresupportiveofpunish-ment(Keil&Vito,1991),whilethosewithlowerincomesjudgewhite-collarcrimemoreharshly(Rebovich&Jiandani,2000;Rebovich&Kane,2002).
Thereislessdisagreementregardingtheremainingvariables.
Forexample,marriedconservativesfromsmallercommunitieswithlessreligiousinvolvementappeartoholdmorepunitiveviewstowardcrime(Costelloetal.
,2002).
Thecontradictoryfindingsrevealedintheliteratureunder-scorestheneedforfurtherexploratoryresearch.
Withfewexceptions,mostexistingpublicopinionresearchonwhite-collarcrimeandpunishmentorientationhassufferedfromoneoftwoweaknesses:itwaslimitedtoaregionalsample,oritfailedtoadequatelyaddressthepolicyimplicationsstemmingfrompublicopinion.
Verylittleresearchhasspecificallyfocusedontherelationshipbetweenperceivedvictimizationriskandattitudeswithinthecontextofwhite-collarcrime.
Asaresult,priorfindingshavesomewhatlimitedgeneralizablilitytotheUnitedStatespopulationasawhole.
Giventhecurrentpolicycontextandwidespreadmediacoverageofwhite-collarcrimescandals,itisimportanttogaugepublicopinionatthenationallevel.
ThisstudyaddressedgapsintheresearchliteraturebyexaminingAmericans'perceivedrisksofwhite-collarandviolentcrimevictimization,aswellastheirattitudestowardpunishment,inanationalsample.
Inaddition,citizens'viewsregardingcurrentjusticesystemhandlingofwhite-collaroffenders,andwhetherpublicopinioncoincidedwithnormativeviews,wereexamined.
Respondentswerealsoqueriedabouttheirsupportforincreasinggovernmentalresourcestocombatwhite-collarcrime.
Thisisanimportantresearchextension,giventhatpolicymakersoftenjustifyincreasingexpendituresbasedonpublicopinion.
Byexploringtheseissues,thisstudycontributedtotheliteratureonpunishmentperceptions,andalsoprovidesdirectionforpolicymakersinthedevelopmentofcrimecontrolstrategiesforwhite-collaroffenders.
MethodsSurveyandsamplecharacteristicsDataforthisstudycamefromanationaltelephonestudy.
Thesurveyinstrumentwasdevelopedbasedonpriorliterature.
1Thefirstportionofthesurveyfocusedonrespondents'perceptionsofthecriminaljusticesystem'sactualresponsetowhite-collarandstreetcrime,theirnormativeattitudestowardpunishment,andsupportforgovernmentalresourceallocation.
Thesecondportionofthesurveysolicitedinformationonrespondents'demographics.
Overatwo-monthspanbeginninginMarchof2005,402randomlyselectedhouseholdsnation-widewereinterviewedbytrainedvolunteersusingdonatedspaceatacommercialsurveyingcompany.
Respondentswerelimitedtoadultsovertheageofeighteen.
Onlyonememberofeachhouseholdwasinterviewed.
Typically,itwasthefirstpersonwhoansweredthephone;ifajuvenileanswered,thecalleraskedforanadulttocontinuetointerview.
TheRandomDigitDialing(RDD)samplewasdrawnusingatwo-stage52K.
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/JournalofCriminalJustice36(2008)50–60modifiedMitofsky-Waksbergmethod.
2Afive-callbackrulewasutilizedbeforereplacement.
Theresponseratewas57percent,with98percentofthosebeginningthesurveycompletingit.
Basedonrecentresearch,thisresponseratewasaboveaverage(Kaplowitz,Haddock,&Levine,2004).
Thecompletionrateforthosebeginningthesurveywassubstantiallyhigherthanthe60percentaveragefornationaltelephoneinterviews(Weisberg,Krosnick,&Bowen,1996).
Theracialdistributionofthesamplewas82.
6percentCaucasian,8.
2percentAfrican-American,4.
7percentHispanic,3.
2percentotherrace,.
7percentAsian,and.
5percentNativeAmerican.
Forthisanalysis,racewasdichotomized(i.
e.
,0=non-minorityand1=minority).
3Theaverageageofrespon-dentswasapproximatelyforty-eight,withagesrangingfromeighteentoninety-two.
Thegenderdistributionwas54percentfemaleand46percentmale.
Comparedtothe2000UnitedStatescensus,thissampleslightlyoverrepresentedfemalesandtheelderly,whileslightlyunderrepresentingminorities.
4Thisslightresponsebiaswasnotunusualfortelephonesurveyresearch(Lavarkas,1987;Weisbergetal.
,1996).
VariablesDependentvariablesVariationintwosetsofoutcomeswasexamined:punishmentorientationforwhite-collarandstreetcrime,andsupportforgovernmentalresourceallocation.
Followingpreviousresearch,thecurrentstudyemployedoffense-baseddefinitionsofwhite-collarcrimeandstreetcrime.
5Tomeasureperceptionsofcriminaljusticesystempracticesregardingwhite-collarandstreetoffenders,twoitemswereused.
Respondentswereasked"Whodoyouthinkismorelikelytobecaughtbytheauthorities,someonewhocommitsastreetcrimelikerobberyandsteals$1,000,orsomeonewhocommitsawhite-collarcrimelikefraudandsteals$1,000"6Inreferencetotheaforementionedhypotheticalscenario,respondentswerethenaskedabouttheirperceptionsofapprehension,"Iftheyarebothcaughtandconvicted,whodoyouthinkwilllikelyreceivethemoreseverepunishment,thepersonwhocommitsthefraud,thepersonwhocommitstherobbery,oranequallikelihoodofapprehension"Incomparison,normativeperceptionswereexaminedbyasking:"Whodoyouthinkshouldbepunishedmoreseverely,thepersonwhocommitstherobbery,thepersonwhocommitsthefraud,ortheyshouldreceiveequalpunish-ment"Thefinaldependentvariable,supportforresourceallocation,wasmeasuredwiththefollowingquestion:"Doyoubelievethegovernmentshoulddevotemoreresourcestocombatingstreetcrimeslikerobbery,white-collarcrimeslikefraud,oranequalamountofresourcesforwhite-collarandstreetcrimes"Foralldependentvariables,theresponses"white-collaroffender"and"equal"werecombinedforacomparisonofrespondentswhofeltwhite-collarcrimewasequallyormoreseriousthanstreetcrime.
IndependentvariablesPunitiveorientationandsupportforenforcementresourceallocationweremeasuredacrossasetofeightsociodemo-graphicvariables,andacrosstwosupplementaryvariables:perceivedriskofvictimizationforwhite-collarcrimeandstreetcrime.
Foreaseofcomparison,theinitialanalysespresentalloftheindependentvariablesasdichotomies.
Themajorityofthecomparisonsareondemographiccharacteristicsregularlyidentifiedinpriorresearchonpublicperceptionsofwhite-collarandstreetcrime(e.
g.
,seeRebovich&Kane,2002).
Attitudesandsupportlevelswerecomparedforhighandlowperceivedvictimizationbywhite-collarcrime,highandlowperceivedvictimizationbystreetcrime,menandwomen,minoritiesandnon-minorities,higherandlowerincomeearners(morethan$50,000=higher),collegegraduatesandnon-graduates,maritalstatus(1=married),theelderly(agesixtyandabove)andnon-elderly,urbanandruraldwellers,homeownersandrenters,thereligiousandnonreligious,andpoliticalideology(1=moderateorconservative).
Additionally,twosupplementaryvariableswereincluded.
Perceivedriskofwhite-collarcrimevictimizationwasassessedwithoneitemaskingrespondentstorateonafour-itemscale(4=veryunsafeand1=verysafe)howsafetheyfeltfrombeingvictimizedby"awhite-collarcrimelikefraud.
"Perceivedriskofviolentcrimevictimizationwasassessedwiththesameitem,referringinsteadtovictimizationby"aviolentcrimelikerobbery.
"Forbothformsofperceivedvictimizationrisk,responsesof"verysafeandsomewhatsafe"werecombinedinto"lowrisk,"and"somewhatunsafeandveryunsafe"weresummedtocreatethecategory"highrisk.
"VariablecodinganddistributionsforallofthevariablesofinterestareprovidedinTable1.
AnalysisandresultsAsTable1shows,themajorityofparticipants(62.
9percent)feltthatviolentoffendersweremorelikelytobeapprehendedandmorelikelytoreceiveharsherpunishment(66.
4percent).
Additionally,perceptionsofnormativejusticeweresimilartoperceptionsofactualjustice,inthat65.
4percentofthesamplefeltviolentoffendersshouldreceiveharsherpunishments.
Intermsofsupportforenforcementresources,publicopiniondidnotnecessarilyreflectperceptionsofactualandnormativejustice.
Nearlytwo-thirdsofthesample(60.
9percent)feltthatthefederalgovernmentshoulddevoteequalormoreresourcestoenforcingandpreventingwhite-collarcrime.
AsTable2demonstrates,perceptionsvariedacrosscategoriesoftheindependentvariables.
BivariateresultsThesecondstepintheanalysisbeganbyexaminingthebivariateassociationsbetweenthevariablesusedinthemultivariateanalyses.
Inaseriesofsimplecross-tabulations,chi-squaretestswereusedtoidentifywhetherdifferencesexistedbetweeneachindependentvariablegroupinginthedistributionofthedependentvariables.
Thechi-squaretestallowedforassessmentdifferencesintheobservedandexpectedfrequencydistributions.
Someinterestingpatternsemerged,withonlythosefindingsachievingstatisticalsignificancereportedinTable2.
53K.
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/JournalofCriminalJustice36(2008)50–60Femalerespondentsweresignificantlymorelikelytoperceivewhite-collaroffendersashavinganequalorgreaterchanceofbeingcaught(χ2=7.
91;1df),aswellasreceivingharsherpunishmentifcaughtandconvicted(χ2=4.
60;1df).
Itshouldbenotedthatthemagnitudeoftheseassociationswasfairlyweak(Φ=.
14andΦ=.
11,respectively).
Therewerenogenderdifferencesinperceptionsofnormativesanctions.
Regardingenforcementresources,femalesweresignificantlylesslikelytosupportequalorgreaterallocationoffundingforwhite-collarcrime(χ2=6.
32;1df),butthestrengthofthisrelationshipwasalsoweak(Φ=.
14).
Theresultsrevealedsimilartrendsintheperceptionsofrespondentswithhouseholdincomesover$50,000andthosewithcollegedegrees.
Thosewithincomesover$50,000weresignificantlylesslikelytoperceivewhite-collaroffendersgettingcaughtorgettingpunished.
Thedirectionoftheserelationshipsranparallelforcollege-educatedrespondents.
Asignificantlylowerpercentageofthisgroupexpressedtheviewthatwhite-collaroffenderswouldgetcaughtorpunished.
Therewerenosignificantdifferencesbyincomeoreducationinperceptionsofnormativesanctionsorinsupportforenforcementresources.
Putdifferently,thosewithhigherincomesandthosewithcollegedegreesbelievedthatthecriminaljusticesystemfallsshortinapprehendingandsanctioningwhite-collaroffenders.
Significantdifferencesinperceptionsbetweengroupswereuncoveredforseveralremainingsociodemographicandsupple-mentaryvariables.
Thosewhodescribedthemselvesasmoderateorconservativepoliticallyweresignificantlymorelikelythantheirliberalcounterpartstofeelthatwhite-collaroffendershadanequalorgreaterchanceofpunishment(χ2=3.
86;1df),butthestrengthofthisrelationshipwassomewhatweak(Φ=.
09).
Additionally,respondentswholivedinurbanareasweresignificantlylesslikelytoexpressnormativeviewsregardingsanctioningofwhite-collaroffenders(χ2=5.
21;1df),andthestrengthoftheassociationbetweenthesevariableswasweak(Φ=.
11).
Comparedtorenters,asignificantlygreaterpercentageofhomeownersfeltwhite-collaroffendersshouldbesanctionedequallytoorharsherthanviolentoffenders(χ2=7.
27;1df),andthestrengthofthisrelationshipwasweak(Φ=.
13).
Thenonsignificantfindingsforthesociodemographiccategories(notshown)werealsoofinterest.
Forexample,chi-squaretestssuggestedthatWhitesandminoritieshadsimilaropinionsonallofthedependentvariables,afindingincontrasttoearlierresearchsuggestingthatminoritiesweremorelikelytoperceiveunjusttreatment(e.
g.
,seeHagan&Albonetti,1982).
Additionally,nosignificantbetween-groupdifferencesinpublicopinionbyagegroup,maritalstatus,orreligionwerefound.
Giventheresearchdocumentingtherelationshipbetweenperceivedriskofvictimizationandattitudes,respondents'perceptionsbasedoncategoriesofperceivedvictimizationriskforwhite-collarandviolentcrimewerealsocompared.
Regardingviolentcrime,theauthorsfoundthatasignificantlylowerpercentageofrespondentsinthehigh-riskgroupperceivedwhite-collaroffenderswouldbecaught(χ2=5.
07;1df)orpunished(χ2=7.
88;1df).
Consistentwithpastresearch,thehigh-riskviolentgroupoverwhelminglyperceivedthecriminaljusticesystemasbeingtougheronviolentcrime.
Althoughpreviousliteraturedocumentsarelationshipbetweenglobalriskofvictimization,andviolentcrimespecifically,thispatternwasnotfoundforwhite-collarcrime.
Itshouldbenotedthatthestatisticalproceduresusedintheaboveanalysisdidnotaccountforthepotentialconfoundingeffectsofrespondents'demographiccharacteristics.
Amorerobust,multivariatestatisticalprocedureisneededtoconfirmthefindingsobservedthusfar.
LogisticregressionequationsTodeterminewhetherthebivariateassociationsreportedabovepersistedwhilecontrollingforadditionalvariables,logisticregressionwasselectedastheprimarymodelingtechnique(seeHosmer&Lemshow,1989).
Thismethodbuiltuponthechi-squareanalysisbyincludingadditionalpredictionvariablesinthepredictiveequation,andalsobycontrollingforalloftheremainingvariablesinthemodel.
Thisstatisticalprocedurepermittedinclusionofadditionalvariablestopredictoutcome,anddeterminedtherelativeimportanceofeachfactorwhileconsideringtheeffectsofothers.
7Toaddressthepossiblethreatofmulticollinearityamongtheindependentvariables,severalcollinearitydiagnostictestswereperformed,andtheresultsconfirmedtherewerenoproblems.
8Table3presentsTable1Variablecodinganddescriptivestatistics(N=402)VariableCategoriesValuesn%DependentLikelihoodofapprehensionWhite-collaroffender110526.
1Violentoffenderorequal029773.
9PerceivedsanctionsWhite-collaroffender19022.
4Violentoffenderorequal031277.
6NormativesanctionsWhite-collaroffender16415.
9Violentoffenderorequal033884.
1EnforcementresourcesEqualorwhite-collarcrime124560.
9Violentcrime015739.
1IndependentWhite133282.
6RaceNon-White07017.
4GenderFemale121754.
0Male018546.
0Householdincome≥$50,000120551.
0≤$49,000019749.
0EducationCollegedegree116140.
0Non-collegedegree024160.
0PoliticalideologyModerateorconservative130776.
4Liberal09523.
6Age≥60years19924.
6≤59years030375.
4MaritalstatusMarried122155.
0Other018145.
0RegionUrban115839.
3Rural024460.
7HousingOwn115839.
3Rent024460.
7White-collarriskHigh115538.
0Low024761.
4ViolentriskHigh18420.
9Low031879.
154K.
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/JournalofCriminalJustice36(2008)50–60fourmodelspecifications.
Models1through4presenttheunstandardizedlogisticregressioncoefficients,standarderrors,andoddsratiosforthefourdependentvariables:perceivedapprehension,perceivedsanctions,normativesanctions,andresourceallocation,respectively.
Eachmodelisdiscussedindetailbelow.
Thefirstanalysisassessedtheimpactofthesociodemo-graphiccharacteristicsandperceivedriskofwhite-collarandviolentvictimizationonthelikelihoodofperceivedapprehen-sion.
Astheresultsshow,themodelprovidedagoodfittothesedata(Modelχ2=29.
89;12df),indicatingthatthecombinationofindependentvariablesexplains10percentofthevariationinthedependentvariable.
Theresultsdemonstratethatthreevariablesaresignificantpredictorsofperceivedapprehension:gender,education,andperceivedviolentvictimizationrisk.
TheresultsinTable3indicatethattheoddsofperceivingthatawhite-collaroffenderhasanequalorgreaterchanceofapprehension,comparedtoaviolentoffenderare75percentgreaterforfemales.
Withregardstoeducation,theoddsratioshowsthatrespondentswithcollegedegreesareapproximately20percentlesslikelytoperceivethatthechanceofapprehensionforwhite-collaroffendersisequalorgreaterthanviolentoffenders.
Finally,thosewhoreporthigherperceivedriskofviolentvictimizationhave74percentgreateroddsofperceivingawhite-collaroffendertohaveanequalorgreaterchanceofapprehensionthanaviolentoffender.
Turningtothesecondmodel,assessingperceivedsanctions,educationisasignificantpredictor,andthedirectionoftherelationshipisconsistentwiththatreportedinModel1.
Theoddsofperceivingthatawhite-collaroffenderwillreceiveanequalormoreseverepunishmentthanaviolentoffenderareapproximately28percentlowerforthosewithcollegedegrees,allelseheldconstant.
Additionally,householdincomesig-nificantlypredictsthedependentvariable,indicatingthattheoddsofrespondingintheaffirmativeare25percentlowerforthosewithincomesabove$50,000.
PerceivedviolentcrimeTable2BivariaterelationshipsLikelihoodofapprehensionPerceivedsanctionsNormativesanctionsEnforcementresourcesYesOtherwiseYesOtherwiseYesOtherwiseYesOtherwiseGenderFemale23.
430.
620.
633.
337.
116.
929.
924.
1Male13.
732.
312.
933.
228.
417.
631.
114.
9χ2=7.
914.
602.
196.
32Householdincome≥$50,00014.
734.
311.
437.
631.
817.
230.
818.
2≤$49,00022.
428.
622.
128.
933.
617.
420.
930.
1χ2=8.
3918.
130.
030.
65EducationCollegedegree11.
928.
210.
429.
626.
413.
724.
915.
2Non-collegedegree25.
134.
823.
236.
839.
120.
836.
023.
9χ2=5.
436.
760.
020.
15PoliticalideologyConservative28.
647.
827.
648.
749.
526.
944.
731.
6Liberal8.
515.
16.
017.
715.
97.
716.
27.
5χ2=0.
093.
860.
212.
92RegionUrban15.
723.
612.
726.
628.
410.
923.
915.
4Rural21.
439.
320.
939.
837.
123.
637.
123.
6χ2=0.
880.
205.
210.
01HousingOwn26.
950.
026.
650.
253.
023.
948.
028.
9Rent10.
212.
97.
016.
212.
410.
712.
910.
2χ2=2.
560.
667.
271.
29ViolentriskHigh10.
010.
99.
711.
214.
46.
511.
99.
0Low27.
152.
023.
955.
251.
028.
149.
030.
1χ2=5.
077.
880.
620.
65p≤.
05.
p≤.
01.
55K.
Holtfreteretal.
/JournalofCriminalJustice36(2008)50–60victimizationriskisalsosignificant,indicatingthattheoddsofperceivingthatawhite-collaroffenderwillreceiveanequalormoreseverepunishmentthanaviolentoffenderare2.
2timesgreaterforthosereportinghigherrisk.
ComparedtoModel1,thesetofindependentvariablesprovidedabetterfittothedata,asevidencedbytheModelχ2of40.
04.
Additionally,agreateramountofvarianceisexplained,13percent.
Model3examinedtheeffectoftheindependentvariablesonrespondents'normativeperceptionsregardingwhite-collarcrime.
Althoughthefitofthismodelwasstatisticallysignificant(Modelχ2=29.
89;p≤.
05),only8percentofthevariancewasexplainedbythesefactors.
Whatismore,noneofthedemographiccharacteristicsweresignificantpredictorsoftheviewthatwhite-collaroffendersshouldbepunishedequallyormoreseverelythanviolentoffenders.
Inthismodel,livinginanurbanareaandowningahomeweretheonlyvariablesthatsignificantlyinfluencednormativepercep-tions.
Theoddsofreportingthatwhite-collaroffendersshouldbepunishedequallyormoreseverallyare84percentgreaterforthoselivinginurbanthanruralareas,and91percentgreaterforhomeowners.
Unlikethepreviousmodels,perceivedvictimization(violentorwhite-collar)didnotinfluencenormativeperceptions.
PredictingsupportforresourceallocationInModel4,thelargerpolicyissueofgovernmentalprioritieswasexaminedbyassessingrespondents'supportforresourceallocation.
TheanalysespresentedinModels1through3underscoretheneedforfurtherexplorationofthesevariablesofinterest.
UnderstandingsupportforresourceallocationwasakeygoalinthefinallogisticregressionmodelpresentedinModel4.
Inareducedmodel(notshown)containingalloftheindependentvariablesfromModels1through3,respondents'supportforresourceallocationwasassessed.
Inthismodel,genderwastheonlysignificantpredictor,indicatingthatfemales'oddsofsupportingequalorgreaterallocationforwhite-collarcrimewereapproxi-mately38percentlowerthanmales.
TakenwiththefindingsfromModel1,thissuggestedthatlowersupportforresourceallocationamongfemalesmightbetiedtotheirviewthatwhite-collaroffendershaveagreaterchanceofbeingapprehended.
Model4improveduponthereducedmodelbyaddingperceivedapprehension,perceivedsanctions,andnormativeperceptionstothefullmodelpredictingsupportforresourceallocation.
Thispermittedanexaminationoftheeffectsoftheseadditionalvariablesontheoutcome,andalsoallowedforstatisticalcontroloftheseperceptions.
Comparedtothereducedmodel(notshown),overtwicethevariationwasexplained(from6percentto14percent),andthechangeinmodelfit(χ2change=24.
63;3df)wasstatisticallysignificant.
Evenwhilecontrollingforperceivedapprehen-sion,perceivedsanctions,andnormativesanctions,theeffectofgenderfoundinthereducedmodelpersisted:femaleshad43percentloweroddsofsupportingwhite-collarcrimeresourceallocation.
Anadditionalfindingwasthatgreaternormativesanctionssignificantlyinfluencedsupportforenforcementresources.
Respondentswhofeltwhite-collaroffendersshouldbetreatedequallyorharsherthanviolentoffenderswerenearly200percentmorelikelytosupportincreasesinresourceallocation.
ThisrelationshipwasintheTable3LogisticregressionmodelsModel1Model2Model3Model4LikelihoodofapprehensionPerceivedsanctionsNormativesanctionsResourceallocationbSEOddsratiobSEOddsratiobSEOddsratiobSEOddsratioRace.
53.
31.
59.
39.
32.
68.
41.
30.
67.
01.
311.
01Gender.
56.
221.
75.
40.
231.
49.
34.
221.
40.
56.
23.
57Householdincome.
18.
11.
83.
28.
12.
75.
01.
111.
00.
08.
121.
08Education.
23.
11.
80.
29.
25.
72.
01.
111.
00.
03.
111.
03Politicalideology.
04.
261.
04.
39.
281.
47.
15.
27.
86.
38.
27.
69Age.
01.
011.
00.
02.
011.
00.
01.
271.
01.
01.
011.
01Maritalstatus.
28.
241.
32.
47.
251.
59.
09.
24.
91.
15.
24.
86Religion.
28.
26.
76.
27.
27.
77.
04.
26.
96.
49.
28.
62Urban.
29.
231.
08.
06.
241.
07.
61.
231.
84.
17.
23.
84Homeowner.
30.
28.
74.
37.
311.
45.
65.
281.
91.
03.
291.
03White-Collarrisk.
14.
23.
87.
16.
24.
85.
12.
291.
10.
25.
241.
30Violentrisk.
55.
281.
74.
80.
282.
22.
28.
301.
32.
15.
25.
86Apprehension15.
24.
86Perceivedsanctions27.
25.
76Normativesanctions1.
08.
232.
94NagelkerkeR2.
10.
13.
08.
14Modelχ2(df)29.
89(12)40.
04(12)23.
25(12)44.
22(15)Note:Entriesareunstandardizedlogisticregressioncoefficients.
p≤.
05.
p≤.
01(two-tailedtest).
56K.
Holtfreteretal.
/JournalofCriminalJustice36(2008)50–60expecteddirection.
Theimplicationsoftheseresultsforresearchandpolicyarediscussedinmoredetailbelow.
DiscussionTheresultsreportedhereextendedpriorresearchbyprovidinginsightintohowtheAmericanpubliccurrentlyfeelsaboutwhite-collarcrime.
Similartoearlierstudies,thefindingsrevealedpublicconcernaboutfraud,acommonformofwhite-collarcrime(Cullenetal.
,1982;Rebovich&Kane,2002).
Whilethemajorityofrespondentsreportedthatviolentcriminalsshouldbepunishedmoreseverelythanwhite-collarcriminals,overone-thirdexpressedtheoppositeopinion.
Additionally,justundertwo-thirdsofthissamplefeltthatthegovernmentshoulddevoteequalormoreresourcestowardwhite-collarcrimecontrol.
Thus,whilethepublicgenerallyperceivesviolentstreetoffendersasmorelikelytobeapprehendedandtoreceiveharshersanctions,aswellasbeingmoredeservingofharshersanctions,thisdidnottranslatetosupportforgreatergovern-mentalresourceallocationforviolentcrimerelativetowhite-collarcrime.
Putdifferently,theAmericanpublicdesiresincreasedformalsocialcontroloffraud,regardlessofgreaterperceivedseriousnessofviolentcrime(e.
g.
,robbery).
Whilethefindingthatthepublicperceivesviolentstreetcrimetobemoreseriousthanwhite-collarcrimecouldbetakensimplyasfurthersupportforincreasinggovernmentalexpenditurestofightviolentcrime,thisstudysuggestsanalternativeinterpretationofcrimeseriousnessperceptions.
Inparticular,thepublic'sperceivedseriousnessofstreetcrimeisnotsoextremeastowarrantgovernmentneglectofwhite-collarcrime.
Rather,unmeasuredvariablesmustbecon-sideredinlightoftheseresults.
Forexample,theroleofseveralrecentwell-publicizedcorporatescandalsmayhaveinfluencedpublicperceptions(Krantz,2003;O'Donnell&Willing,2003).
Futureresearchshouldalsoconsiderwhetherknowledgeofrespondents'actualvictimizationexperiences,aswellasexposuretomediacoverageofwhite-collarandviolentcrime,influencepublicopinionandsupportforresourceallocation(Chiricos,Padgett,&Gertz,2000;Rebovich&Kane,2002).
Recentresearchsuggestedthatotherpotentiallynegativeoutcomes,suchasdiminishedtrustandconfidenceingovernment,shouldalsobeexaminedwithinthecontextofwhite-collarcrimevictimization(Reisig&Holtfreter,2007).
Furtherinsightintotheroleofperceivedvictimharmmaybecriticalindetermininghowpublicperceptionsofcrimeseriousnessarerelatedtopublicsupportforgovernmentresourceallocations.
Althoughmediacoverageofcorporatescandalshasincreasedpublicawarenessofthenegativeeconomic,societal,andpersonalconsequencesofcorporatemalfeasance,thesecasesaresensationalexamplesthatarelessrepresentativeofthelargerpopulationofwhite-collarcrime(Vaughan,2001).
Toaddressthisconcern,thepresentstudyused$1,000fraudastheexampleofwhite-collarcrime,whichisgenerallyanonviolentoffensewithlimitedsocietalimpactandpersonalharm.
Althoughtheexampleofstreetcrime($1,000robbery)wasrestrictedtothesamedollaramountlost,theviolentnatureofthisoffensemaysuggestgreaterphysicalandemotionalvictimharm,whichmayhaveinfluencedperceptionsofseriousness.
Futureresearchonthisissueshouldcontinuetorefineexamplesofwhite-collarandstreetcrimebyneutralizingthepotentiallyinfluentialroleofperceivedharm(Rosenmerkel,2001).
Consistentwiththisnotion,researcherswouldalsobewellservedtoincludemorecomprehensivemeasures(i.
e.
,includingseveraldifferenttypesofoffenses)thattapintotheconceptsofwhite-collarandstreetcrime.
Itisevidentthatpublicopinionisnotexclusivelyguidedbyperceptionsofvictimharm,orperceivedriskofvictimization.
Whatislessclearisthedisjointbetweenviewsofnormativesanctionsandresourceallocation.
Thescopeofthepresentstudyprecludedadetailedunderstandingofthesecontra-dictoryviews.
Somepotentialexplanatoryfactorswereeliminated,suggestingfutureresearchdirectionsandpolicyimplications.
First,thepresentstudyfoundthatsociodemo-graphicvariablesplayedaminimalroleinexplainingdifferencesinperceivedsanctions,normativesanctions,andsupportforresourceallocation.
Whilethesemeasuresshouldsurelybecontrolledinfuturestudies,commonlyhypothesizedeffectsofrespondentrace,income,andothersocioeconomicfactorsontheperceivedseriousnessofstreetversussuitecrimereceivedlittlesupporthere,supportingpriorstudies(Cullenetal.
,1982;Rebovich&Kane,2002).
Somewhatunexpectedly,thelinkbetweenperceivedvictimi-zationandperceptionsofcrimeseriousnesswasrelativelyweak.
Theonlysignificantassociationwasthatbetweenperceivedvictimizationandlikelihoodofapprehensionandharshsanction-ing.
Inparticular,respondentswhoperceivedahighriskofviolentcrimevictimizationweremorelikelytobelievethatwhite-collaroffenderswillbeapprehendedandreceiveharshersanctions.
Knowledgeofvictimizationexperiencesmightshedlightonthisrelationship.
Itispossiblethathigh-riskrespondentsactuallydohavegreateroddsofvictimization(e.
g.
,liveinneighborhoodswithgreaterthanaverageratesofviolentcrime).
Inthissituation,perceivedviolentvictimizationriskwouldunderstandablyleadonetoviewviolentcriminalsashavingarelativelylowchanceofapprehensionandharshsentencing.
Conversely,ifthehigh-riskrespondentsdonothavegreateroddsofviolentvictimization,unmeasuredvariablesmayberesponsible.
Onepotentialinter-veningvariableisexposuretonewsmedia(Chiricosetal.
,2000;Eschholz,Chiricos,&Gertz,2003).
Whilesomeempiricalissuesremainunresolved,twoofthisstudy'skeyfindingssuggestimportantpolicyimplica-tions.
First,asubstantialproportionoftheAmericanpublicprefersthatwhite-collarcriminalsbepunishedasharshly,orharsherthanviolentcriminals.
Thiscontradictsearlierresearchreportingpublicambivalencetowardwhite-collarcrime.
Further,publicsupportforwhite-collarcrimecontrolwasestablishedwiththefindingthatthemajorityofAmericanswantthefederalgovernmenttoallocatemoreorequalresourcestothecontrolofwhite-collarcrime.
Recallingtheabsenceofwhite-collarcrimefromtheDepartmentofJustice's2006listofpriorities,thesefindingssuggestthatthecurrentlevelofgovernmentalinterventionintowhite-collarcrimedoesnotreflectthepublic'swishes.
57K.
Holtfreteretal.
/JournalofCriminalJustice36(2008)50–60Atbest,federalbudgetingprioritiesappeartobemorereflectiveofpre-Watergatepublicopinion;atworst,thereisadisjuncturebetweenpublicopinionandgovernmentalactions.
Ifpublicopinionshouldcorrespondtopunishmentpractices,thenthepresentstudyhasidentifiedaproblemthatmightbeaddressedbyfederalandstatejudgesandsentencingcommissions(Ouimet&Coyle,1991;Rossi&Berk,1985).
Indeed,RossiandBerk(1997)concludedtheircompar-isonoffederalsentencingguidelinesandpublicpreferencesbystatingthat,"itisclearthatthereisremarkableagreementbetweenaveragerespondentsentencesandguidelinessentences,notjustoverall…butinsentencingdetermi-nants…ThispatterningservestounderscorethattheU.
S.
SentencingCommissionhadformostcrimessomehowmanagedtocomeclosertohowtheAmericanpublicthinksaboutsentencingforfederalcrimes"(p.
149).
Nevertheless,theyalsofoundgreaterdisparitybetweenpublicopinionregardingappropriatesentencesforfraudoffendersthanrobbers,suchthatthepublicfavoredlongersentencesthanprovidedintheguidelines.
Somelimitationsofthepresentresearchshouldbenoted.
Althoughthemeasuresofwhite-collarandviolentcrimeusedherewereindeedfairlybasic,theywereconsistentwithpriornationallevelsurveys(Rebovich&Kane,2002).
Futureresearchshouldbuilduponthisstudybycontinuingtorefineexistingmeasures.
Gaugingthepublic'ssupportforresourceallocationisimportant,becausepolicymakersfrequentlyjustifysuchexpendituresonthebasisofpublicopinion.
Alongtheselines,alimitationofthecurrentresearchwasthatanassessmentoftherespondent'swillingnesstopayforimprovementsinenforcement(e.
g.
,viasalestaxincreases)wasnotincluded.
Tobetterinformcrimecontrolpolicy,subsequentresearchshouldaddressthisissuebyfurtherprobingcitizens'willingnesstopayforsuchreforms.
Theresultsofthisstudyalsosuggestedthatcurrentpublicopinionmightsimplybemisguided.
Aspreviouslyacknowl-edged,thosewhoperceivedahighriskofviolentcrimevictimizationalsofeltthatwhite-collaroffendersarepunishedmorefrequentlyandharshlythanviolentoffenders.
Asasignificantbodyofsentencingresearchshows,white-collaroffendersarenotpunishedasharshlyasviolentstreetoffendersorevennonviolentstreetoffenders(e.
g.
,seeKerley&Copes,2004).
Thissuggeststhatperceivedriskofviolentvictimization,andperhapspersonalexperiencewithviolentcrimevictimization,invokestheerroneousperceptionthatsentencingworksinamannercompletelyoppositetothatestablishedbytheempiricalliterature.
Consequently,publiceducationcampaignscoulddomuchtodispelthemyththatwhite-collaroffendersaretreatedmoreseverelythanstreetoffenders.
AcknowledgementsAnearlierversionofthisarticlewaspresentedattheFourteenthWorldCongressofCriminology,Philadelphia,Pennsylvania.
TheauthorswouldliketothankMikeReisigforhiscommentsandsuggestionsonapreviousdraft.
Appendix.
CorrelationmatrixVariable1234567891011121314151.
Age—2.
Female.
13—3.
Education.
12.
01—4.
Minority.
23.
01.
16—5.
Married.
15.
02.
20.
15—6.
Income.
08.
18.
38.
09.
29—7.
Urban.
02.
04.
11.
05.
01.
09—8.
Homeowner.
27.
01.
19.
22.
33.
21.
11—9.
Conservative.
04.
06.
18.
07.
03.
07.
06.
10—10.
White-collarrisk.
14.
04.
03.
08.
03.
02.
00.
01.
01—11.
Violentrisk.
08.
06.
09.
23.
21.
22.
09.
14.
05.
27—12.
Apprehension.
01.
14.
14.
04.
02.
16.
05.
08.
02.
04.
06—13.
Perceivedsanctions.
03.
11.
17.
04.
03.
19.
02.
04.
10.
03.
11.
33—14.
Normativesanctions.
12.
07.
05.
09.
04.
01.
11.
13.
02.
06.
03.
04.
02—15.
Enforcementresources.
08.
13.
06.
04.
00.
06.
01.
06.
09.
10.
01.
07.
10.
24—pb.
05.
pb.
01(two-tailed).
Notes1.
Onlyonenationalstudyofpublicopiniononwhite-collarcrimewasconductedduringthepasttwenty-fiveyears(Rebovich&Kane,2002);accordingly,thisstudyservedasaguideforthedevelopmentofsurveymeasuresusedinthecurrentresearch.
2.
Specifically,thesamplewasdrawnusingaformofrandomdigitdialingthatisreferredtoasaMitofsky/Wasksbergdesign(Tourangeau,2004;Waksberg,1978),inwhichtelephonenumbersarechosenintwostages.
Thismethodincreasesthenumberofcompletedinterviewspernumberofcallsbyfocusingeffortsonhouseholdswithknown,valid,whilemaintainingtruerandomdigitdialingbenefits.
Theprocedureproducedanequalprobabilitytwo-stageclustersample.
Aninitialsamplecontainingsix-digitareacodesandexchangeswasrandomlyselected.
Afour-digitrandomnumberwasthenaddedtotheoriginalsix-digitstogeneraterandom,ten-digitnumbersfortheprimarysamplingstage.
Theprimarysamplewasthencalledtoidentifyvalidnumbers.
Workingresidentialnumberswereidentified,andtheirfirsteightdigitsdefinedaclustertobeusedinthesecondstageofsampling.
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