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DevelopmentofthisdocumentmadepossiblebyagrantfromtheInternationalDevelopmentResearchCentre(IDRC),Ottawa,Canada,http://www.
idrc.
caTheDigitalInformationCommons:AnAfricanParticipant'sGuideVersion1.
0,May2005Thiscollaboratively-authoreddocumenthasbeendevelopedtostimulateon-lineinputsanddiscussionbeforeduringandafterthe"Commons-sense:TowardsanAfricanDigitalInformationCommons"conferencehostedbytheWitsUniversityLINKCentreJohannesburgMay25-27,2005TheDigitalInformationCommons:AnAfricanParticipant'sGuideislicencedbytheWitsUniversityLINKCentreundertheCreativeCommonsAttribution2.
0licenceThefulllicenceisavailableathttp://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.
0/legalcodeContributorsPrimary:ChrisArmstrong,WitsUniversityLINKCentre,Johannesburg;HeatherFord,WitsUniversityLINKCentre&CreativeCommonsSouthAfrica,Johannesburg;SilviaHirano,CulturalProjectsDeveloper,SaoPaulo/Johannesburg;DeniseNicholson,CopyrightLibrarian,WitsUniversity,Johannesburg;AchalPrabhala,AccesstoLearningMaterialsSouthernAfricaProject;TonMonasso&FabienvanLeijden,DelftTechnicalUniversity;Other:AlanAmory,UofKZN,Durban;DwayneBailey,translate.
org,Pretoria;KarienBezedenhout,ShuttleworthFoundation,CapeTown;PapaYougaDieng,RESAFAD,Senegal;EveGray,EveGray&Associates,CapeTown;JorisKomen,SchoolnetNamibia;CatherineMacDonald,NeilButcher&Associates;AnneMoon,RhodesUniversity,Grahamstown;RenateMorgenstern,UofNamibia,Windhoek;PaulineNgimwa,AfricanVirtualUniversity,Nairobi;GundaSpingies,RiverbendLearningSystems,Johannesburg;SusanVeldsman,SASLI,Pretoria;A.
J.
Venter,blogger,Johannesburg;BradleyWhittington,theCallipygousCamelblog,SouthAfrica;ContentspageWelcometoOurWikiIntroductionTheDigitalInformationCommons:MappingtheTerrainInformationCommonsCopyrightDigitisation&Convergence2.
GlobalPlayers,Processes,Issues,ProjectsWIPOCivilSociety'GenevaDeclaration'onWIPO2004WIPO'DevelopmentAgenda'('Item12')WTOTRIPSIPR'Exceptions'–Berne&TRIPSCompulsoryLicencing&ParallelImporting'TRIPSPlus'UnitedStatesUNAgenciesActivistsOpenAccessOpenContent&CreativeCommons(cc)3.
AfricanPlayers,Processes,Issues,ProjectsAfricanPlayers,Instruments,StatementsAppropriateMechanismsforAfricaBilateralFreeTradeAgreements(FTAs)NationalPolicies&LawsResearch,PolicyInputs&AdvocacySomeKeyFundersOpenContent(CreativeCommons)inAfricaOpenAccessinAfricaClarificationofTerms–'OpenAccess'&'OpenContent'UniversityInstitutionalRepositoriesUniversityElectronicTheses&Dissertations(ETDs)UnversityGroupLicencesforDatabasesOn-LineJournals&ResearchPublicationsE-LearningSchools–On-LineCurriculum&SupportFree&OpenSourceSoftware(FOSS)ArchivesLocalContent&LanguageBlogsWebsitesReferences&BibliographyAcknowledgementsAppendix1–ResearchQuestionnaireWelcometoOurWikiInanefforttopracticewhatwepreach(preachingbeginsinearnestonthenextpage),wethedraftersofthisfirstversionoftheAfricanParticipant'sGuidetothedigitalinformationcommonshavedevelopedthisdocumentasa"wiki"sothatdigitalcommonsparticipantsaroundtheworldareabletoedit,amend,buildonandimproveitscontentsasa"living"document–adocumentthatgrows,inthesamewaythattheAfricandigitalinformationcommonsitselfgrows.
Butevenwikisshouldhavedeadlines,webelieve,andsothefirst"final"willbe"published"attheendofJune2005andthesecond"final"neartheendoftheyear.
(Weallknowthattechnicallythedocumentis"published"everytimesomeoneviewsitintheirbrowser,butwe'retryingtofindabalancebetweentheoldandthenewhere,and"publishing"–ormarketing,inotherwords–thedocumentatkeystagesisonesteptowardsthat.
)So,eachandeveryoneofyoureadingthisdocumentisinvitedtopostadditions,changes,deletionsandcorrections,withtheaimthatitaccuratelyrepresentsamapoftheparticipants,stakeholders,processesandprojectsinAfricaworkingtowardsthebuildingofthe"digitalinformationcommons.
"Asa"prize,"eachcontributionwillberewardedbyinclusionofthecontributor'snameonthesecondpage,under"Contributors.
"Youwillbelistedundereitherthe"primary"or"other"contributorssection.
Sorry,wetheoriginaldraftersarereservingtherighttodecidewhichcontributionswarrantinclusioninthefinaldocument(ourparticulartakeon"somerightsreserved"),butwepromisetobegenerousinourassessmentofsignificance.
Forinstance,evencorrectingourspellingoftheword"signifigance"ifyouseeitspelledincorrectlysomewhereinthetext,couldquitepossiblywarrantyourinclusioninthecontributorslist.
Seriously,though,wewantandneedyourhelp.
Thehelpweneedmostisinmakingsurethatweprovide,inSection3,asexhaustiveanaccountaspossibleofcurrentorplannedAfricaneffortsatbuildingthedigitalinformationcommons.
Ifyouarepartof,orknowof,anAfricanprojectthatisusingdigitisationandtheonlineenvironmenttopreserveorshareoraggregateinformation/knowledgeforthepurposesofeducation/innovation/creativity,andifthatprojectisnotmentionedinSection3,pleaseaddinformationontheprojecttothistextdirectly,ore-mailasentenceortwotoCommons-SenseresearchersChrisArmstrongandSilviaHiranoinJohannesburg:Armstrong.
c@pdm.
wits.
ac.
zalsesummer2004@yahoo.
comAndifyouareoneofthekeyplayersinaprojectandthusknowitinsideout,pleaseusethe20-pointformatoftheResearchQuestionnaire,inAppendix1,toprovideuswithalltheinformationweneedtoprofiletheprojectcomprehensivelyandaccurately.
Point-formandshort-sentenceanswersarefineforfillingoutthisQuestionnaire.
Wewillpolishwhateveryouwriteandwillgiveyouachancetocheckthefinaltext.
Allinputsonthisdocumentwillbesubjecttoeditingandpolishing,sodon'tworryaboutmakingyourcontribution(eitherdirectlyintothetextorviatheQuestionnaire)perfect;evenabunchofkeywordsandphrasesoralinktoarelevantwebsiteorcontactpersonisbetterthannothing–andmaygetyournameontooneofthoseall-importantcontributors'lists!
IntroductionAsthewritingsofLawrenceLessigandotherscogentlyargue,thedigitalrevolutionisadecidedlydouble-edgedphenomenonwhenitcomestoopennessandcreativity.
Ontheonehand,theinternetpresentsanhistoricopportunityfortraditionallypassive"users"ofthemediatobecomeactiveparticipantsintheconstructionofmeaningandthepublishingofcreativeandinnovativeworksofexpressionandtechnologicaldevelopment.
Inanetworkwherenooneinformationproviderisgivenpriorityoveranother,orwherethepowertopublishisfoundatthe"ends"ofthenetwork,ratherthaninthe"middle"ortheintermediaries,everyonewithaninternetconnectioncanhaveinstantaccesstoapotentialaudienceofbillionsfromaroundtheworld.
Ontheotherhand,thereisasignificantmovebythehandfuloftraditional"publishers"tosetupbarriersthatthreatenthepotentialofthedigitalrealmtoleveltheplayingfieldandcreateatrulyuniversalmediumforcreativeexpressionandtechnologicaltransfer.
Evenleavingasidetheshortfallsininternetaccessinmanypartsoftheworld,andtheproblemofthesmallnumberoflanguagesthatdominatethecontentflowinginthenet,therearemanyotherbarriers–barrierstotherealisationofthatthingofapparentbeautyoftenreferredtoasthe"informationsociety.
"Someofthekeybarriersaretheresultanoverly-aggressivepursuitofcopyrightprotectionandotherintellectualpropertyrights(IPR)protectionbyvarious"rights-holders.
"Theserights-holdersareoftennottheauthorsofcreativeworks,butratherbigfirmswhoowntherightsandaimtomaximisetheirvalue.
Forthesecopyrightrights-holders,thedigitalageisseenasbothathreatandanopportunity.
Digitaltechnologiespresentclearchallengestorights-holders(e.
g.
,howtocontrolmass,high-qualityreproductionofillegalDVDs),whileatthesametimeprovidingnewtoolsfortherightsholderstorestrictuse(e.
g.
,digitalrightsmanagementtoolsontheinternet).
Best-knownarethebattlesaroundmusicandfilmreproduction,whichareessentiallybattlesaroundentertainmentcontent.
Butthepracticeofcopyrightprotectioninthedigitalrealmgoesfarbeyondtheseareasandincludesmore"serious"typesofcopyrightedmaterial,includingsoftware,academicjournalsandelectronicdatabasesofeducationalcontent.
Battlesoveraccesstotheseknowledgeresourcesgetmuchlessmainstreamattentionthanthestoriesaboutclamp-downson"pirated"DVDsandpeer-to-peer(P2P)music-sharing–somuchsothat,ifoneisnotcareful,onecaneasilyimbibethemoralisticnotionthatallcopyingisnecessarilyillegaland"evil"whileallcopyprotectionisdoneinthenameof"good.
"Notmuchissaidinthemainstreammediaaboutthestrugglesofpeoplewhowishtocopyandsharenotforcommercialgainbutratherinordertofurthertheirideasthroughgreaterpublicaccesstoknowledge.
TherearethousandsoflibrariansandeducatorswhoarenotinterestedingettingtheirhandsonacheapcopyofShrek2orKillBill,butwhomaywanttobeabletomakecopiesofreadingsforstudents,todistributetheirwritingsfreelyonline,ortogivetheirstudentsaccesstoresearchdatabases.
Digitaltechnologiesandinternationalnetworksmakeitpossibleforastudentorresearchertohaveaccesstounparalleledamountsofinformationonwhichtobuildandwithwhichtoinnovate.
Theinternetprovidesanopportunitytoslashthecostsofacademicpublishing,allowingacademics,researchersandscholarstoengageinacontinualprocessofself-publishingandinteractiveediting.
Thereisgreatexcitementaboutthesepossibilities.
Butatthesametimemanyoftheopportunitiesaffordedbynewtechnologiesarebeinglimitedbyasystemofcopyrightandparalleltechnicalmeasuresthatemphasiseonly"protecting"anddistributingcontent–asystemandmeasuresbasedontheconceptof"allrightsreserved"thatallowspublishers,evenpublishersofclearpublic-interestcontent,tochargehighfees,orimposehighlyrestrictiveconditions,ontheuseofsuchcontent.
Thus,onefindsthatrecentevolutionsindigitalapplications,andinthenetworksoverwhichdigitisedcontentflows,areofferingupexamplesofboth"privatising"andofopening-upinformation/knowledgeresources.
Theglobalpublicinformationdomain–or"informationcommons,"asitiscalledinthisGuide–attimesseemstotakeonthecharacterofagiantswimmingjellyfish,alternatelyflaringopenandshrinkingasittravelsthroughoceansofcontent.
ForeveryNapster-isationthereseemstobeacorrespondingdigital-rights-management-isation,foreveryGNU/LinuxaMicrosoft,foreveryon-linecollaborativeWikipediaagiantmultinationalBertelsmannpublishingfirm.
Manyoftherestrictionsonaccesstoon-lineinformation–restrictionsimposedbylawsuits,digitalrightsmanagementanddatabaselicencefees–areimposedinthenameofthatquirkybranchofintellectualpropertyknownascopyright.
Mostpeoplewouldagreethatcopyright–controlbytheauthor/creatorovercopyingandotherusesofherwork–isnecessarytoencourageandrewardcreatorsofvaluablecontent.
Butitalsoseemstruethatthenarrownessofpublic-interestexceptionstocopyrightrules,andtheextremelylongcopyrighttermsthatarenowbecomingthenorm(upto95yearsintheUnitedStates)aregoingfarbeyondtheoriginalintentionofcopyright(theintentiontorewardcreativityandstimulateinnovation)andarepotentiallystiflingthewholeflowofknowledgeandinnovationatbothglobalandnationallevels.
(LawrenceLessig's2004book,FreeCulture,readableanddownloadableforfreeathttp://free-culture.
org/freecontent/,arguesthispointpersuasivelyintheUScontext.
)Italsoseemsclearthatforthe"digitalinformationcommons"togrowandremainvital,thereneedtobemore"in-betweens"–moreapplicationsofdigitisation,andofinternationaldigitalnetworks,thatbalancetherightsofpublisherswiththoseoftheusersratherthanprioritiseoneattheexpenseoftheother.
Fortunately,someofthesein-betweensarealreadyemerging.
Sometimestheyarecomingfromtheprivatesector.
Take,forinstance,theAppleiTunessiteandtheiPodMP3musicplayer,whichseemtobemakingmostpeoplehappy:listeners,recordcompanies,creators,andApple.
Inothercases,thein-betweensarecomingfromartistsortechiesoruniversitylibrariansorlawprofessorswhoarebreakingdownnotionsofhowcopyright,publishingandinnovationaresupposedtowork.
TheCreativeCommons(cc)flexiblecopyrightlicencingsystemisemergingasanothersuccessfulin-between,allowingcreatorstoadopta"somerightsreserved"approachtotheirworks.
Whenusingacclicence,theauthororcreatorspecifieswhichusesshewillallowotherstomakeofherwork–commercialornon-commercial,withderivativesornoderivatives–andattachestheappropriatecclicencetotheworkonline,thusprovidingcopyrightclearancetocertainusesup-front,asatagor"welcomemat"tothefileontheinternet.
Are-producerofCreativeCommons-licencedmaterialsneednothirealawyerorwastetimetrackingdownthecreator–orthecreator'scorporateboss–togetpermissiontomakeaparticularuseofthework.
Theallowed,andnotallowed,usesareclearlystated.
Meanwhile,theauthordoesnotgiveuphis"moralrights"tothework,andisabletotakeactionagainstmisrepresentationofhiscreativitybyothers.
Theauthorismerelylimitinghisexclusivityrights,notgivingthemallaway.
TheCreativeCommonssystem,developedbyLawrenceLessigandothersintheUS,ispremisedontheideathatmuchoftheinformationandcreativitythatisbeingkeptoutofthepublicdomainonthegroundsofcopyrightprotectionisactuallyoflittleornocommercialvalue,andisbeingheldoutofthepublicdomainduetooverzealouslegalising.
DisneyCorp.
'sbattlestorestrictcommercialuseofMickeyMouse,andtherecordcompanies'desiretopreventunpaiddistributionofBritneyorJ-Lo'slatestconfection,arehavingachillingeffectonallsortsofothercontentthatisreallyonlyofinterestorvaluetoafewthousandpeoplespreadoutacrosstheglobe.
CreativeCommonsandthisGuidearenotaboutencouragingillegalrepublishinganduseofMickeyorBritney.
Commercialistionoftheserealmsofculture,andcompanies'prosecutionof"pirates"ofthiskindofmaterial,donotworrythedraftersofthisGuide.
Itistherestrictionsontheuseandre-useofimportantpublicinformation–informationthatshouldbeinthepublicdomain,orinthedigitalinformationcommons–thatareworrying.
ItistheaimofthisGuidetomaptheterrainofinformationandcontentusesthatcopyrightshouldnotbeallowedtoblockfromuseandpropagation.
***Thisdocumentisbeingmadeavailable–inhard-copyandelectronically/digitallyviatheinternet–undertheAttribution2.
0CreativeCommonslicence,inordertoencouragepeopletocopyandshareit,adaptit,translateitandimproveit,andevenmakesomemoneyoutofdistributingit,aslongastheycredititsauthors(attribution)anddon'tmisrepresentitscontents(whichwouldbeaviolationoftheauthors'"moralrights").
***Thisisan"African"Guide,aGuideaimedatusebypeoplelivinginAfrica.
TheGuidecannot,ofcourse,claimtohaveanswersforall,orevenamajority,ofAfricans:noguidetoactivitiesthattakeplaceprimarilyonlinecanclaimtodirectlyservetheneedsofthemajorityincountrieswhereaccesstointernetandnetworkeddigitalcontentisstillquitelowper-capita,andwheremanypeopledon'treadthelanguagesthatdominatethenet.
Inthatsense,thisGuideisguiltyofacertainamountofelitism:thetargetaudienceisanonlineaudience,andthusnotamajorityaudience.
However,onemustrememberthatmanypeopleinAfricagoonlineas"proxies"forotherswhodonothaveregularaccess,e.
g.
,theschoolteacherinsearchofsometeachingaidstobeprintedoutandusedoff-lineinaclassroom;ortheuniversitylibrarianwhosurfsinsearchofareasonably-pricedonlinedatabasethatcanlaterbeusedbyanentireacademiccommunity.
SowefeelitisreasonabletoexpectthatthereachandimpactoftheinformationinthisGuidecangobeyondtheconfinesofthestill-smallpoolofregularly-onlineAfricans.
Thisisalsoa"participant's"Guidetotheglobalinformationcommons--nota"user's"guide.
ThehopeisthatmoreandmoreAfricanorganisationsandindividualscanbecomeactiveinnotonlyusingtheglobalstoreofdigitally-heldinformation,butalsoincontributingtoit.
Finally,forthoseofyouwantingtousethisdocumentasitis–orinadaptedform–forsomeorotherpurpose,goahead,aslongasyouadheretothenot-oneroustermsofthisdocument'sCreativeCommonsAttribution2.
0licence(asspecifiedonthecoverpage).
Asummaryofthelicenceisavailableathttp://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/2.
0/1.
TheDigitalInformationCommons:MappingtheTerrainWhatisthisthingexactly,this"digitalinformationcommons"Thefollowingbasicconditionscharacterisethecommons:Thatitshouldbe"free"(inthesensethatyoudon'thavetoberichtogetaccesstoit)Thatitshouldbebuiltandmaintainedbythecommunityactingtogetherforthebenefitofall,i.
e.
,asdistinctfromprivateinterestsThatitneedstobeofsignificantdepth,breadthandvarietyifitistohaveanyvalueforthecommunityasawholeThatitneedstobeaccessible–peopleneedtoknowwheretofindit–inorderforittobeconstructiveThe"informationcommons"isnotanewconcept–butonlyrecentlyhasitcometobethreatened.
AsJamesBoylewrites(2003),thereisaneednewakindof"environmentalism"whenitcomestopublicknowledge–amappingoutofwhatneedstobeprotectedandpropagated,whichisalsooneoftheaimsofthisGuide.
Inorderforustocharttheprogressofthedigitalinformationcommons,weneedtolookatinter-relationshipsbetweenseveralimportantconcepts–thenotionofcopyright,whoselawshavemovedfartherandfartherfromtheidealsofbalanceandpublicinterestthatcharacterisedtheirbeginnings;thetrendstowardsdigitisationandconvergencethatpresentbothopportunitiesandthreatsinthiscriticalperiodbetweentheindustrialandinformationages;andthecallforarenewalofthepublicdomainand"informationcommons.
"InformationCommonsAsweshallseeinthenextsection,theoriginalframersofcopyrightlawinearly18thCenturyEnglanddecreedthatattheendofacopyrighttermthecreativeworkinquestionwouldenterthepublicdomain,whereitcouldbecopiedand"re-mixed"byanyone.
Therehavealsobeencertaintypesofcontentthathavehistoricallyneverbeensubjectedtocopyright–e.
g.
governmentinformation–andthathaveimmediately,uponcreation,becomepartofthepublicdomain.
Thispublicdomaininthiscontextcanalsobecalledthe"informationcommons"–anadaptationofthenotionofthetraditionalruralpastoralcommons,whichwasapieceoflandusedandsharedbyacommunitytograzecattleorgrowcrops,withnoonepersonorhouseholddirectlyowningtheland.
Bysharingthelandthrougha"commons"structure,theusershadbothrightsandobligations–rightstouseandobligationsnottomisuse.
Atbase,thelogicofthecommonsrestsontheideathatsharedownershipandmanagementofaresourcewillallowformoreproductiveandinnovativeuseofthatresource:anessentialresourceshouldnotbesubjectedtomarketvaluesandcommodification.
InthewordsoftheAmericanLibraryAssociation'sInformationCommonsProjectWorkingGroup(ICWG),"….
informationhasnecessaryusesthattranscendthevaluesofthemarketplaceandweacceptthatthemarketplacealonecannotadequatelymeettheinformationneedsthatfalloutsidetherealmofitsvaluesystem"(ICWG,2001).
TheAmericanLibraryAssociationcallsonlibrariestoplayacentralrole,becauselibraries"embodyandputintoactionfundamentalvaluesrelatedtotheaccessibilityofinformationandtheyareavitalelementofthecommons.
"OtherinstitutionstheICWGhighlightsincludemuseums,archives,culturalcentres,religiousorganisations,socialserviceorganisations,unionsandpublicinterestbroadcasters(ICWG,2001).
Theassociationwarnsoftheneedtoguardagainst"aprocessof'enclosure'orcontainmentwhichislimitingorthreatenstolimitnon-marketaccesstoinformationtoadegreewhichisnotconsistentwithourfundamentalsocialvalues"(ICWG,2001).
CopyrightYouhaveanidea.
Youwriteitdown–onaserviette,atillslip,yourmother-in-law'swall.
Themomentthatyouwritethatideadownandgiveexpressiontoit"inmaterialform,"aseriesof"copyrights"areassumed–oneofwhichgivesyou,theauthor,theexclusive"righttocopy"thatexpressionforlimitedperiods.
Ifyouwanttomakeanaward-winningnoveloutofyourexpression,youmaywanttogivesomeonea"licence"tocopythework(usuallyyourpublisher),oryoumayevenhavetosignawaycopyright"ownership"toanotherparty.
Manycompanyemploymentcontracts,forexample,includeaclausethatreferstothecedingofcopyrighttoyouremployerssothattheyeffectivelyowntherightstopublishwhatyouproduceduringthecourseofyouremployment.
Copyright,whenitwasinitiallydeveloped,referredtothecopyrightowner'srighttocopyorherrighttoauthorisecopies.
Today"copyright"referstoabundleofrightsofwhichthe"righttocopy"isbutone,andothersincludetherightsto:reproducethework,bymakingmechanicalcopies(e.
g.
,withaphotocopierorcomputer)commerciallysellthereproducedcopiesadapttheworkandgeneratea"derivative"work(e.
g.
,aplaybasedonabook)moreimportantly,translateintoBraille,foreg.
distributecopiesofthework(e.
g.
,inbookform,oronCD,DVD)translatetheworkintootherlanguagesperformtheworkdisplaytheworkcitefromtheworkoruseitotherwiseinresearchanddevelopmentUsersofacopyrightedworkhavetogetpermissionoralicencefromthecopyright-owner–ofteninreturnforafee–inordertobeallowedtocopy,adapt,distribute,performordisplaythework.
Worksnotsubjecttocopyright(e.
g.
,governmentdocuments)orworksforwhichcopyrighthasexpired(e.
g.
,Shakespeare'splays)aresaidtobein"thepublicdomain"andthuscanbereproduced,adapted,distributed,performedordisplayedbyanyonewithoutthatpersonhavingtoseekpermissionoralicence.
Copyrightprotectionexistsinnearlyall"original"worksthathavesomesortof"fixed"representation,e.
g.
,writings,images,artworks,videotapes,musicalworks,soundrecordings,motionpictures,computerprogrammes.
Copyrightdoesn'tneedtoberegisteredinorderforittobeinforce–althoughsomecopyrightholderspublishadateinacopyright"notice"inordertoavoidconfusionaboutcopyrightterms.
Copyrightas'IntellectualProperty'AccordingtoorganisationslikeWorldIntellectualPropertyOrganisation(WIPO),theterm"intellectualproperty"isusedtoreferto"creationsofthemind"(WIPO,2005).
Copyrightisrecognisedasoneofthethreemaintypesof"intellectualproperty"–theothertwobeingtrademarksandpatents.
Thereiscurrentlyadebateragingamongpractitioners,academicsandactivistsastowhethertheterm"intellectualproperty"shouldindeedbeusedtorefertoinformationandknowledge.
Some,likeRichardStallmanoftheFreeSoftwareFoundation,believethatitisamistaketouseaphysicalpropertyrightsanalogytorefertoinformation.
Itisanothermistake,saysStallman,toreplacetheterm"intellectualpropertyrights"withanyotherterm,since"lumpingtogetherdisparatelaws…(implies)thattheyareinstancesofacommonprinciple,andthattheyfunctionsimilarly"when,infact,thelawsofcopyright,trademarksandpatentswere"developedindependently"and"aredifferentineverydetailaswellasintheirbasicpurposesandmethods"(Stallman,1995).
Althoughlessindignantaboutmainstreamuseoftheterm"intellectualproperty,"LawrenceLessigbelievesthatitisimportanttorecognisethedistinctionbetweenintellectualpropertyandothertypesofproperty.
AsLessigpointsout,the"propertyofcopyrightisanoddkindofproperty"(Lessig,2004:83),becausewhenyoumakeuseofanideaoranexpressionofanideatheoriginalpropertystillexists,unlikeifItakethatpenoutofyourpocket.
Unlikethepeninyourpocket,thecreative"intellectualproperty"towhichcopyrightappliesisnotexcludable;itdoesn'tbecomescarcerwithuse,andmyuseofitdoesn'tlimityouruseofit.
Information,unlikeotherformsof"property,"isthereforea"non-rivalrous"good.
ThisGuidetriestomakesonlylimiteduseoftheterm"intellectualproperty,"torefertocopyright,patentsandtrademarksasacollectivegrouping,andonlywhenitisusefultorefertothecommonalitiesbetweenthemandwithreferencetotheorganisationsthathavetendedtocontroltheuseoftheseterms.
Whenwedousetheterm,weuseitwiththerecognitionthatitiscontestedandthatthereisastrongargumenttosuggestthat"fruitsofthemind"needtobedistinguishedfromothertypesofproperty.
AnEraof'PerfectControl'Whentheinternetfirstarrived,manypredictedthatcopyrightwouldsoongointoadecline.
Lookingbackthroughhistory,suchtypesofpredictionsarenotuncommonwhennewtechnologyisintroduced.
Similarpronouncementsweremadeattheadventofaudioandvideorecorders.
ButaccordingtoLawrenceLessig,inhisbookCode:AndOtherLawsofCyberspace(1999),ratherthanthreatenthedemiseofcopyright,digitaltechnologiesactuallyenablecopyrightownerstoreplacethe"sufficientcontrol"grantedthembytraditional,balancedcopyrightlaws,with"trustedsystems"thatenable"perfectcontrol.
"AccordingtoLessig,theinternethas,infact,enabledcitizens'engagementwithcultureandcopyrightedmaterialtobeperfectlyregulatedby"code"–aprivatisedenforcementofthelawwhichis,infact,moreeffectivethanwhatthelawandbehavioralnormscouldpreviouslyachieve.
Inthiseraof"perfectcontrol,"fairuseandanonymityarethevaluesthataremostthreatenedbecause,inthedigitalrealm,nodistinction(orallowance)ismadeforwhenonewantstocopyforthepurposesofpersonalstudyorresearch.
InhisbookFreeCulture(2004),Lessigcontinuestochart"thetroublestheinternetcauses"–especiallywithregardtotheimpactupon"thewayourculturegetsmade"(Lessig,2004,xiv).
Lessigchartstherise,viaincreasinglyrestrictiveapplicationsofcopyrightrules,ofa"permissionculture"inwhichonlythepowerful,orpastcreators,decideonaccesstocultureandknowledge(Lessig,2004,xvi).
Lessigunpackssomeofthemisconceptionsthatareperpetuatedbycopyrightholders,suchasthemythof"originality.
"Heremindsusthatmuchofwhatwetakeasoriginalisactually"borrowed"orderivedfromsomethingthatcamebeforeit.
Forinstance,WaltDisney's"creation,"MickeyMouse,firstappearedinDisney'sadaptationofSteamboatWillie,anexistingwork(Lessig,2004:21).
BackinWaltDisney'stimein1920sUnitedStates,exclusivecopyrightcontrolonlylastedforaround30yearsandonlycertainuseswererestricted.
After30yearsorless,theproductsofhumanculturalcreativityenteredthe"lawyer-freezone"ofthepublicdomain(Lessig,2004:24).
TodayintheUS,copyrighttermsofaround70-90years,withmuchtougherconditionsandenforcement,arethenorm.
HowdidthiscometobeHowdidhumancreativityandindependentexpressioncometobenaileddownsotightly,andevencommodifiedItwasn'talwaysthecase.
Forcenturies,humanbeingsdidallsortsofcreativeandingeniousthingswithoutneedingthecomfortorguaranteeofownership.
TheEgyptionwhofiguredouthowtogetallthatrocktothetopofthepyramidsandtheChinesepersonwhoinventedgunpowderseemtohavefeltthereweresufficientrewardsforcreativity–e.
g.
,personalsatisfactionhighregardinsocietybetterselectionofmatesforprocreation–tojustifyallthathardthinkingandinnovation.
ABriefHistoryCopyright'scurioushistoryprobablybeginsin1710whentheEnglishParliamentenactedtheStatuteofSt.
Anne.
Seenbymanyastheworld'sfirstcopyrightlaw,theStatuteofSt.
AnnewasanattemptbythegovernmenttobalancetheeconomicinterestsofEngland'sbooksellers(whoalsodidthebook-printing)withtheinterestsofthereadingpublicwho,particularlyinScotlandatthetime,werequitekeenonreadinglessexpensivereprintschurnedoutbyrival"pirate"booksellers.
BeforetheStatuteofSt.
Anne,theBritishCrownhadgrantedindividualprintersthecopyrightonworkssuchastheBible.
OnlyaparticularprintercouldpublishtheBible,andifyouwantedacopyyouhadtopayhisprice.
Thebalancewasstruckinthestatutebygivingthebooksellerwhofirstgotholdoftherightstoabookanexclusiverighttomakecopiesforaperiodofbetween14and28years.
TheUKParliamentwascarefulonlytoprovideamonopolyoflimitedduration,becauseEnlightenmentvalueswarnedagainstallowingthespreadofknowledgetobeharmedbyanti-competitivebooksellerswhowereseenas"monopolistsoftheworstkind"(Lessig,2004:89).
Fast-forward300yearstotheearly21stCenturyandsomepeoplefeelthatanewEnlightenmentmaybeuponus.
Theradicalchangeswroughtbythewidespreaduseoftheprintingpressinthe1700sarenowbeingextendedexponentiallybytheproliferationoftheinternetanddigitalinformation.
Anyonewithacomputerandaninternetconnectioncanbeabook-printernow;withonedouble-clickwecan"publish"informationforpersonalconsumptiononthecomputermonitororinpaperformat.
Instricttechnicaltermswemakeadigitalcopyofafileeverytimewebrowseapageontheinternet.
We,theformerpassive"users"ofinformation,nowpublishandpublishalldaylong–andonecanseehowfrighteningthisistotraditionalpublisherswhohavelivedofftheirroleas"intermediaries"forhundredsofyears.
Andthus,inthesamewaythattheEnglishbooksellersofthe17thCenturysoughttoextendthelengthandexclusivityoftheircopyrightsinordertomaximiseprofitintheeraoftheprintingpress,sotodaywefindthebigmediacompanies(publishers,filmcompanies,musiclabels)seekingtoextendtheircontroloverthewayinwhichthepublic"consumes"theirmedia.
Thefirmswantexclusiverightsforeverlongerperiodsandtheywanttobeabletoexercisethatcontrolinever-moreingeniousways(e.
g.
,"digitalrightsmanagement"toolssuchaswatermarking,andlawscompellingInternetServiceProviders(ISPs)toreleasetheidentitiesofusersthoughttobeviolatingcopyrightviapeer-to-peer(P2P)networks).
Infact,rights-holdingfirmswouldideallyliketohave"perpetualcopyright"(i.
e.
,inperpetuity–forever!
),anidearejectedbytheEnglishHouseofLordsin1774,intheDonaldsonv.
Beckettcase.
LessigwritesthatwhentheHouseofLordsrejectedtheEnglishbooksellers'claimstoperpetualcopyright,"thepublicdomainwasborn"(Lessig,2004:93).
Today'srights-holdershavealsofailedtosecureperpetualcopyrightterms,butinsomejurisdictions,suchastheUnitedStates,copyrighttermshavebeenextendedregularlyduringrecenthistory.
TheUS1998SonnyBonoCopyrightTermExtensionActextendedthedurationofUScopyrightsbyanextra20years,allowingamaximumtermofthelifeoftheauthorplus70yearsoratermofbetween75and95yearsinthecaseofworkswithmorethanoneauthor.
Therehasbeenaclearlegal"creep"intothepublicdomainsincetheoriginal14-yearterm,renewableonceforanother14years,ofthe1710EnglishStatuteofSt.
Anne.
Lessigarguesthathugeamountsofwhatshouldbepublicdomaininformationandculturearebeingkeptintheprivatedomaininanefforttoprotecttheverysmallsliceofculturethathaslong-lastingcommercialvalue.
"ForgetMickeyMouse,"Lessigwrites,".
.
.
.
Therealharmoftermextensioncomesnotfrom.
.
.
famousworks.
Therealharmistotheworksthatarenotfamous,notcommerciallyexploited,andnolongeravailableasaresult.
"(Lessig,2004:221)AsJamesBoyleargues,"The'loss'causedbycopyrighthererivalsandexceedsanypossiblelossfrom'piracy'"(Boyle,2004:6).
LawrenceLiang(2004)notesthegradualshiftinthefocusofcopyrightovertime.
CopyrightlawsfirstemergedinRenaissanceEuropeasameanstoregulatetheprintingindustry.
Thenthefocusfellonprotectingtherightsofauthorsandcreators.
Later,writesLiang,"withglobalisedcapitalism,controlovercopyrightedworksbecamecenteredinthehandsofmediacorporationsinsteadofauthorsandartists"(Liang,2004:13).
Liangconcludesthat"copyrightlawsovertimehavebeentransformedfromtheiroriginalpurposeofregulatingthepublishingindustrytoinsteadregulatingitscustomers,artistsandaudiences"(Liang,2004:13).
CopyrightinAfricaThenotionofcopyright,originallyimplementedbycolonialpowers,hasalwaysbeenparticularlycontroversialintheAfricancontext.
Indigenousexpressionsofknowledgeandculturehaveoftenbeenmisappropriatedbasedontheargumentthattheyareinthepublicdomain(andcan'tbeprotected)becausetheyare1)oralandunwrittenand2)ownedbyacommunityratherthanalegally-recognisedentity.
AsweshallseelaterinthisGuide,effortsarenowbeingmadetodevelopwaysforindigenousknowledge(IK),traditionalknowledge(TK),andtraditionalexpressionsofculture(TEC)tobeprotected–inwaysthatdonothavetherigidityandpotentialtoexcludethatareexhibitedbyWesterncopyrightlaw.
Digitisation&ConvergenceDigitisationistheprocessbywhichanykindofinformation(text,audio,video)isconvertedintobinarydigitalcodes(combinationsofonesandzeroes,representing"ons"and"offs").
Thisdigitalinformationcanthenbestored,compressed,copiedortransferredovernetworks,allwithoutlossofquality.
Traditionalanaloguesystems,whichrepresentinformationaswavedfluctuationsinelectricalcurrent,representdifferenttypesofinformationwithdifferentfrequenciesoramplitudes(heights)ofwave,andaremuchmoresusceptiblethandigitalinformationtodeteriorationovertimeanddistance.
Thus,digitisationprovideslevelsofquality,predictability,storageandtransportabilitynotpossiblewithanaloguesystems.
Linkedtodigitisationisthephenomenonknownastechnological"convergence,"whichreferstothecomingtogetheroftraditionallyseparatebroadcast,telecommunicationsandITplatformsandchannels.
Oncedigitisedinto"ons"and"offs,"contentcanberepresentedinandcarriedbyawiderangeofdifferentapplicationsandinfrastructures,includingtraditionalcopperphonelines,terrestrialandsatellitebroadcasttransmissionplatformsandbroadbandfibre-opticorsatellitedatanetworks.
Theconvergenceattechnologicallevelallowsconvergenceofcontent,suchinternetdatatravellingalongsidebroadcastcontentonbroadcastingplatforms,streamingvideogoingwithvoiceoverphonelinesandimagestravellingalongsidevoicetoandfromcellularphonehandsets.
Thefinalelementofconvergence,spurredonbythetechnologicalandcontentconvergences–andtosomeextentdrivingthem–iscorporateconvergence.
Corporateconvergencesoccurwhenlargeinformation,entertainment,ITandcommunicationsfirmsmergeorbuyeachotherupinordertocontrolseverallevelsoftheconvergencevalue-chain(contentcreation,aggregationanddistribution),andinordertohavemultiplechannelsthroughwhichtore-use,re-packageandcross-promotecontent.
Oneofthemostfamous,andeventuallyinfamous,corporateconvergenceswastheAOLTimeWarnerdealin2000.
TimeWarnerhassincebrokenawayfromAOL,aftermassivefinanciallosses.
Thismergerwasaconvergencebetweenanentertainment/publishingfirm(TimeWarner)andanInternetServiceProvider(AOL).
KeyenablersoftechnologicalconvergencearetheInternetprotocals,whichbreakdigitalinformationintobinary"packets,"eachofwhichistaggedinsequencesothatnomatterwhichroutethepackettakesitknowshowtorearrangeitselfattheotherend.
Thus,thedifferentpacketsmakingupane-mailmessagecantravelviavariouspathstogettoyourcomputerandthenarrangethemselvesinasequencethatmakessensewhenyoureadit.
AnotherkeytechnologicalenablerofconvergenceistheDigitalVideoBroadcasting(DVB)standard,usedbymanyinternationalsatelliteTVbroadcastersfordirect-to-home(DTH)transmission.
DVBtransmissionscanbesentbothviasatelliteandviaterrestrialtransmissiontowers,andtheycanbundletogetherandsimultaneouslycarry"multiplexes"ofdigitisedvisuals,audioandtext.
Meanwhile,manyofthenewservicesbeingofferedthroughcell-phonehandsets–Internetaccessandotherdataservices–arebeingmadepossiblebytheGeneralPacketRelayService(GPRS),whichallowscell-phonestosendandreceiveinformationusingInternetprotocolsandotherpacket-switchedsystems.
Digitisationandconvergencehavegreatlyextendedthereachofthe"informationcommons,"allowingpeoplewithaccesstoatraditionaltelecommunicationsorbroadcastplatformorbothtotapintolargeamountsofaudio,visualanddatacontent.
Butdigitisationandconvergencehavealsoextendedthereachofcontrollingimpulsesbyinformation"owners.
"Digitisationhasintroducednewwrinklesintocopyrightlaw,becausethenatureofdigitalfilesonacomputerissuchthatwhenyouopenthemup,you--intechnical/codeterms---makeadigitalcopy.
Thus,technically,justopeningafilecanbeconstruedasacopyrightinfringement.
Copyrightownersusethisargumenttosupporttheirimpositionof"digitalrightsmanagement"technologiestopreventunauthorisedopeningoffiles.
Forusers,theseblockingmechanismscanhavetheeffectofrestricting"fairdealing"or"fairuse"rights(usagerightsnotrequiringpermission).
2.
GlobalPlayers,Processes,Issues,ProjectsWIPO–WorldIntellectualPropertyOrganisationhttp://www.
wipo.
intWIPO,whichbecamepartoftheUnitedNations(UN)systemin1974,is,along,withtheWTO,thebiggestplayerinoverseeingtheregulationofintellectualpropertyrights(IPR)protection.
Thekeywordbeingprotection.
ThecritiquefromthedevelopingworldisthatWIPO–mandatedtobalancetherightsofcopyrightownerswiththerightsofusers–spendsfartoomuchtimeontheformer.
Ratherthanseeingtoitsmandateofencouragingtechtransfertodevelopingcountriesandencouraginginnovationwithwhatevermeanspossible(notnecessarilystrictIPprotection),WIPOhasinsteadfocusedongrowingenforcementofIP.
ThishasledtothepushforaWIPO"DevelopmentAgenda"andforan"AccesstoKnowledge(A2K)Treaty,"bothofwhichareoutlinedlaterinthisGuide.
Butfirst,itisimportanttobrieflytracetheevolutionofWIPOsinceitsbeginningsinthelate19thCentury,whentheParis(1883)andBerne(1886)Conventionsweredeveloped.
TheParisConventiontriedtoprovideinternationalprotectiontopatents,trademarksandindustrialdesigns;Bernesoughttoprotecttherightsofcreatorsofartisticworks(visualarts,literaryworks,music,etc.
).
Thus,Berneisakeyearlymomentintheinternationalstandardisationofideasaroundcopyright.
Twointernationalsecretariatsweresetupinthelate1800stoimplementtheParisandBerneConventions,andthenthesetwosecretariatscametogetherin1893inagroupingcalledBIRPI.
BIRPI,whichsoundsmorelikesomethingbabiesanddrunksdoalotof,wastheFrenchacronymfortheUnitedInternationalBureaufortheProtectionofIntellectualProperty.
In1960,BIRPImovedfromBernetoGenevatobeclosertotheUnitedNations,andthenin1967,BIRPIchangeditsnametoWIPO.
Then,aftermuchre-jiggingandmultilateralising,WIPObecame,in1974,aspecialisedUNagency–adistinctionitstillcarriestoday.
WIPOisamemberoftheUNfamily,butanindependentone,withitsowngoverningbody,budget,constitutionandstaff.
WIPOcounts182nationsasitsmembers,andadministers23internationaltreatiesthataresupposedtoguidethebehaviorofthese182nations.
Notaneasytask.
ThefollowingaresomeoftherulesWIPOtriestogetitsmemberstoobey:1961RomeConvention--thisInternationalConventionfortheProtectionofPerformers,ProducersofPhonogramsandBroadcastingOrganisationsprovidesinternationalprotectionforrecordproducers,performersandbroadcasters.
Producersareprotectedagainstunauthorisedcopyingoftheirrecordings,andhavearighttopaymentforbroadcastoftheirrecordings,withexceptions.
1967AmendmentofBerne–'Three-StepTest'forExceptions–InStockholmin1967,akeydecisionwasmadearoundallowing"exceptions"–situationswherecopyrightprotectioncouldbewaivedwithoutpermissionbeingsoughtfromthecreatororcopyrightowner.
TheStockholmdecisionappliedtoreproductionrights(copying)andnottootherprotectedactivities(sale,derivatives)andsetoutwhathascometobeknownasthe"three-steptest"forestablishingwhetheranexceptionshouldbeallowed.
Thistest,containedinanamendmenttoArticle9.
2oftheBerneConvention,stipulatesthat,inordertobeexemptedfromnormalcopyrightprotection,areproductionmust:beforaspecificpurpose("incertainspecialcases")"notconflictwithanormalexploitationofthework""notunreasonablyprejudicethelegitimateinterestsoftheauthor"Somemightsaythistestissovagueastobenotveryuseful–orsovagueastobeextremelyuseful.
Itcertainlydoesn'tprovidecertainty,meaningthatone'sabilitytohaveone'sbehavior(copying)protectedbysuchatestwouldprobablydependonthequalityofone'slawyer,whichwouldoftenbeafunctionofthedepthofone'spockets.
Intellectualpropertyrightsrulesandlawyershavebeenenjoyingasymbioticrelationshipforseveraldecades–afactoftenstatedmostclearlybylawyersthemselves(LawyerLawrenceLessig's2004bookFreeCutlureisfulloflawyer-bashing!
)Asweshallsee,thisWIPO"three-steptest"becomesevenmoreimportantin1995,whentheWTOTRIPSagreementadoptsanexpandedversionofthetest,thusgivingthisnotionofIPR"exception"powerinthesystemofglobaltraderules.
This"three-steptest"alsosupportsthe"fairuse"and"fairdealing"provisionsadoptedinnationallegislationinmanycountriestoallowforpermission-freeuseofcopyrightedmaterials,withparticularconditions,foreducational,personalresearchandotherpurposes.
1971GenevaPhonogramsConvention–ThisConventionfortheProtectionofProducersofPhonogramsAgainstUnauthorisedDuplicationoftheirPhonograms(thewordingofwhichcertainlyleavesnothingtochance!
)wasaresponsetotheconcernsofrecordcompaniesaboutcopying,andtheconventioncreatedmeasuresagainstunauthorisedduplicationofsoundrecordingsandunauthorisedimport/distributionofsuchcopies.
1996WIPO'InternetTreaties'--WorldCopyrightTreaty(WCT)&WIPOPerformances&PhonogramsTreaty(WPPT)–ThisWCTandWPPTwerearesponsetothegrowthindigitaltechnologiesandtheconcernsofthebigcontentfirms(entertainment,publishing)abouttheirlossofcontroloverreproductionandcommercialexploitation.
TheWCTAct'sPreambletalksof"theprofoundimpactofthedevelopmentandconvergenceofinformationandcommunicationtechnologiesonthecreationanduseofliteraryandartisticworks,"andtheneedto"clarifytheinterpretationofcertainexistingrulesinordertoprovideadequatesolutionstothequestionsraisedbyneweconomic,social,culturalandtechnologicaldevelopments"(WIPO,1996).
Cynicswilltellyouthatthesewordsareaverypolitewayofsayingthatrights-holdersmustbeallowedtocontinuetomaximiseprofitinthedigitalera.
ButnoWIPO-facilitateddocumentwouldeverforgettotalkoftheneedforbalance,andthus,theWCTPreamblealsotalksof"theneedtomaintainabalancebetweentherightsofauthorsandthelargerpublicinterest,particularlyeducation,researchandaccesstoinformation,asreflectedintheBerneConvention"(WIPO,1996)"Balance"istherecurringthemeintheIPRtreatiesanddebatesoftoday–and,asyoucansee,arecurringthemeinthisGuide.
Everyoneseemstoagree–oratleastiswillingtopretendtoagree–thatabalancemustbefoundbetweentherightsofusersandtherightsofcreators/ownersofcopyrightedmaterial.
Butthereismuchlessagreementonthepracticalitiesofhowtoachievethisbalance.
Theyear2004sawsomeinterestingmomentsinthistug-of-war–atug-of-warbetweenusersandrights-owners,andbetweendevelopinganddevelopednations.
CivilSociety'GenevaDeclarationonWIPO'2004http://www.
cptech.
org/ip/wipo/genevadeclaration.
htmlThis"GenevaDeclarationontheFutureofWIPO,"developedinSeptember-October2004inGenevabyactivistsgatheredfortheOctober2004WIPOGeneralAssemblymeeting,hassincebeensignedbyhundredsofindividualsandorganisationsaroundtheworld.
Itbeginswiththelinethat"Humanityfacesaglobalcrisisinthegovernanceofknowledge,technologyandculture"andgoesontosaythatthiscrisisisevidencedinsuchthingsas:deathscausedbylackofaccesstoessentialmedicinesunderminingofdevelopmentduetounequalaccesstoeducation,knowledgeandtechnologyhighconsumercostandlimitedinnovationengenderedbyanticompetitivebehaviouronthepartofIPrights-holdersbarriersto"follow-oninnovation"(derivateworks)bycreatorsownershipconcentrationinIPindustriesthatunderminesdiversityanddemocracytechnologicalmeasuresinsupportofIPRprotectionthat"threatencoreexceptionsincopyrightlawsfordisabledpersons,libraries,educators,authorsandconsumers,andundermineprivacyandfreedom"lackoffairnessincompensationofcreators(individualandcommunities)misappropriationof,andlimitingaccessto,"socialandpublicgoods"thatshouldbeinthepublicdomain.
TheDeclarationgoesontoremindWIPOofitsmandate,sinceitsinclusionintheUNin1974,totake"appropriateactiontopromotecreativeintellectualactivity,"andtoensuretechnologytransfertothedevelopingworld"inordertoaccelerateeconomic,socialandculturaldevelopment"(GenevaDeclaration,2004).
TheDeclarationexpressessupportfortheproposalbythegovernmentsofArgentinaandBrazilfortheWIPOGeneralAssemblytoadopta"DevelopmentAgenda.
"(TheGenevaDeclarationispostedinsixlanguagesonthewebsiteoftheConsumerProjectonTechnology(CPTech),http://www.
cptech.
org,withane-mailaddressforthosewishingtosendendorsements.
)WIPO'DevelopmentAgenda'('Item12')Muchtothesatisfactionoftheactivistswhohadfinalisedthe"GenevaDeclaration"afewdaysearlier,theWIPOGeneralAssemblysittinginGenevaagreedonOctober4,2004,toadopttheArgentina-Brazil"ProposalfortheEstablishmentofaDevelopmentAgendaforWIPO"(sometimesreferredtoas"Item12").
Andnowthenextseriesofbattlesbegins–thebattlestoturnthe"DevelopmentAgenda"intoaprofoundshiftindirectionforWIPO,andnotjustmorenice-soundingwords.
Thesebattleshavebeguninearnestin2005,andareexpectedtoclimaxasthenextWIPOGeneralAssemblymeeting,setforSeptember2005,nears.
TreatyonAccesstoKnowledge('A2KTreaty')InearlyFebruary2005,an"A2KTreaty"meetingwasconvenedinGenevabyCPTech,theThirdWorldNetwork(TWN),andtheInternationalFederationofLibraryAssociationsandInstitutions(IFLA).
ThisideaofaTreatyonAccesstoKnowledgewaspartoftheArgentina-BrazilDevelopmentAgendaproposaladoptedbytheWIPOGeneralAssemblyinOctober2004.
Theroughly60intellectualpropertyexpertswhogatheredinGenevaforthismeetingworkedwithvariousproposalsaroundthestructureandcontentofadocumentthatcouldeventuallybenegotiatedasafullUNtreaty.
Morethantwodozenproposalswereputoutforconsiderationatthemeeting,includingproposalsaround:limitationsandexceptionsonpatents,copyrightsandotherintellectualpropertyexclusivitiesmechanismstoaddressabusesofexclusiverights,i.
e.
,anti-competitivepracticesnewknowledgeproductionmodels,includingfreeandopensourcesoftware(FOSS)andopenaccessresearcharchivesforpublicly-fundedresearchTheA2KTreatydiscussionsalsohaveastronghumanrightsperspective,seeingaccessasthedefaultpositionratherthantheexception.
Participantsinthediscussioncomefrombeyondthetraditional"copyleft"leftycircles,andincludebigInternetServiceProviderssuchasVerizonandBellSouthandtechnologycompaniessuchasIBM.
AsecondA2KTreatydiscussionwasheldMay12-132005inLondonduringameetingoftheintellectualpropertyworkinggroupoftheTrans-AtlanticConsumerDialogue(TACD).
April2005–WIPOMeetingonDevelopmentAgendahttp://www.
wipo.
int/meetings/en/details.
jspmeeting_id=7522Thismeeting,held11-13AprilinGeneva,wasanInter-sessionalIntergovernmentalMeeting(IIM)ontheDevelopmentAgenda.
TheWIPObureaucracy'scommitmenttotheDevelopmentAgendawascalledintoquestionbycivilsocietyintherun-uptothismeetingwhenitrefusedtoallowad-hocobservers.
ThemeetingdealtwithproposalsfrommemberstatesonhowWIPOshouldtackletheDevelopmentAgendamandateadoptedinOctober2004.
ProposalswereputforwardbytheUS,theUK,Mexico,andthegroupof14countriesdubbedthe"FriendsofDevelopment"(FoD).
ThisFoDgroupconsistsof:ArgentinaBoliviaBrazilCubaDominicanRepublicEcuadorEgyptIranKenyaPeruSierraLeoneSouthAfricaTanzaniaVenezuelaItwasthisFoDgroupof14thathadsponsoredtheoriginalDevelopmentAgendaproposalapprovedbytheWIPOGeneralAssemblyinOctober2004,withBrazil-Argentinaleadingandtheother12actingasco-sponsors.
InitsApril2005proposaltotheIIM,theFoDfocusedonfourmainthemes:Governance&Accountability:AcallforreformofWIPO'sgovernancestructure,inordertostrengthentheroleofmemberstatesinguidingWIPO'swork;acallforestablishmentofanindependentEvaluationandResearchOffice;andacallformeasurestoensurewiderparticipationbycivilsocietyandpublicinterestgroupsinWIPOproceedingsPrinciples:Acallforasetofproposedguidingprinciples,includinggreatermemberstateinvolvementinWIPOwork-planning,sustainabledevelopmentimpactassessments(DIAs)ofnewlaws,broaderstakeholderengagement,andstrongerlinkstootherinternationalinstrumentsincludingtheUNMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs)AppropriateTechnicalAssistance:AcallforWIPOtechnicalassistanceprogrammesthatfoster"thetechnicalcapacityofcountriestofullyusein-builtflexibilitiesininternationalagreementstoadvancenationalpro-developmentpolicies.
"TechnologyTransfer:AcallforWIPOcontributiontointernationaldiscussionofwhatdevelopedcountriescandotowardstransferoftechnologytodevelopingcountriesMeanwhile,theUSproposaltotheAprilWIPOIIMcalledfora"partnershipprogamme"inWIPOthatwouldallowthebodytoundertakedevelopmentconcernsaspartoftechnicalassistanceworkratherthanasanewagendaaffectingoverallWIPOfunctions(governance,principleswork-planning,etc.
).
TheUK'sproposalcontainedthemessimilartothatofthereportoftheUKCommissiononIntellectualPropertyin2002,whichcalledonWIPOtoensureexaminationoftheimpactofitsworkontheneedsofdevelopingcountries.
ThisIIMDevelopmentAgendameetingendedwithanagreementbymemberstatestore-conveneagaininJuneandJuly,allowingforaDevelopmentAgendareporttogototheWIPOGeneralAssemblyinSeptember2005.
Thereislittledoubtthatthenextfewmonthswillbeinterestingandtestingonesforactivists,theFoDcountriesandWIPOitself.
Inparticular,itisWIPO'sPermanentCommitteeonCooperationforDevelopmentRelatedtoIntellectualProperty,whichalsometinApril2005(on14-15April,aftertheIIM)thathastocomeupwithDevelopmentAgendaplantoputonthetableattheSeptember2005WIPOGeneralAssembly.
WTOTRIPShttp://www.
wto.
orgItseemsnotaleofinternationaleconomicintrigueiscompletethesedayswithoutaleadrolefortheever-controversialoutcomeoftheGATTprocessinthe1980sand90s:theWorldTradeOrganisation(WTO).
AmongtheWTO'sfoundingsetofagreementsin1995wasTRIPS,theAgreementonTrade-RelatedAspectsofIntellectualPropertyRights.
NegotiatedduringGeneralAgreementonTariffs&Trade(GATT)talksof1986-1994,TRIPStakesmanyoftheprovisionsoftheBerneConventionandotherWIPO-administeredtreatiesandgivesthempowerattheleveloftheinternationaltradingsystem.
BeforeTRIPS,countriesnotseentobeobeyingBerneweresubjectedattheinternationalleveltoWIPOeffortsatmoralsuasion.
Now,withTRIPS,WTOPanelscanbecalledintothepicturetoremindcountriesoftheirobligations.
SomeanalystsmaketheargumentthatTRIPSwasananomalyinthenegotiationsleadinguptheWTO,andwasonlyincludedbecauseoflobbyingbylargepharmaceuticalfirms.
TRIPSmandatedagradualadoptionofitsprinciplesoveran11-yearperiodstartingin1995,withdevelopedcountriesexpectedtocomplywithinayear,less-developedcountriesby2000,andleast-developednationsbytheendof2005.
Onpatentprotection,developingcountriesweregiven10years,until1January2005,toharmonisewithTRIPS(ThisiswhyIndia,alargeproducerofgenericdrugs(non-brand-nameversionsofdrugsstillunderpatentprotection)completelyreworkeditsdrugpatentrulesinlate2004andearly2005.
)TRIPSPart1setsoutthe"national-treatment"commitmentunderwhichsignatorynationsmustgrantforeignrights-holdersthesameprotectionasnationalrights-holders.
Thereisalsoa"most-favoured-nation"clause,meaningthatifasignatorynationgrantsacertainadvantagetoaforeignrights-holder,thatadvantagemustbecomeavailabletoall.
TRIPSPart2goesthroughthevarioustypesofintellectualproperty.
Forcopyright,itmostlyfollowstheBerneConventionasamendedinParisin1971.
Intermsofpatents,TRIPSmostlyfollowstheParisConventiononpatentsof1967,andmandates20-yearpatentprotection,butwithvariousexceptions(e.
g.
,forpublicorder,andmorality;fordiagnostic,therapeuticandsurgicalmethods;forbiologicalprocessesforplantoranimalproduction).
TRIPSPart2alsosetsouttherulesfor"compulsorylicensing"andgovernmentaluseofpatentswithouttheauthorisationofthepatentowner.
Asdiscussedlater,compulsorylicencing,alongwith"parallelimporting,"haveemergedaskeytoolsusedbydevelopingcountrygovernmentstogetcheaperaccesstoHIV-AIDSdrugsthatarestillunderpatentprotection.
Part2alsohasrulesonprotectionofthe"testdata"submittedbyfirmstogovernmentsinordertoobtainmarketingapprovalforpharmaceuticaloragriculturalchemicals.
This"testdata"issuewascurrentinearly2005inthecontextoftheUSfreetradetalkswithCentralAmerica(the"CAFTA"talks),withGuatemalacomingunderpressurefromtheUStoamendalawallowingreleaseoftestdataresultsforessentialmedicines(IPWatch,2005).
Finally,TRIPSPart2tacklesanti-competitivebehaviour,providingforconsultationsbetweengovernments–andremedies–whenIPrightsareexploitedinamannerthatadverselyaffectscompetition.
IPR'Exceptions'–Berne&TRIPSWhat'sthatoldexpressionaboutthe"exceptionbeingtherule"Well,itisnotoftensointheworldofintellectualpropertyrights.
InIPR,"exceptions"arefiercelyguardedagainstbytherights-holders.
ButastheIndiangenericdrugmanufacturingsector,theSouthAfricanessentialmedicinescampaignandotherphenomenaofrecentyearssuggest,exceptionsmaygraduallybebecominglessexceptional.
TRIPSoccasionallygivesbackwiththeotherhandwhatithasjusttakenwiththefirst.
MuchasTRIPScanbe,andis,usedasavehiclebyrichcountriestoforcepoorernationstoprotectthelucrativepropertyrightsofbigmultinationals,TRIPSalsoprovidesforimportantexceptions(situationswhereintellectualpropertyrightscanbewaived)–anditdoessoinamannerthatisevenbroaderthantheexceptionsprovidedforbyWIPO'streaties.
Asyouwillrememberfromanearliersection,akey"exception"procedureintheWIPOdispensationisthe"three-steptest"ofArticle9.
2oftheBerneConvention,asamendedin1967inStockholm.
Torecap,thethree-steptest,usedforexceptionsincopyrightcases,asks:Istheexceptionforaspecificpurpose("incertainspecialcases")Doestheexception"conflictwithanormalexploitationofthework"Doestheexception"notunreasonablyprejudicethelegitimateinterestsoftheauthor"ButBerne's"three-steptest"onlyappliestocopyright,andonlytotherightofreproduction(nottherighttodevelopderivativeworksorengageindistribution).
TheTRIPSAgreementtakesthingsquiteabitfurther.
TheWTOTRIPSdraftersofthelate1980sandearly90stookthethree-steptestandappliedittomanymorepotentialsituations(DeVuystet.
al.
,2003).
TRIPSArticle13,dealingwithcopyrightandrelatedrights,essentiallyre-statestheBernethree-steptest,stipulatingthatsignatorycountries"shallconfinelimitationsorexceptionstoexclusiverightstocertainspecialcaseswhichdonotconflictwithanormalexploitationoftheworkanddonotunreasonablyprejudicethelegitimateinterestsoftherightholder.
"ButTRIPSArticle13goesbeyondBerneArticle9.
2becauseitappliesnotjusttotherightofreproduction,butrightsingeneral,includingcommunicationtothepublic,rental,etc.
TRIPSthentakesthethree-steptestandappliesit,toagreaterorlesserdegree,beyondcopyrighttootherintellectualpropertyrights:fortrademarks,TRIPSArticle17saysmembernations"mayprovidelimitedexceptionstotherightsconferredbyatrademark,suchasfairuseofdescriptiveterms,providedthatsuchexceptionstakeaccountofthelegitimateinterestsoftheownerofthetrademarkandofthirdparties".
forindustrialdesigns,TRIPSArticle26.
2sayscountries"mayprovidelimitedexceptionstotheprotectionofindustrialdesigns,providedthatsuchexceptionsdonotunreasonablyconflictwiththenormalexploitationofprotectedindustrialdesignsanddonotunreasonablyprejudicethelegitimateinterestsoftheowneroftheprotecteddesign,takingaccountofthelegitimateinterestsofthirdparties.
"forpatents,TRIPSArticle30allows"limitedexceptionstotheexclusiverightsconferredbyapatent,providedthatsuchexceptionsdonotunreasonablyconflictwithanormalexploitationofthepatentanddonotunreasonablyprejudicethelegitimateinterestsofthepatentowner,takingaccountofthelegitimateinterestsofthirdparties.
"DeVuystet.
al.
(2003)andothersarguethat,regardlessofthedifferentwordingsoftheTRIPSexceptionsarticles,theyallclearlydemonstratetheintentoftheTRIPSdrafterstobalancetheinterestsoftherights-holderswiththeinterestsofthepublic.
Untilnow,theuseofexceptionprovisionsintherealmofcopyrighthasprimarilybeenthroughthe"fairdealing"and"fairuse"provisionsinmanynationalcopyrightlaws–exceptionsallowingforlimitedcopying,performance,displayanddistributionofworksforeducationalandpersonalresearchuses,aswellasfornewscoverageandcriticism.
Thereisnowanemergingview,representedtosomeextentintheAccesstoKnowledge(A2K)Treatymovement,thatsayseducationalmaterialsneedtobetreatedinthesamewayas"essentialmedicines,"andthatsomeofthestrategiesfromtheessentialmedicinesandgenericdrugsmovementsneedtobeappliedtoproductionanddistributionofeducationalmaterials.
ThisviewholdsthatTRIPSexceptionsprovidethelatitudefornationalgovernmentstopractice"compulsorylicencing"and"parallelimporting"strategiesforschooltexts.
ProjectssuchastheAccesstoLearningMaterials(A2LM)inSouthernAfricaprojectbasedinJohannesburgareinvestigating,andlobbyingfor,anapproachthatdrawsonthelessonsandsuccessesoftheessentialmedicinescampaignsandonthepracticesofcompulsorylicencingandparallelimportingthathavebeenusedbynations(bothdevelopinganddeveloped)tosecuremoreaffordableaccesstopharmaceuticalsfortheirpopulations(A2LMinSouthernAfrica,2005).
CompulsoryLicencing&ParallelImportingActivistspushingforgreateruseofexceptionstocopyrightrules–particularlytheexceptionstotherightsforcopying,adapting,distributingandteachingofeducationalmaterials–wouldlikeseesomeapproachesborrowedfromtheworldofpatenteddrugs.
Asexplainedearlier,patentsarecoveredunderadifferentsectionfromcopyrightunderWTOTRIPS,andthewordingofthe"exception"forpatentsisdifferent.
Thus,WTOdiscussionsanddecisionsaroundpatentsareseparatefromthoseofcopyright,subjectedtoaseparatesetofcommitteesandprocesses.
ButeducationactivistshopethatsomeoftheprecedentssetwithintheWTOTRIPSsystemaroundpatentsandessentialdrugscanincreasinglyfindtheirwayintonationallawsandregulationsaroundcopyrightasitpertainstoeducationalmaterials.
Severalnationshavealreadymadeuseoftheprovisionscalled"compulsorylicencing"and"parallelimporting"toimproveaccesstoessentialdrugsintheircountries.
Acompulsorylicenseisagovernmentlicensethatenablesentitiesotherthanthepatentholdertocopypatentedproductsandprocesses.
Acompetitortothepatentholdercanthenproducethepatentedproduct(e.
g.
,agenericdrug)oruseapatentedprocessinthemakingofanotherdrug,underaovernmentlicense.
Thecompulsorylicenceisatypeof"exception,"allowedbyTRIPSincaseswherepublicinterestobjectivesareclearlyserved.
Compulsorylicencingofgenericdrugshasbeenjustifiedonthegroundsthatthepriceschargedforthesedrugsbythepatentholdersaretoohighfordevelopingnationgovernmentsandindividualstoafford.
Someactivistswouldliketoseeasimilarlogicappliedtoeducationalmaterials.
In2001,followingtheWTODohaMinisterialConference,ministersagreedthatTRIPSshouldnotpreventmembersfromtakingmeasurestoprotectthepublichealthofitscitizens.
Itwasagreedthatcountriesshouldbeabletomanufacturegenericversionsofdrugsdevelopedbeforethe1995introductionofTRIPS,andcouldproducenewerdrugsundercompulsorylicenses.
Indiaistheworld'sbiggestgenericdrug-maker,makingbothfinishedtabletsandgenericversionsofindividualingredients.
Brazilalsohasaverylargegenericdrugindustry,helpingittosupplyfreeantiretroviral(ARV)AIDSdrugstoitspeople.
Countriesthatdon'thavethemanufacturingcapacitytoproducegenericsareabletousetheTRIPS"paragraph6"waiver,introducedtotheTRIPSagreementin2003,allowingforimportationofgenericsproducedinanothernation.
SouthAfricawasthesiteofmajorstrugglearoundcompulsorylicencingin2001,when39pharmaceuticalfirmstookontheSouthAfricangovernmentoveralawallowingeasyproductionandimportationofgenericsforuseinanti-retroviralAIDStreatment.
Thecompanieseventuallydroppedthelegalaction,afterhugeinternationalprotest.
Oneofthecompanies,GlaxoSmithKline,grantedavoluntarygenericproductionlicensetoAspenPharmacare,aSouthAfricangenerics-maker(DeBoer,2005).
Anothertypeofintellectualproperty"exception"allowedbytheWTOintheareaofpatenteddrugsisknownas"parallelimporting,"whichiswhenacountrypurchasesaname-brand,proprietarydruginathirdcountry(notthecountryoftherights-holder/manufacturer).
Thepurchaseinthethirdcountryisdonetotakeadvantageofalowerpricechargedinthatcountry.
Thus,parallelimportingbecomesanotherinterestingprecedentforpossibleuseindevelopingcountries'questforaffordableeducationmaterials.
Thereare,ofcourse,tradeoffsbetweenthepushforparallelimportingandneedtoprotectlocaljobs.
ThecurrentbacklashinmanypartsoftheworldagainstthedominanceofcheapChinesetextilesisanexampleoftheissuesatstake.
Itbecomesnecessary,then,totrytodistinguishbetween"essential"and"non-essential"commodities.
'TRIPSPlus'AlloftheexcitingpossibleexceptionstointellectualpropertyrightsoutlinedintheprecedingsectionsofthisGuideareunderthreatinsomenationsbecausetheyarebeingpushed,inbilateralfreetradeagreement(FTA)talkswiththeUSortheEU,toofferevengreaterprotection,andevenfewerexceptions,thanthoseprovidedbyTRIPS.
Thusexpression"TRIPSPlus"hasbeencoinedtodescribetheseFTAintellectualpropertyprovisionsthatgobeyondTRIPSinfavourofrights-owners.
TheUSandtheEUjustifytheirinclusionoftheseso-calledTRIPSPlusprovisionsinfreetradedealsonthegroundsthattheirownlawsandregulationsgowellbeyondTRIPS.
TheUSandtheEUhaveinthepastdecadeadoptedsomeextremelyrestrictiveIPRlawsaimedatprotectingrights-holders.
UnitedStatesInresponsetothenewdigitalenvironmentandpressurefromrights-holders,theUShasintroducedaseriesofnewlawsimpactingcopyrightoverthepastdecade.
1997'NoElectronicTheft'Act–ThisactmadeitillegaltodistributecopiedsoftwareovertheInternet.
Undertheoldstatutoryscheme,peoplewhointentionallydistributedcopiedsoftwareovertheInternetdidnotfacecriminalpenaltiesiftheydidnotprofitfromtheiractions.
Theactwasstronglybackedbythesoftwareandentertainmentindustriesbutopposedbyscienceandacademicgroups.
1998DigitalMillenniumCopyrightAct(DMCA)--TheActbringstheUSinlinewiththeWIPOWorldCopyrightTreaty(WCT)andthensome.
Itcriminalises"hacking"intosoftware(circumventionofanti-piracymeasuresbuiltintomostcommercialsoftware),andoutlawsthemanufacture,saleordistributionofcode-crackingdevices.
ItalsocompelsInternetServiceProviderstoremovematerialfromusers'websitesthatappearstoconstitutecopyrightinfringement.
TheDCMAhascausedgreatconcernintheeducationcommunity,andisseenasclearly"TRIPSPlus,"becauseofitsstrictprotectionoftechnologicalprotectionmeasures(TPMs).
TheDMCAbansnotonlytheactofcircumventingaTPMusedbyacopyrightowner,butalsoanydevice,serviceortechnologythatcanbeusedforcircumvention--eveniftheintendedusewouldnotbeacopyrightinfringement.
OneexampleistheUScopyrightexceptionthatallowsnon-profitstodoBrailletranslationsofbooksfortheblind.
TheDCMAeliminatesthisexceptionfor"e-books"withTPMprotection(Prabhala&Caine,2005).
AnotherconcernwiththeDCMAisitsimplicitcurbsonthegrowthofthepublicdomain.
Oncecopyrightexpires,worksaresupposedtobefreely-used(i.
e.
,inthepublicdomain)butcurrentTPMsdonotincludeexpirefunctionsforwhencopyrightends.
TherearealsocaseswhereapublicdomainworkpartofaTPM-protectedcollectioncontainingcopyrightedmaterials(Prabhal&Caine,2005).
Ingeneral,theDCMAisseenasahugeblowtothenotionof"fairdealing"or"fairuse.
"1998SonnyBonoCopyrightTermExtensionAct–ThisactextendedthedurationofU.
S.
copyrightsby20years.
Beforethisact,copyrightslastedforthelifeoftheauthorplus50years.
Nowcopyrightslastforthelifeoftheauthorplus70yearsinthecaseofindividualworks,or75to95yearsinthecaseofworksbymorethanoneperson.
2004'InduceAct'–thisact,theInducingInfringementofCopyrightsAct,whichisnotyetpassedintolaw,aimstomaketechnologycompaniesliableforanycopyrightinfringementcommittedusingtheirproducts.
Theeffectcouldbetomakecomputermakersliableinprosecutionsofpeer-to-peer(p2p)musicfile-sharersthattheRecordingIndustryAssociationofAmericaistryingtostampout(Jankowich,2004).
UNAgenciesWIPOisnottheonlymemberoftheUnitedNations(UN)familyplaying,ortryingtoplay,aroleinissuesaroundintellectualproperty.
Severalothers,includingUNESCO,UNCTADandtheITU,findthemselvesgrapplingwiththeIPRdebates.
SomeofthekeydifficultiesandcontradictionsatplayinthefieldofintellectualpropertycanbefoundinoneoftheUN'skeydefiningdocuments,the1948UNUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights(UDHR).
TheUDHRrecognisesbothindividualandcollectiverightstothefruitsofcreativity,thusprovidingammunitionforbothsidesoftheIPRdebate.
UDHRArticle27says:"Everyonehastherightfreelytoparticipateintheculturallifeofthecommunity,toenjoytheartsandtoshareinscientificadvancementanditsbenefits,"andalsothat"Everyonehastherighttotheprotectionofthemoralandmaterialinterestsresultingfromanyscientific,literaryorartisticproductionofwhichheistheauthor"(UN,1948)Thus,Article27wouldseemtoprotectbothone'srightto"sharein"thefruitsofthecommunity'screativityandone'srighttoenjoy"protectionof"individualinnovationandcreativity.
Meaningthatboththeintellectualpropertyrights-holdersandtheinformationcommonsadvocatescanpointtoArticle27asprovingtheirpoint.
Later,Article29oftheUDHRsays"Everyonehasdutiestothecommunityinwhichalonethefreeandfulldevelopmentofhispersonalityispossible,"and"Intheexerciseofhisrightsandfreedoms,everyoneshallbesubjectonlytosuchlimitationsasaredeterminedbylawsolelyforthepurposeofsecuringduerecognitionandrespectfortherightsandfreedomsofothersandofmeetingthejustrequirementsofmorality,publicorderandthegeneralwelfareinademocraticsociety"(UN,1948).
ThisArticle29,whiletosomeextentalsoabalancing-actlikeArticle27,doesclearlycallfortheneedsofcommunitiestotakeprecedenceovertheneedsofindividuals.
UNESCOhttp://portal.
unesco.
org/TheUnitedNationsEducational,Scientific&CulturalOrganisation,withitsculturalmandate,isdirectlyinvolvedinintellectualpropertymatters,andisthecustodianofthe1952UniversalCopyrightConvention(UCC).
TheUCCisanotherkeyinternationalstatementofcopyrightprinciples,alongwithWIPO'sBerneandWCTandtheWTO'sTRIPS.
UNESCO'sprogrammesoncopyrightandintellectualpropertyseemtoembodythetwoat-times-irreconcilablehalvesofUDHRArticle27.
Ontheonehand,theagencyseekstostampoutwhatitcalls"rampantpiracy"throughavarietyofprogrammesinsupportofcopyrightprotection.
Meanwhile,theagencyisalsoactiveintheprotectionoftraditionalknowledge,aimingto"explorethemostappropriatelegalmeansofensuringeffectivenationalprotectionofbothaspectsofthisheritage:traditionalartisticexpressionsandtraditionalknowledge,constantlyindangerofdyingout,ofprejudicialdistortionandunwantedeconomicexploitation"(UNESCO,2005).
OnemodelthatUNESCOsupportsis"collectionsocieties"–alsoknownasareprographicrightsorganisations(RROs)–whichsetandcollectstandardisedfees,andprovideclarityonexemptions,onbehalfofrights-holders.
RROsaresometimesseenmerelyasproxiesfortheinterestsoflargerights-holdingindustries(bookpublishers,recordingcompanies),andwhilethismaybetruetosomeextent,oneofthecentralmotivationsforthedevelopmentofRROs–toprovideastandardisedtransparentinterfacebetweenusersandrights-holders–isasoundone.
In2000,UNESCOpublishedaguidetotheestablishmentofRROs,entitledGuidetotheCollectiveAdministrationofAuthors'Rights(Schepens,2000).
IntheIntroductiontotheGuide,theauthoreloquentlysetsoutthedelicaterelationshipbetweenauthorsandsocietythatacollectionsocietymustseektofacilitate:"Authorscannotisolatethemselves.
Theymustliveinthecommunityfromwhichtheydrawtheirinspiration.
Theywilldipintothecultureleftbytheirancestors.
Theywillgivebacktotheworldwhattheytookfromitaftertheyhaveaddedthestampoftheirownpersonalities.
Thereisinteraction.
Thatiswhytheremustbelimitstotheirabsolutepower.
Inordertopreservethisbalance,theirexclusiverightwillbeconvertedintoasimplerighttoremunerationincertaincases"(Schepens,2000:13-14).
UNESCO'ConventiononCulturalDiversity'Intheareaoftraditionalknowledgeprotection,akeyUNESCOinitiativeisits"ConventiononCulturalDiversity,"theshort-handnamefortheConventionontheProtectionoftheDiversityofCulturalContentsandArtisticExpressions.
UNESCO's190memberstateshavebeendebatingthecontentsoftheconventionsincelate2003,althoughdiscussionsinthisfieldstartedinearly1980s.
Thecentralfocusoftheconventionistheideaofkeepingcultureseparatefromothertradeitems–essentiallypreventingculturalitemsandexpressionsfrombeingcommodified.
SuchaconventionwouldrundirectlyagainsttheapproachoftheWTO.
Theconventioncouldendupcallingforindividualcountries'tobeableexcludetheirculturalpolicies,includingmediapolicy,fromfreetraderules.
Aswell,theconventionaimstocompelgovernmentstocreaterulestoprotectandpromoteremotecultures,unknownlocalartistsandalmost-extinctlanguages.
Already,countriessuchasCanadaandFranceinsistonexclusionsforcultureintheirtradedeals.
Canada'sFreeTradeAgreementwiththeUnitedStatescontainsexemptionsforcertainmeasuresthataimtosupportdevelopmentofCanadianculturalindustries.
CountriessuchastheUnitedStatesandIndia,whicharebothlargeexportersofculturalproductviatheirfilmindustries,areseenassomeofthefoesofastrongly-wordedConventiononCulturalDiversity.
Aswell,transnationalmediaconglomeratesareopposingcertainelementsoftheconvention,especiallythosefromtheUS,EuropeandJapan.
CountriesrangingfromCanadaandtheScandinavianstoSpainandMexico,fromSouthKoreatoSouthAfrica,keeptheirdomesticfilmproductionindustriesalivethankstogovernmentsubsidies,andevenlargerplayerssuchasFranceandItalyarestillveryprotectiveregardingtheirnationalfilmproduction,notopeninguptheirmarketuptoowidetoHollywoodproductions(Held&McGrew,2004;UNESCO,2005a)UNCTAD&theICCIhttp://www.
unctad.
org/TheUnitedNationsConferenceonTradeandDevelopment(UNCTAD)hasbegunadrivetopromotecreativeendeavourinthedevelopingworld.
AtanUNCTADministerialconferenceinSaoPauloin2004,supportforcreativityintheSouthwasidentifiedasameanstogeneratenewemploymentandtradeopportunities.
InApril2005,UNCTADandtheBrazilianMinistryofCulturehostedaforumentitled"ShapinganInternationalCentreonCreativeIndustries(ICCI)"intheBraziliancityofSalvadordoBahia.
BrazilhaspledgedtosetuptheICCI,andthemeetinginAprilbroughttogetherawiderangeofstakeholderstodevelopworkprogrammesforthiscentre.
ITU&WSISAnotherUNbody,theInternationalTelecommunicationUnion(ITU),hasfounditselfinthethickofintellectualpropertydiscussionsinrecentyearsthroughitsconveningoftheWorldSummitontheInformationSociety(WSIS)process.
ThefirstoftwoWSISsummitswasheldinGenevainDecember2003,withthefollow-uptobeheldinTunisinNovember2005.
WSIShassofarprovedadisappointmenttomanyactivistshopingforanewvision.
TheGenevaSummitDeclarationofPrinciples(DoP)andPlanofAction(PoA)arewidelyregardedasbeingtoowatered-downandtoononcommittaltobeofmuchuseinsolvingdigitaldivideissues,includingissuesaroundcultureandintellectualproperty.
Nonetheless,theGenevaWSISDoPdoescontainastrongstatementinsupportofthepublicdomain,inParagraph26:"ArichpublicdomainisanessentialelementforthegrowthoftheInformationSociety,creatingmultiplebenefitssuchasaneducatedpublic,newjobs,innovation,businessopportunities,andtheadvancementofsciences.
InformationinthepublicdomainshouldbeeasilyaccessibletosupporttheInformationSociety,andprotectedfrommisappropriation.
Publicinstitutionssuchaslibrariesandarchives,museums,culturalcollectionsandothercommunity-basedaccesspointsshouldbestrengthenedsoastopromotethepreservationofdocumentaryrecordsandfreeandequitableaccesstoinformation"(UN,2003).
LaterintheWSISGenevaDoP,Paragraph53highlightstheneedforlinguisticdiversityandlocalcontentinthedigitalenvironment:"Thecreation,disseminationandpreservationofcontentindiverselanguagesandformatsmustbeaccordedhighpriorityinbuildinganinclusiveInformationSociety,payingparticularattentiontothediversityofsupplyofcreativeworkandduerecognitionoftherightsofauthorsandartists.
Itisessentialtopromotetheproductionofandaccessibilitytoallcontent–educational,scientific,culturalorrecreational–indiverselanguagesandformats.
Thedevelopmentoflocalcontentsuitedtodomesticorregionalneedswillencouragesocialandeconomicdevelopmentandwillstimulateparticipationofallstakeholders,includingpeoplelivinginrural,remoteandmarginalareas"(UN,2003).
TheseparagraphsaretypicaloftheWSISdocuments–sayingalltherightthingsbutnotnecessarilywithanynewideasforhowtomakethesethingsareality.
ActivistsThefieldof"intellectualproperty,"whichhasmyriadelements–includingtechnological,legal,consumer,healthandeducationissues–istrackedbyawiderangeofactivistorganisationsfromseveraldisciplines.
APC–AssociationforProgressiveCommunicationshttp://www.
apc.
orgThefoundersoftheAPCwereclued-intothepotentialpowerofICTsatatimewhenmanyofusstillthoughtofcomputersasglorifiedtypewriters.
TheAPC'saffiliatesareICT-focussednon-profitgroupsaroundtheworld,inbothdevelopedanddevelopingnations,andareoftenthepioneeringInternetServiceProvidersintheircountries.
TheAPC'smissioncallsfor"Aworldinwhichallpeoplehaveeasy,equalandaffordableaccesstothecreativepotentialofICTstoimprovetheirlivesandcreatemoredemocraticandegalitariansocieties.
"SeveralAPCserviceswillbeofinteresttoreadersofthisGuide,includingtheAPCAfricaICTPolicyMonitor,http://africa.
rights.
apc.
org/andtheItrainOnlineprojecthttp://www.
itrainonline.
org/(aprojectofAPC,Bellanet,theFAO,INASP,OneworldandUNESCO)OSI&Soros–OpenSocietyInstitute&SorosFoundationNetworkshttp://www.
soros.
org/BillionaireGeorgeSoros'sOpenSocietyInstitute(OSI)andSorosFoundationNetworkssupportawiderangeofprogrammes,includinganOSIInformationProgrammethatisplayingacentralroleinthe"openaccess"movementthatiscoveredlaterinthisGuide.
TheOSIInformationProgrammeisat:http://www.
soros.
org/initiatives/informationLibrariansGonearethedaysofthelibrarianwhoseexistenceseemedadustyonedominatedbyensuringthatbooksfoundtheirwaybacktotheshelvesfromwhencetheycame.
Thelibrarianoftodayispartofthevanguardofthedigitalinformationcommons.
Attheinternationallevel,akeygroupisIFLA(InternationalFederationofLibraryAssociationsandInstitutions),http://www.
ifla.
org/.
FoundedinScotlandin1927,IFLAaimstorepresentbothlibrariesandtheirusers.
Ithasanestimated1700Membersin150countries.
AkeyIFLAbodyisitsCommitteeonCopyrightandotherLegalMatters(CLM),whichwassetupin1997torespondtothenewcopyrightissuesbeingraisedbydigitalstorageandnetworks.
OtherkeygroupingsincludetheAmericanLibraryAssociation(ALA),theElectronicInformationforLibrariesconsortium(Eifl)andtheUSPublicLibraryofScience(PLoS).
ConsumerGroupsAstrongunitingforcebetweendeveloping-worldanddeveloped-worldactivismonintellectualpropertyissuesistheconsumermovement.
Someofthekeyplayersinthecivilsociety"GenevaDeclaration"processofSeptember-October2004camefromconsumergroups,includingacoalitioncalledtheTACD(Trans-AtlanticConsumerDialogue)http://www.
tacd.
org/,whichhasabout65membersinNorthAmericaandEurope.
TheTACDconvenedameetinginGenevain2004tolookatthefutureofWIPO,andoneoftheoutcomesofthatmeetingwasworkontheGenevaDeclaration.
InMay2005,TACDhostedatmeetinginLondonontheA2KTreaty(seeearliersection).
AcentralplayerintheTACDisCPTech(theConsumerProjectonTechnology)http://www.
cptech.
org/,whichwasstartedin1995byAmericanconsumeradvocateRalphNader.
CPTech'skeyprogrammeareasareintellectualpropertyrights,healthcare,electroniccommerceandcompetitionpolicy.
AkeyAfricanprojectlookingatcopyrightissuesandtheirimpactonaccesstoknowledge,theA2LMinSouthernAfricaProject(AccesstoLearningMaterialsinSouthernAfricaProject),http://www.
access.
org.
za,isbeingspearheadedbyaconsumergroup,theConsumerInstituteforSouthAfrica.
Techies,Eccentrics&EccentricTechiesItshouldcomeasnosurprisethatsomeofthemostintense–andwonderfullyeccentric–oftheinformationcommonsproponentscomefromtheranksofthegeeks--thetechiesthatis,thepeople(theguys,often)whoknowhowallthesedigitalcollectionsofonesandzerosmakethevariousthingsthathappenactuallyhappeninourcomputersandoverthenetworks.
Moreseriously,theseguysaremorethanjusttechies;theyoftenhaveastronggraspofthelawandhumanrights(e.
g.
,freespeech,privacy).
TheEEF(ElectronicFrontierFoundation),http://www.
eff.
org,foundedinSanFranciscoin1990,isakeymemberofthiscamp.
TheEEFcametogethertoprotestagainstheavy-handedUSSecretServicetacticsagainstasmallbookpublisherinTexas.
ItwasformedbytechindustryveteransincollaborationwiththeGratefulDeadlyricistJohnPerryBarlow,andhasremainedathorninthesideoftheUSregulatorsandlawmakerseversince.
Barlowisbestknownforhis1996"ADeclarationoftheIndependenceofCyberspace,"whichbeginswiththefollowinglines:"GovernmentsoftheIndustrialWorld,youwearygiantsoffleshandsteel,IcomefromCyberspace,thenewhomeofMind.
Onbehalfofthefuture,Iaskyouofthepasttoleaveusalone.
Youarenotwelcomeamongus.
Youhavenosovereigntywherewegather"(Barlow,1996).
ButtheEEFisrecenthistorywhencomparedtothepioneeringon-linecollaborativeworkoftheGNUProject,http://www.
gnu.
org/,foundedin1984todevelopfreeandopensourcesoftwarebasedontheLinuxkernel.
TheGNUProject'sfundraisingandadvocacyarm,theFreeSoftwareFoundation,http://www.
fsf.
org/,wasfoundedin1985,andthekeypersonbehindbothoftheseinitiatives,RichardStallmanisanotherofthebrillianteccentricsdrivingthedigitalinformationcommons.
AllFreeSoftwareFoundationsoftwareisdistributedundertheGNUGeneralPublicLicence,http://www.
gnu.
org/copyleft/gpl.
html,whichallowsusersfreeaccesstothesourcecodeandtherighttoadaptanddistributethecodefreely.
Thebest-knownGNUproductisLinux,http://www.
linux.
org/,anoperatingsysteminitiallydevelopedasahobbybyuniversitystudentinFinlandnamedLinusTorvalds.
Torvaldsstartedin1991andreleasedtheLinuxKernelin1994.
Thiskernel,whosesourcecodeisfreelyavailabletoanyone,hassincebeenadaptedintohundredsofdifferentversionsoftheoperatingsystem.
StallmanandLinuxfounderTorvaldsaretwoofthestarsoftheFreeandOpenSourceSoftware(FOSS)movement,amovementwhichiscentraltodiscussionsofintellectualpropertyandcopyrightinthedigitalera,because:Itsprovisionoffreeaccess–toboththesoftwareandthesourcecode–tousers,thuscompletelydisregardingthestandardproprietarymodel(pay-for-useandwithoutaccesstothesourcecode)employedbyMicrosoftandothersoftwarefirmsItsuseofdecentralised,collaborativemodesindevelopmentofthesoftware,thusprovidinganexampleofthepowerofcreativitywhenideasaresharedopenlyratherthancopyrightedandrestrictedManyofthephilosophicalunderpinningsofthe"digitalinformationcommons"andthisGuidecanbedrawnfromtheFOSSmovement–thedigital,networkedelement;theopencollaborationandcreativity;andtheverypublic"commons"approachtothedisseminationoftheproductscreatedandoftheknowledgeembeddedwithintheproducts.
LawyersJustasthedigitalcommonsmovementneedsplentyoftechieswhounderstandthelaw,italsoreliesonafairnumberoflawyerswhoenjoythetech.
AfewwhoimmediatelycometomindareLawrenceLessig(StanfordUniversity)andJamesBoyle(DukeUniversity).
Lessig'snamehasalreadycomeupintheIntroductionandChapter1ofthisGuide,becauseofhiswritingsonthechillingeffectofcopyrightoncreativityandculturalproductioninthedigitalera,andhisnamewillcomeupagaininthenextsection,entitled"OpenAccess&OpenContent,"becauseofhisworkinthedevelopmentoftheCreativeCommonsflexiblecopyrightscheme.
Lessig'shome:http://www.
lessig.
org/Boyleisanotherlucidanalystoftheroleofcurrentcopyrightlawinthwartingcreativityandinnovation,andhis"ManifestoonWIPOandtheFutureofIntellectualProperty"isausefulprimerontheWIPOcontext(Boyle,2004).
Boyle'shomepage:http://www.
james-boyle.
com/BloggersManypeopleintheabove-mentionedcategories–Librarians,ConsumerGroups,Techies/Eccentrics,Lawyers–arealso"bloggers"–keepersofweblogs.
Theseon-lineblogs,whichmixthevaluesofjournal-keeping,journalism,gossip,investigationandjusttheplain-oldloveofinteractionandcommunication,areavaluableandentertainingsourceofinformationon,amongotherthings,theinformationcommons.
Thus,manyblogsareactsofbothformandcontent:theycelebratethedigitalinformationcommons,whileatthesametimebuildingandusingit.
Oneofthebest-knownblogs,byCoryDoctorow,isBoingBoing:ADirectoryofWonderfulThings:http://boingboing.
net/OpenAccessAkey"digitalinformationcommons"concepttoemergeinthepastfewyearsis"openaccess"scholarlycommunication,viadigitalfilesaccessiblethroughtheinternetandelectronicnetworks.
February2002sawakeymomentinthisopenaccessmovementwiththeBudapestOpenAccessInitiativestatement,theproductofameetinginBudapestconvenedbytheOpenSocietyInstitute(OSI).
TheBudapeststatementbeginseloquently,sayingthat"Anoldtraditionandanewtechnologyhaveconvergedtomakepossibleanunprecedentedpublicgood.
Theoldtraditionisthewillingnessofscientistsandscholarstopublishthefruitsoftheirresearchinscholarlyjournalswithoutpayment,forthesakeofinquiryandknowledge.
Thenewtechnologyistheinternet.
Thepublicgoodtheymakepossibleistheworld-wideelectronicdistributionofthepeer-reviewedjournalliteratureandcompletelyfreeandunrestrictedaccesstoitbyallscientists,scholars,teachers,students,andothercuriousminds.
Removingaccessbarrierstothisliteraturewillaccelerateresearch,enricheducation,sharethelearningoftherichwiththepoorandthepoorwiththerich,makethisliteratureasusefulasitcanbe,andlaythefoundationforunitinghumanityinacommonintellectualconversationandquestforknowledge.
"Thestatementgoesondefineopenaccessas"freeandunrestrictedonlineavailability"(OSI,2002).
Thestatementmakestheimportantclaimthatopenaccessscholarlypublicationscanstillbeviable,evenwithoutchargingsubscriptionsoruserfees,becausetheygive"readersextraordinarypowertofindandmakeuseofrelevantliterature"andtheygive"authorsandtheirworksvastandmeasurablenewvisibility,readership,andimpact"(OSI,2002).
Thestatementarguesthatpublishingvehicleswithsuchhighimpactshouldnothavetroublefindingtheeconomicresourcesandsupporttheyneedtocontinueoperation,particularlysinceon-linepublishingismuchcheaperthantraditionalhard-copyjournalproduction.
Thus,"newcostrecoverymodelsandfinancingmechanisms"canbefound(OSI,2002).
Thestatementalsosaysnewopenaccesson-linejournalsshouldnotchargesubscriptionsoraccessfees,andshouldinsteadgeneratefundingfromfoundations,governmentsuniversitiesandlaboratories,endowments,"friendsofthecauseofopenaccess,"profitsfromthesaleofadd-onstothebasictexts,fundsfreedupbytheendingofjournalschargingfees,andfinancialcontributionsfromresearchersthemselves.
Thestatementfurtherdelineatesopenaccesspublishinginthefollowingways:suchpublicationsshallincludebothpeer-reviewedjournalarticlesandunreviewedpreprintsputonlineforcommentortoinformcolleaguesofresearchfindingsusersshallbeabletodownload,copy,distribute,print,search,orlinktothefulltextsusersshallalsobeableto"crawl"thearticlesforindexing,ortopassthearticlesonasdatatosoftwaretheonlylimitationsfortheusershallbethattheauthorsmaintaincontroloverthework(i.
e.
,noderivativesoradaptationsbytheuser)andtheauthorshallbeproperlyacknowledgedandcitedinusesoftheworkThevaluesofthisBudapestOpenAccessInitiativestatementhavesincebeenreaffirmedandslightlyexpandedbymeetingsofacademicsintheUS,theUKandGermany,attheWSISGenevaSummit2003,byanOECDcommittee,bytheIFLAGoverningBoardandbyaUKParliamentaryCommittee.
Twomaintypesofopenaccesspublishingcanbeidentified:openaccessjournalsandopenaccessarchives/repositories.
OpenAccessJournals:FirstMondayhttp://www.
firstmonday.
org/Establishedin1996asanentirelyon-linepeer-reviewedmonthlyjournalwitharticlesabouttheInternet,FirstMondaysaysithaspublishedmorethan500papersbynearly700authorsinits106issuessinceitsinception.
In2004,morethan800,000usersdownloadedmorethan6millionFirstMondayarticles.
InMarch2005,morethan70,000downloadedmorethan800,000items.
ItisbasedattheUniversityofIllinoisinChicago.
OpenAccessArchives/Repositories:AmericanMemoryhistoricalcollectionshttp://memory.
loc.
gov/ammem/ThisprojectoftheUSLibraryofCongresshadby2003digitisedmorethan7millionitemsfromabout100historicalcollections,aspartoftheNationalDigitalLibraryProgram.
FundinghascomefrombothUSCongressandfromtheprivatesector.
Sinceitispublicly-funded,theLibraryofCongressdoesnot,forthemostpart,ownrightsinitscollections,andthusdoesnotgenerallychargepermissionfeesorrequireuserstoseekpermissionforuse.
InternetArchivehttp://www.
archive.
org/BBCCreativeArchivehttp://creativearchive.
bbc.
co.
uk/DSpacehttp://www.
dspace.
org/Thissoftwareisoneofthedominantplayersintheopenaccessinstitutionalrepositorymovement.
JointlydevelopedbyMITLibrariesandHewlett-PackardLabsandfreelyavailableasopensourcesoftware,theDSpacehelpsinstitutionscapture,store,indexes,preserveandre-distributetheirdigitisedresearchoutputs.
GuidetoInstitutionalRepositorySoftwarehttp://www.
soros.
org/openaccess/pdf/OSI_Guide_to_IR_Software_v3.
pdfThisguide,developedbytheOpenSocietyInstitute,aimstohelpinstitutionsplantheirdigitalrepositories--includingthepolicy,legal,educational,cultural,andtechnicalcomponents–andtochoosetheappropriatesoftware.
CornellUniversityDSpaceDigitalRepositoryhttp://dspace.
library.
cornell.
edu/index.
jspThisisatypicalexampleofauniversityrepositoryusingDSapce,atCornellUniversityinNewYorkState.
Itis,asthesitesays"openforanyoneatCornellUniversityasaplacetocapture,store,index,preserveandredistributeCornellfaculty,staff,studentororganisationalresearchmaterialsindigitalformats.
"MITOpenCourseWareProject--MassachussetsInstituteofTechnologyhttp://ocw.
mit.
edu/MIThasledthewaynotonlyinrepositorysoftware(Dspace)butalsoinmakingrepositoriesofcoursematerialsavailableviaopenaccess.
ThroughitsOpenCourseWareproject,MITnowhasaround900ofitscoursesavailableon-line.
RiceUniversityConnexionsProjecthttp://cnx.
rice.
edu/Anotheron-linerepositoryofuniversitycoursematerials,thisConnexionsprojectprovidesbothshortmodulesor"knowledgechunks,"andfullcourses.
Currentlymorethan80coursesandmorethan2000modulesareavailableon-line.
JohnsHopkinsOpenCourseWarePilothttp://ocw.
jhsph.
edu/TheJohnsHopkinsUniversityBloombergSchoolofPublicHealth(JHSPH)hasjustlaunchedanOpenCourseWare(OCW)project,providesaccesstosixoftheSchool'smostpopularcourses.
OpenUniversity,UKhttp://technology.
open.
ac.
uk/t182/scripts/login.
phpOpenUniversityhasrecentlyputthecoursenotesfromits"Law,theInternetandSociety:TechnologyandtheFutureofIdeas,"courseon-line.
OpenContent&CreativeCommons(cc)Linkedto–butnotidenticalto–theconceptofopenaccessistheideaof"opencontent"–wheretheuserisgivenawiderangeofexplicitrightstouse,andadapt,on-linematerials(writings,music,videoetc.
).
Opencontentinitiativesalsoencourageon-linecollaborationamongmanypeopleinthedevelopmentofcontent.
Thedevelopmentofopensourcesoftwarerunsalongopencontentprinciples.
Thebest-knownopencontentinitiativeistheproject,andsetofon-linealternativecopyrightlicences,knownasCreativeCommons.
CreativeCommons(cc)http://creativecommons.
org/TheCreativeCommonsProject,begunin2001atHarvardLawSchool'sBerkmanCentreforInternet&SocietyandnowbasedatStanfordLawSchool,takesa"somerightsreserved"approachtocopyright,asopposedtothestandard–andrestrictive–"allrightsreserved.
"OneofthedevelopersofCreativeCommons,LawrenceLessig,tracesthebeginningsofthelogicofCreativeCommonsbacktoRichardStallman'sGNUProjectandFreeSoftwareFoundationin1984-85atMIT(mentionedearlierinthe"Activists"section).
(Lessig,2004:280).
InthesamewaythattheFreeSoftwareFoundation'sGPLlicenceallowstheusertomodifyanddistributethesoftwareaslongasthesourcecodecontinuestobemadeavailable,someCreativeCommonslicencesallowuserstomodifyanddistributethecontentonlyiftheydosounderthesameCreativeCommonsconditionsunderwhichtheyreceivethecontentinthefirstplace(Lessig,2004:280).
Peopleorinstitutionsputtingcontenton-lineunderaCreativeCommonslicencecanchoosetospecifyconditionsofuse,including:commercialornon-commercialusederivativesornoderivativesallowedbytheuserthattheusermust"sharealike"(underthesameterms)anyderivativesorcopiesCreativeCommonshasalsocomeupwitha"developingcountrylicence"thatallowsthecontenttobegivendifferentallowableusesinthedevelopingworldthaninthedevelopedworld.
Forinstanceacreatorofeducationalmaterialmightwishtospecifythatderivativesareallowedinthedevelopingworldbutnotthedeveloped,orthatcommercialexploitationisonlyallowedindevelopingcountries.
TheultimateaimoftheCreativeCommonsprojectistoincreasetheflowofcontentdirectlyintothepublicdomaininformationcommons,because,asLessigwrites,"Buildingapublicdomainisthefirststeptoshowingpeoplehowimportantthatdomainistocreativityandinnovation"(Lessig,2004:286).
3.
AfricanPlayers,Processes,Issues,ProjectsAfricanPlayers,Instruments,Statements1977:OAPI–OrganisationAfricainedelaProprieteIntellectuelle,Yaoundehttp://www.
oapi.
wipo.
netBeforetheirindependenceinthe1960s,FrenchAfricanstateshadtheirintellectualpropertygovernedbyFrenchlaw,undertheFrenchNationalPatentRightsInstitute(INPI).
In1962,12newly-independentstatesformedtheAfricanandMalagasyPatentRightsAuthority(OAMPI),basedontheLibrevilleAgreement.
TheLibrevilleAgreementcalledfor:uniformlegislationandcommonadministrativeproceduresforpatentrightsprotection.
acommonauthoritytoadministerpatentrightsforallofthememberstatescentralisationofprocedures,sothatasinglepatentissuedgrantedrightsinallmembercountriesTheLibrevilleAgreementonlycoveredpatents,trademarksandindustrialdrawingsormodels,andits12signatorieswere:Cameroon,CentralAfricanRepublic,Congo,Cted'Ivoire,Dahomey,UpperVolta,Gabon,Mauritania,Senegal,Chad,MalagasyRepublicandNiger.
TheMalagasyRepubliceventuallywithdrewandanewconvention,theBanguiConvention,wassignedin1977,establishingthecurrentOrganisationAfricainedelaProprieteIntellectuelle(OAPI),whichhas16members:Benin,BurkinaFaso,Cameroon,CentralAfrica,Congo-Brazaville,Coted'Ivoire,EquatorialGuinea,Gabon,Guinea,GuineaBissau,Mali,Mauritania,Niger,Senegal,ChadandTogo.
TheBanguiOAPIAgreement,revisedin1999,guidesthecurrentOAPI.
OAPI'sagreementsarebindingonallitsmembercountries.
1985:ARIPO–AfricanRegionalIndustrialPropertyOrganisation,Hararehttp://www.
aripo.
wipo.
netARIPO,whichhasmembershipfromseveralEnglish-speakingAfricannations,hasitsoriginsinanearly1970sseminaronpatentsandcopyrightinNairobi,atwhichacallwasmadeforaregionalorganisationonintellectualproperty.
In1973,theUnitedNationsEconomicCommissionforAfrica(UNECA)andWIPOdraftedanagreementforcreationofsuchanorganisation,theLusakaAgreement,whichwasadoptedatadiplomaticconferencein1976.
TheoriginalnameofthebodywasESARIPO,withUNECAandWIPOactingasajointsecretariatuntil1981,whentheorganisationsetupitsownsecretariatinHarare.
In1985,membershipwasopeneduptoallAfricanstateswhoweremembersofUNECAortheOrganisationofAfricanUnity(OAU),anditsnamewaschangedtothepresentone,theAfricanRegionalIndustrialPropertyOrganisation(ARIPO).
ARIPOwasmainlyestablishedtopooltheresources,humanandfinancial,ofitsmembersinengagingwithIPRissues.
CurrentARIPOmembersaredrawnmostlyfromEnglish-speakingEastandSouthernAfrica,withtheexceptionofSouthAfrica.
UnlikeOAPIinWestAfrica,ARIPO'sprotocolsarenotbindingonitsmembers.
ARIPO'sprimaryworkisinresearchingandregisteringpatentsforitsmembercountries.
OAU–OrganisationofAfricanUnityTheOAU,asmentionedabove,playedaroleintheformationofOAPIand,aswillbeseenlater,playedaroleinthedraftingofModelLegislationforintellectualproperty.
TheOAUwasdisbandedin2001,atthetimeofthecreationoftheAfricanUnion.
UNECA–UNEconomicCommissionforAfrica,AddisAbabaUNECAhashadastrongpresencesinceitsinceptionin"informationsociety"issuesandhasbeenactiveonanumberofintellectualpropertyandICTforDevelopment(ICT4D)fronts.
TheAfricaInformationSocietyInitiative(AISI)documentof1998isakeyone,andcanbeseenashavinganimpactontheinformationsocietycomponentsoftheNewPartnershipforAfrica'sDevelopment(NEPAD)plan,adoptedbyAfricanstatesattheestablishmentoftheAfricanUnionin2001.
2001:AfricanUnion&NEPADTheestablishmentoftheAfricanUnion,toreplacetheOAUastheprimarybodyrepresentingthecollectiveinterestsofthecontinent,cameaboutin2001,anditscentralstrategyandimplementationplanistheNewPartnershipforAfrica'sDevelopment(NEPAD).
TheNEPADdocumentcallsforAfricannationstotaketheirrightfulplaceintheworldinawiderangeoffields,including,accordingtoParagraph16,enablingAfrica"toincreasehercontributiontoscience,cultureandtechnology.
"NEPADParagraph108callsfor"intensiveuseofICTs"to"facilitatetheintegrationofAfricaintothenewinformationsociety,usingitsculturaldiversityasaleverage.
"NEPADParagraph110liststheobjectiveofdeveloping"localcontentsoftware,basedespeciallyonAfrica'sculturallegacy"andParagraph164referstotheneedfor"culturaltourism.
"NEPADParagraph108alsocallsforICTstobe"usedtoestablishregionaldistancelearning,"andParagraph120liststheobjectiveofpromoting"networksofspecialisedresearchandhighereducationinstitutions,"whileParagraph146callsforAfricannationstodevelop"networksamongexistingcentresofexcellence,especiallythroughtheInternet…"NEPADParagraph144specificallymentionstheareaofintellectualpropertyandWIPO,sayingthatNEPADleaders"willtakeurgentstepstoensurethatindigenousknowledgeisprotectedinAfricathroughappropriatelegislation.
Theywillalsopromoteitsprotectionattheinternationallevel,byworkingcloselywiththeWorldIntellectualPropertyOrganisation.
"BilateralFreeTradeAgreements(FTAs)InspiteoftheexistenceofregionsIPbodiessuchasOAPIandARIPO,andcontinentalorganisationssuchasUNECAandtheAUwithastatedinterestinintellectualpropertymatters,muchoftheimportantrule-makingonintellectualpropertyinAfricaiscurrentlyoccurringatthelevelofbilateralfreetradeagreements(FTAs).
Asithasdoneinotherpartsoftheworld(includingdevelopedcountriessuchasAustralia),theUnitedStatesisseeking"TRIPSPlus"intellectualpropertyclausesinitsFTAswithAfricancountries.
TheUShasalreadysucceededinsecuringTRIPSPlusprovisionsinitsrecentFTAwithMorocco,andtherearesignsofaclearpushforsimilarmeasuresinthedealcurrentlybeingnegotiatedbetweentheOfficeoftheUSTradeRepresentative(USTR)andtheSouthernAfricanCustomsUnion(SACU),thetradingblockmadeupofSouthAfrica,Swaziland,Lesotho,BotswanaandNamibia.
Intheir2005"MemorandumontheFreeTradeAgreementnegotiationsbetweentheUnitedStatesandtheSouthernAfricanCustomsUnion,"PrabhalaandCainefortheAA2LMinSouthernAfricaprojectoutlinetheUSTR'sexplicitaimtosecurethefollowingTRIPS-PlusprovisionsintheUS-SACUFTA:Extensionofcopyrighttermbeyond50yearsCurbsonparallelimportingMeasuressimilartothoseintheUSDigitalMillenniumCopyrightAct(DCMA)thatwouldhavetheeffectoflimitingfairdealinginelectroniccontent(Prabhala&Caine,2005)TheUShasalsobegunFTAtalkswithEgypt,anditcanbeexpectedthatsimilarTRIPS-Plusprovisionswillbesought.
AppropriateMechanismsforAfricaThedifficultyforAfricannationstryingtotakestandsatthelevelofWTO-WIPO,orinFTAtalkswiththeUS,isthat,ontopoftheirshortfallsinfinancialandhumanresourcestotakeonthebigplayers,AfricannationsarefacedwiththerealitythatmanyoftheprevailingnotionsandlegalitiesthatdominatecontemporaryIntellectualPropertyRights(IPR)discourseandrule-makingdonotsuittheAfricancontext.
Thisfact,alongwiththecurrentdominationofintellectualpropertyrightsownershipbynon-Africanfirms,canleadonetothepessimisticviewthatmostAfricannationshavenothingtogainandeverythingtolosefromtheirparticipationintheprevailingWestern-originatedintellectualdispensation.
Ifonetriestobelesspessimistic,onecanpointtosomeoftheexistingflexibilitiesintheintellectualpropertysystemthatAfricannationsmayonsomeoccasionsbenefitfrommakinguseof.
Forinstance,wehavealreadyseenhowSouthAfricawasabletoforcethehandofinternationalpharmaceuticalcompaniesthroughamovetoimplementTRIPS-sanctionedexceptionsontheimportandmanufactureoflife-savingdrugs.
Andmanybodies,includingtheUKCommissiononIntellectualProperty,assertthatTRIPSexceptionscanprobablybeexploitedbydevelopingnationstoimproveaccesstoessentialeducationalmaterials.
EducationalMaterialsAsexplicitlyrecognisedintheNewPartnershipforAfrica'sDevelopment(NEPAD)foundingdocument(seeearliersection),digitaltechnologies(ICTs)andnetworks(internet)haveanimportantroletoplayinexpanding/improvingeducationdelivery,puttingknowledge/researchoutputsintothepublicdomain,andfacilitatingcollaborationsamongtertiaryinstitutionsandresearchbodies.
Aswillbeseeninthesectionsfollowingthisone,someofthispotentialshowssignsofbeingharnessedthroughrecentdevelopmentsin:universityinstitutionalrepositoriesuniversityelectronicthesesanddissertations(ETDs)databasesuniversitygrouplicencesfordatabaseson-linejournalse-learningplatformsschoolson-linecurriculumandsupportfreeandopensourcesoftware(FOSS)archivingButthereisconcernthatthedigital,networkedenvironmentisnotyieldingasmuchbenefitforAfricaneducationasitcould,andthatmanyofthepracticesoflargepublishing/contenthouses,supportedbyinternationalandnationalIPRrules,aretoblame.
Forinstance,theinexpensiveandwidespreaddiffusionofeducationmaterialsmadepossiblebydigitisationanddigitalnetworksisbeingunderminedbythecontinuingvaguenessandrestrictivenessof"fairdealing"(called"fairuse"intheUS)exceptionrulesinnationalcopyrightlawsandregulations.
Fairdealing,whichdrawitsbasisfromtheIPRexceptionsallowedundertheBerneConvention's"three-steptest"(seeearlier"IPRExceptions"section),allowsstudents,librariansandteachers/professorstocopyanddistributecertainamountsofpublishedmaterialforteaching/learningpurposes,withoutpermissionofthecopyrightholder.
Butthelimitsontheamountofaworkthatcanbecopied,andthenumberofcopiesthatcanbemade,arestrict.
Thetraditionalpublishingcompanies,whogeneratemuchoftheirincomefromsalesofhard-copiesoftextbooks,lobbytoensurethatfairdealingrulesremainstrict.
WehavealsoseenhowtheUS,throughTRIPS-Plusprovisionsinfreetradeagreements(FTAs),ispotentiallyshrinkingfairdealingevenfurtherinAfrica,throughmeasuressimilartothoseintheUSDigitalMillenniumCopyrightAct(DCMA).
Meanwhile,thereisalsoevidencethattheinternationaleducationalpublishers,similartotheinternationalpharmaceuticalcompanies,arechargingmorethantheyneedtofortheproductstheyprovidetoAfricaandotherpartsofthedevelopingworld.
An'EssentialTextbooks'CampaignSo,justastherehasbeenan"essentialmedicines"campaign,pushingfornon-proprietaryproductionandsaleofcertaindrugsbeforetheendoftheir20-yearpatent,sotoothereisnowapushfromsomeactivistsfor"essentialtextbooks"tobefreed-upbeforetheendoftheircopyrightterms.
Digitisationanddigitalnetworkscouldplayakeyroleinagenerictextbooksmodel,allowingforprintingofcheapebookversionsofchaptersortextsbyschoolsandteachersconnectedtotheinternet.
Africanpublishinghousescouldalsobenefitfromnothavingtopayforcopyrightpermissiontousematerialfromgenerictextsindevelopmentoflocaltextsorindevelopinglocaltranslationsoftexts.
TK,IK&TCE/FolkloreButtherearesomeelementsofintellectualpropertythatdonotreadilyfitwithintheexistingWestern(individualistic,capitalistic)IPRsystempropogatedbyWIPOandtheWTO.
Africannationsarehometomultitudesofexamplesoftraditionalknowledge(TK),indigenousknowledge(IK)andtraditionalculturalexpressions(TCE,or"folklore").
ThereareseveralwaysinwhichtheworldasseenbytheWTOandWIPObureaucratshasgreatdifficultycateringtotheworldsofTK,IKandTCE:Ownership–muchtraditionalorindigenousknowledgeis,byitsverynature,communally-held,andthusdoesnotlenditselftothenotionsofprivateownershipthatlieattheheartofthepatent,trademarkandcopyrightsystemsoverseenbyWTO-WIPO;Time–muchoftraditionalorindigenousknowledgeis,byitsverynature,old,andseemingly"alwaysthere"inthepastandpresent,makingthetimelimits(20yearsforpatents,creator'slifeplus50yearsforcopyright)thataretypicaloftheWTO-WIPOregimeveryclumsyandevenirrelevant;Representation/recording–muchTCE/folkloreisnotphysicallytangible,existinginthemindsofthosewhoknowitandonlyseldombeing"performed"orally,whilethesystemsofpatent,trademarkandcopyrightarebasedonprotectionofphysicallymanifested(audio,visual,text,performance)representationsofideas/creativity.
SomeTCE/folklore(e.
g.
,asacredpractice)isnot,bycustom,supposedtobemanifestedbeyondveryparticularsituations–orevenviewedbynon-membersofacommunityorsegmentsofacommunity.
Redress–inspiteoftheslipperinessofTK,IKandTCE/folkloreintermsofprevailingIPRnotionsofownership,timeandrepresentation,thathasn'tstoppedbusinesspeople–oftennotconnectedtothecommunityfromwhichtheTK,IKorTCE/folklorecomes–frommakingmoneyoutofcommercialapplicationsofthesethings.
Best-knownarethecasesofpharmaceuticalfirmsmakinghugeprofitsfromdrugsbasedontraditionalmedicinalknowledge.
Andonecanbecertainthattheworld'sindigenouspeoplesarenotgettingmuchdirectfinancialbenefitfromtheuseoftheirtraditionalimageryontheT-shirts,coffeemugsandplayingcardssoldinairportsandbig-citytouristdistricts.
Inmanycases,commercialexploitationofTK,IKandTCE/folklorehasgonehand-in-handwithdisenfranchisementofpeoples(e.
g.
,theaboriginalpeoplesofNorthandLatinAmerica,Australia,NewZealand,SouthAfricaandJapan).
TheexistingWTO-WIPOIPRdispensationdoesnotcatertonotionsof"redress"orspecialrightsforintellectualpropertythathasbeenabusedandexploitedunfairly.
Sowhat,itisreasonabletoask,doesthe"digitalinformationcommons"havetooffertotheworldofTK,IKandTCE/folkloreInsomecases,astrongargumentcanbemadefornotrecording,digitisingandgrantingnetworkedpublicaccesstoTK,IKandTCE/folklore.
Forintangibleintellectualproperty,digitaldocumentation/representationhasthepotentialtounderminetheverynatureoftheknowledgeortomakeitvulnerabletoindividual–asopposedtocollective–claimsofownership.
Butinothercases,digitisation,documentationandpublic-sharingofinformationcanplayaroleinsecuringacommunity'sorethnicgroup'scontrolovertheknowledgeanditsuses,particularlyitscommercialuses.
Forinstance,anindigenousgroupmaywanttotakestepstopreventuse(recording,documentationandarchiving/distribution)ofcertainsacredrituals,whileatthesametimeactivelydocumentingandestablishingownershipoversomething(amedicinalcure,astyleofart)thatisnotsacredandwhichcouldhavecommercialbenefitforthecommunity/nationifexploitedcommercially.
Inbothcases,somekindofpublicrecord/databasecanbeofuse.
SuiGenerisModelsOnewayforAfricannationstolookdealwithTK,IKandTCE/folkloreistodevelopsuigeneris(appropriatetothesituation)policies,lawsandregulations,eitheratnationalorregionallevel.
The1992RioSummitConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD)establishedprinciplesandsystemsforindigenouspeoplestobenefitfromexploitationofTK,inthiscasebiologicalTK.
TheseprovisionshavenotbeenincorporatedintoTRIPSbutareusefulingivingweighttothedevelopmentofsuigenerisnationalorregionalprocedures.
Anotherusefulmodelisthe1998-99OAUDraftModelLegislationonCommunityRightsandAccesstoBiologicalResources(Musungu&Dutfield,2003).
Meanwhile,Article15.
4ofthe1967amendedversionofBerneincludedameasuretoprotectunpublishedandunprotectedworks,andtheTunisModelLawonCoyrightforDevelopingCountriesincludesuigenerisprotectionforfolkloreexpressions.
In1982WIPOworkedwithUNESCOtodevelopasuigenerismodelforprotectionoffolklore,knownastheWIPO-UNESCOModelProvisions,and1997sawtheUNESCO-WIPOWorldForumontheProtectionofFolkloreinPhuket,Thailand.
In1998-99,WIPOdidfact-findingin28countriestoidentify"needsandexpectations"amongindigenousgroupsandothersaroundIPRprotectionforTEC/folklore.
In1999,WIPOandUNESCOheldanAfricanregionalconsultationonTEC/folkloreinPretoria,SouthAfrica,andin2000,WIPOsetupitsIntergovernmentalCommittee(IGC)onIntellectualProperty&GeneticResources,TraditionalKnowledge&Folklore.
InNovember2004,theIGCSecretariatjnGenevareleasedan"OverviewofPolicyObjectivesandCorePrinciples"documentfortraditionalculturalexpressions(TCEs)andexpressionsoffolklore(EoF)attheIGC'sSeventhSession,andthisdocumentcontainssomeusefulobjectivesandprinciplesthatAfricannationscouldseektoincorporateintotheirnationallaws,including:RespectforcustomaryuseandtransmissionofTCEs/EoFPromotionofcommunitydevelopmentGuardingagainstawardingofinvalidIPrightsTheindivisibility,inmanycommunitiesofpeople,betweentraditional/indigenousknowledgeandculture(TCEs/EoF)NationalPolicies&LawsAtpresentverylittleisbeingdoneinAfricancountriestodevelopnationally-appropriateintellectualpropertyapproaches,buttherearesomeexceptions.
IndigenousKnowledgeSystems(IKS)Policy,SouthAfricahttp://www.
dst.
gov.
za/reports/iks_policy.
pdfThispolicy,adoptedbytheSouthAfricanCabinetinNovember2004andbeingchampionedbytheSouthAfricanDepartmentofScienceandTechnology(DST),isanattemptataholisticapproachtoprotectionoftraditionalknowledge,indigenousknowledgeandculture/folklore.
ThoughdrivenbytheDST,itistobeoverseenbyanadvisorystructuremadeupofrepresentativesfromseveralgovernmentdepartments,including:ScienceandTechnology,EducationandArts&Culture.
Thepolicyisclearlyattemptingtofindthebalancebetweenrespecting/protectingtraditionontheonehandand,onother,enablingcommunityeconomicdevelopmentthroughexploitationofthecommercialvalueoftraditional/indigenousknowledgeandculture.
Ofnoteisthepolicy'sclearcallforstructuresforengagementwithSouthAfrica'straditionalleaders.
Contact:Dr.
MogegeMosimegemogege.
mosimege@dst.
gov.
zaPublicly-FundedIPBill,SouthAfricaAnimportantinitiativeinSouthAfrica,alsodrivenbytheDepartmentofScience&Technology,isitsdraftlegislationonpublicly-fundedintellectualproperty.
Thedraftbill,notyetapprovedbyCabinetfortablinginParliament,aimstoensure:thatcommercially-valuablepublicly-fundedintellectualproperty(fromuniversities,researchinstitutesandtheprivatesector)isexploitedinthepublicinterest,i.
e.
,notalwayswiththeaimoffullprofitmaximisationthatpublicly-fundedresearchoutputsare,bydefault,putintothepublicdomainonanopen-accessbasis,encouragingfollow-oninnovationThedraftbillarisesfromtheDST'spushtosimultaneouslyincreaseinnovationviaopenaccessandincreasetherateofbeneficialIPpatentinginSouthAfrica.
Someoftheoppositiontoaspectsofthedraftbillcomesfromuniversitiesconcernedaboutthebill'sintentiontoforcetertiaryinstitutionstoreleaseresearchdataintothepublicdomain.
http://www.
dst.
gov.
zaContacts:AdiPatersonc/oCeliwe.
msibi@dst.
gov.
zaBhaviniKalanBdk7@iafrica.
comOpenSourceinSouthAfricaTheDepartmentofScience&TechnologyhasalsoledthewayatCabinetlevelinSouthAfricaningettinggovernmentcommitmenttoincreasetheuseoffreeandopensourcesoftwareinthepublicsector.
Aparastatalresearchbody,theCSIR,hasaspecialisedOpenSourceCentrecalledMeraka(see"FOSS"sectionbelow).
Research,PolicyInputs&AdvocacyAPC–AssociationforProgressiveCommunicationshttp://www.
apc.
orgAsmentionedearlierinthe"Activists"section,theAPChasbeenakeyplayerinadvocatingforafreeandegalitarianon-lineenvironmentsincetheearly1990s.
ItscurrentExecutiveDirectorisaSouthAfrican,AnrietteEsterhuysen,basedinJohannesburg,givingtheAPCastrongAfricanpresence.
TheAPC'swebsiteusesCreativeCommonslicencestopublishcontent,andtheAPCisoneofthepartnersintheItrainOnlinee-learningcoursewareseries.
Contact:AnrietteEsterhuysenanriette@apc.
orgA2LM–AccesstoLearningMaterialsinSouthernAfricaProjecthttp://www.
access.
org.
zaBegunin2004,thisproject,hostedbytheConsumerInstituteforSouthAfrica(CISA)inJohannesburgandfundedfromtheOpenSocietyInstitute(OSI),istacklingarangeofdynamicresearchandadvocacyareas,including:"TRIPS-Plus"copyrightaspectsofUSFreeTradeAgreement(FTA)talkswiththeSouthAfricanCustomsUnion(SACU)countriesofSouthAfrica,Lesotho,Swaziland,BotswanaandNamibiaAnalysisofaffordabilityoflearningmaterials,anduserperspectiveonlearningmaterialaccess,inSouthAfricaAnalysisoftheSouthAfricanPrintIndustriesClusterCouncilreportonintellectualpropertyrightsAnalysisofpossibleapplicationofTRIPSflexibilities(exceptions)forlearningmaterialsintheSouthernAfricancontextParticipationintheinternationalAccesstoKnowledge(A2K)TreatydiscussionsMuchoftheA2LMoutputisonitswebsite,listedabove.
TheprojecthostedaninternationalA2LMconferenceinJohannesburginJanuary(mysuggestionistodeletewhatIhavejustdeleted)Contact:AchalPrabhalaachal@access.
org.
zaAPSID-CI–l'AssociationpourlaPromotiondesSciencesdel'informationDocumentaire,CoteD'Ivoirehttp://www.
apsidci.
org/Thislibrarianstradeassociationwasformedin2002andissupportedbytheUSandGermanEmbassiesinAbidjan.
Itadvocatesforrelaxationofthecountry'scopyrightlawsaroundfairdealingandstagespublicevents,includingarecentBookCaravaninAbidjan.
APSID-CIisalsoinvolvedinaNationalDigitalResourceproject.
MarieLaureAngoranlangoran@hotmail.
comangoranml@state.
govAVLIN-AfricanVirtualLibrary&InformationNetworkHttp://www.
Uneca.
Org/Temp2/Avlin/Home1.
HtmTheAfricanVirtualLibraryandInformationNetwork(AVLIN),aprojectoftheUnitedNationsEconomicCommissionforAfrica(UNECA)inAddisAbaba,aimsto"formawebofvirtuallibrariesandknowledgeexchanges,"tolinkAfricanlibraries,informationcentresandspecialisednetworks.
Contacts:AbrahamAginaAzubuikeaazubuike@uneca.
orgFelixUbogu,UniiversityLibrarian,WitsUniversity,JohannesburgUbogu.
f@library.
wits.
ac.
zaBridges.
org,CapeTownhttp://www.
bridges.
org/Bridgesisaninternationalnon-profitthatspecialisesinICTpolicy,technologyresearch,andICTprojectevaluations.
Allbridges.
orgreportsaremadeavailableunderaCreativeCommonsAttribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs2.
0Licence.
Bridgeswillbecollaboratingin2005-06withCreativeCommonsandtheOpenKnowledgeNetwork(OKN)inpromotingtheuseofCreativeCommonslicencesinEastAfrica.
Contact:PhilippSchmidtresearch@bridges.
orgHANA--TheHighwayAfricaNewsAgency,Grahamstown,SouthAfricahttp://www.
highwayafrica.
ru.
ac.
za/hana/TheHighwayAfricaNewsAgency,anoffshootoftheannualHighwayAfricaconferenceatRhodesUniversityinGrahamstown,SouthAfrica,hasforthepastseveralyearsbeenreportingfrommajoreventsconnectedtomediaandICTpolicyforthecontinent.
HANAreportedextensivelyonWSISprocessesin2003,onAfricaTelecom2004inCairoandtheApril2005ICANNmeetinginArgentina.
Theagency'stargetaudienceisjournalistsandeditorsaroundthecontinent.
ItsreportersaredrawnmainlyfromSouthandEastAfrica,includingEthiopia,Kenya,Uganda,ZimbabweandSouthAfrica.
TheprojecthasdecidedtostartpublishingallitscontentunderCreativeCommonslicences.
Contact:ChrisKabwatoc.
kabwato@ru.
ac.
zaSAIDE--SouthAfricanInstituteforDistanceEducationhttp://www.
saide.
org.
zaFormallyfoundedin1992butwithitsbeginningsinthe1980sduringtheapartheidstruggle,SAIDEhasdoneawiderangeofresearchprojectsaroundICTuseforeducationalpurposes.
ArecentpublicationisaguidetoICTuseforschoolprincipals:http://www.
saide.
org.
za/resources/0000000108/final_saide_layout(screen).
pdfContact:MarylaBialobrzeskamarylab@saide.
org.
zaLINKCentre,WitsUniversity,Johannesburghttp://link.
wits.
ac.
zaTheLINKCentre,hostinstitutionforCreativeCommonsSouthAfricaandfortheCommons-senseProjectofwhichthisGuideispart,isaleadingpublic-interestresearchandtrainingcentrewithintheWitsUniversityGraduateSchoolofPublicandDevelopmentManagement(P&DM).
TheLINKCentreprovidesbothcertificatecoursesandMaster's-levelcreditsintelecommunications,broadcastingandICTsubjects,aswellascoordinatingtheResearchICTAfrica(RIA)networkofresearchersfromaroundEastandSouthernAfrica.
Intheareaofintellectualpropertyandcopyright,LINK'sCommons-Senseprojecthasthefollowingkeyactivitiesfor2005-06:popularizingtheuseofCreativeCommons(cc)licencingintheSADCregionlaunchingasetofSouthAfrican-specificcclicencesthatareappropriatetotheexistingSouthAfricancopyrightregimehostingthe"Commons-sense"conferenceinJohannesburginMay2005CollaboratingwithBrazilianactivistsindevelopingstrategiesfordeveloping-countryopencontentmediaandculturalproductionContact:HeatherFordFord.
h@pdm.
wits.
ac.
zaSANGONeT--SouthernAfricanNon-GovernmentalOrganisationNetworkhttp://sangonet.
org.
za/SANGONeTwasfoundedinSouthAfrica1987asWorknet,apioneeringICTnetworkingcivilsocietyorganisation.
AnaffiliateoftheAssociationforProgressiveCommunications(APC),SANGONeTcurrentkeyofferingstocivilsocietyaretechnologyservices,trainingandinformationnetworking.
IthasbeenhostingcivilsocietyICTforums,called"Thetas"inrecentyears,anditsMay2005ThetawillbringtogetherinterestedpartiesfromaroundSADCtostrategisearounduseofCreativeCommonslicencesintheregion.
Contact:DavidBarnarddbarnard@sangonet.
org.
zaWomen'snet,SouthAfricahttp://womensnet.
org.
za/OriginallyaprojectofSANGONeT,Women'snetisnowastand-aloneSouthAfricanaffiliateoftheAssociationforProgressiveCommunicationsfocusingongenderandICTintermsadvocacy,trainingandcontentdevelopment.
Contact:NatashaPrimonatasha@womensnet.
org.
zaSomeKeyFundersThefollowingaresomeofthefunderssupportingAfrican"informationcommons"workinonewayoranother:IDRC–InternationalDevelopmentResearchCentre(IDRC),AcaciaProjecthttp://www.
idrc.
caTheIDRCAcaciaprojectissupportingtheCommons-SenseinitiativeattheWitsLINKCentre,ofwhichthisGuideispart.
AcaciaisanAfrica-wideICT-focussedinitiativethatsupportsawiderangeofcontent,connectivity,accessandpolicyinterventions.
Contact:HeloiseEmdonheloisee@dbsa.
orgOSI–OpenSocietyInstitute,InformationProgrammehttp://www.
soros.
orgTheOSI'sInformationProgrammeisakeydriveroftheglobal"openaccess"movement,includingseveralinstitutionalrepositoryandopenaccessjournalprojectsinAfrica.
Contact:VeraFranzvfranz@osieurope.
orgOSISA–OpenSocietyInitiativeforSouthernAfrica,ICTProgrammehttp://www.
osiafrica.
org/AstheSADCmemberoftheSoros-OSIfamily,OSISAsupportsawiderangeof"informationcommons"initiatives,includingFOSSprojects,e-learningandCreativeCommonslicencing.
Contact:AshrafPatelashrafp@osiafrica.
orgPartnershipforHigherEducationinAfrica–Carnegie,Ford,MacArthur&Rockefellerhttp://www.
foundation-partnership.
orgThispartnershipfund,financedbytheCarnegieCorporationofNewYork,theFordFoundation,theJohnD.
&CatherineT.
MacArthurFoundationandtheRockefellerFoundation,beganinMay2000,andhasastrongICTelement.
ThepartnershiphastakenmuchofitsICTvisionfromthethinkingoftheUNEconomicCommissionforAfrica(UNECA),custodiansofthelate-1990sPanAfricanDevelopmentInformationSystem(PADIS)andAfricanInformationSocietyInitiative(AISI).
Thepartnership'sdocumentsspeakofICTasthe"linchpin"Intermsofthispartnership,theFordFoundationissupporting:theAssociationofAfricanUniversities(AAU)DATAD(DatabaseofAfricanThesesandDissertations)projectcollaborationbetweenTuftsUniversityintheUnitedStates,Uganda'sMakerereUniversityandTanzania;sUniversityofDaresSalaaminthedevelopmentandfacilitatingofanelectroniccurriculumininternationalrelationsdigitisationofthecollectionsoftheMozambicanHistoricalArchivesTheRockefellerFoundationisalsosupportingDATAD(See"DATAD"entrybelow).
Mellon–MellonFoundation,Ithaka&AlukaProjectshttp://www.
ithaka.
org/http://www.
ithaka.
org/aluka/Ithakaisanot-for-profitorganisationfundedbyMellonthatsupportstheuseofITinhighereducationcontexts.
TheAlukaproject,asub-programmeofIthaka,isfocussesondigitalarchvivingofscholarlyresourcesfromthedevelopingworld.
Aluka'sfirstfocusregionisAfrica,anditaimstosupportdigitalarchivingofmaterial"thatisimportantforresearchandteachingbothinthecountriesoftheregionandintheworldwidescholarlycommunity.
"DISAinSouthAfricagetsAlukasupport(seeDISAentryunder"Archives"section).
OpenContent(CreativeCommons)inAfricaUseofCreativeCommons(cc)licencesisstartingtogrowinSouthAfrica,andmanyoftheinitiativesoutlinedintherestofthisGuidearemakingtheirmaterialsavailableon-linewithCreativeCommonslicencesCreativeCommonslicencingisalreadybeingused,orisintheprocessofbeingadopted,by:WitsUniversityLINKCentre,hostinstitutionforCreativeCommonsSouthAfrica(ccSA)Bridges.
org,CapeTownKEWLe-learningplatform,UniversityoftheWesternCape,CapeTownAPC–AssociationforProgressiveCommunicationsWomen'snetCATIA–CatalysingAccesstoICTsinAfricaHANA-HighwayAfricaNewsAgencyThutongNationalEducationPortal,SouthAfricaSchoolnetAfricaFundedbytheOpenSocietyInitiativeforSouthernAfrica,andwithadvocacysupportfromtheAPC,CreativeCommonsworkshopswereheldinGrahamstown,Accra,Windhoek,JohannesburgandCapeTowninlate2004andearly2005.
PresentationsoncclicencingwerealsomadeattheHighwayAfricaandIdleloconferencesinGrahamstownandCapeTownrespectivelyin2004.
CapeTown'sbridges.
orgconsultancyisrunningaprojectwiththeOpenKnowledgeNetworktotryto"port"CreativeCommonslicencingtofourorfiveAfricancountriesin2005,andtodoresearchonthefeasibilityofapplyCreativeCommonsapproachestoprotectionofAfricanindigenousknowledge.
Theformallegal"porting"ofthecclicenceintoSouthAfricabeganwithafirstdraftinJuly2004,developedbyJohannesburglawyerAndrewRens(currentlybasedinSanFrancisco).
ThisdraftreceivedpublicinputsinMarch2005atworkshopsinJohannesburgandCapeTown.
TheofficiallaunchofCreativeCommonsSouthAfrica(ccSA)isnowsetfortheeveningof25May2005inJohannesburgattheRosebankHotel,astheopeningeventofaninternationalconferenceentitled"Commons-Sense:TowardsanAfricanDigitalInformationCommons"thatwillrunforthenexttwodays(May26-27)attheWitsUniversityGraduateSchoolofPublic&DevelopmentManagement(P&DM).
Thefirsthard-copydraftofthisGuidewillbedistributedatthatsame"Commons-Sense"conference.
OpenAccessinAfricaAsinthedevelopingworld,someofthestrongestopenaccessworkinAfricasofarhasemergedfromtheuniversities,drivenbylibrariansandcomputerscientists.
ManyoftheAfrican"digitalinformationcommons"initiativesoutlinedintherestofthisGuidearebeingdrivenbythetertiaryeducationsector.
Butfortunately,therearealsostrongcivilsociety,foundationandgovernmentplayersinvolved.
Mostoftheinitiativesoutlinedbelowfulfill–orareaimingtofulfill--someifnotallofthecriteriaof"openaccess"outlinedearlierintermsoftheBudapestOpenAccessInitiative:http://www.
soros.
org/openaccess.
SomeareevengoingforfullCreativeCommonsopencontentlicencing,allowingvirtuallyunlimitednon-commercialuse,includingadaptation,oftheiron-linematerials.
ClarificationofTerms–'OpenAccess'&'OpenContent'Theuseoftheterms"openaccess"and"opencontent"cansometimesgetconfusing,becausetheyareoftenusedtomeanthesamething.
ForthepurposesofthisGuidewetreatthetwoconceptsasslightlydifferentbutascomplementaryandoverlapping:Theopenaccessmovement,drivenbytertiarylibrariansandeducationists,isprimarilyconcernedwithgettinginformationon-lineforanyonetolookatanduseinanynon-commercialway,butwithoutmakingderivativesTheopencontentmovement,driventoagreatextentbythelegalandculturalmindsassociatedwiththeCreativeCommonsproject,emphasisestheplain-languagelicencingofcontenton-linetomakeitsimpleforuserstounderstandtheirusagerights,andtoevenencourageuserstonotmerelyaccessandusebutalsoto"adapt"(makederivatives)andeventomakecommercialuseofthecontentinsomecases,inordertoenhancetheflowofcreativityandfreeculturalproductionThus,opencontentisbroaderinorientationthanopenaccess.
Inmanycases,aprojectwillbeboth"openaccess"and"opencontent"inorientation.
Theideal,asfarastheoriginaldraftersofthisGuideareconcerned,isforprojectstobebothopenaccessandopencontent,i.
e.
,fullyaccessiblewithcontentthatcanbefullymanipulatedandevenexploitedbytheuser.
Butlestopencontentbeseenasbeing"openeverything"andaperpetualgiveawayofauthor'srights,rememberthekeyprovisionsinCreativeCommonslicences:WithallbutoneoftheCreativeCommonslicences,theauthorhangsontotherighttocommercialexploitationoftheworkAllCreativeCommonslicences,liketheGNU/GPLlicencetheydrawtheirinspirationfrom,requiretheusertomakeher/hisderivativesordistributionsofaworkavailableunderthesameCreativeCommonslicenceviawhichshe/accessestheoriginalwork(i.
e.
,theCreativeCommons"sharealike"provision)UniversityInstitutionalRepositoriesRhodesUniversityeResearchRepository(ReRR),Grahamstown,SouthAfricahttp://eprints.
ru.
ac.
zaSpearheadedbyRhodesUniversityLibraryandtheRhodesUniversityInformationTechnologyDivision,theRhodeseResearchRepositorycurrentlycontainsfull-textthesesanddissertations.
Atalaterstage,itwillalsoincludetheacademicandresearchoutputofRhodesUniversity,i.
e.
,journalarticlesandconferencepapers.
Testingfortheprojecttookplacein2004,withimplementationbeginningin2005,usingtheEPrintssoftware.
RhodesstudentsaregivenaformtocompletewhensubmittingthesesanddissertationswhichgivespermissiontotheLibrarytopublishthee-versionsontheInternet,ortolimitaccesstotheuniversityintranetforaperiodofuptofiveyears.
TheReRRistoberegisteredwiththeinternationalOpenArchivesInitiative,allowingitsmetadatatobeharvested.
Theuniversityisnowdoinganinvestigationintowhichjournals–e.
g.
,Elsevier–allowauthorstoarchivetheirarticlesinlocaluniversityrepositories.
TheRhodesLibraryisalsoapproachingRhodesresearcherswhocontributedarticlestotheRhodesCentenaryissueoftheSouthAfricanJournalofSciencetoseekpermissiontoarchivetheirarticlesintheReRR.
Thepublisherofthejournalisalsobeingengages.
Contact:IreneVermaakI.
Vermaak@ru.
ac.
zaUniversityofCapeTown,Dept.
ofComputerScienceAdvancedInformationManagementLaboratoryhttp://aim.
cs.
uct.
ac.
za/http://pubs.
cs.
uct.
ac.
za/http://www.
cs.
uct.
ac.
za/ThisprojectatUCT,begunin2003,conductsresearchintoadvancedinformationmanagementtechniques,includingdatabases,digitallibraries,artificialintelligence,knowledgemanagementanddistributed,scientificandclustercomputing.
Itisalsoaleadingproponentofopen-accessarchiving,makingallitsresearchoutputsavailableontheInternetandadvocatingtheestablishmentofinstitutionalrepositoriesinotherdepartmentsandatotherinstitutions.
TheResearchDocumentArchiverunsontheGNUEPrintsopensourcearchive-creatingsoftware.
Contact:HusseinSulemanHussein@cs.
uct.
ac.
zaUniversityofNamibia(UNAM)InstitutionalRepositoryhttps://dspace.
unam.
na:8443/dspacehttp://wwwisis.
unam.
nahttp://greennstone.
unam.
nahttp://greenstone.
unam.
na/ojs/TheUNAMLibraryisinvolvedinvariousactivitiestomakelocalinformationavailableonitsIntranetandontheInternet,includingspecialiseddatabases,Namibianthesesanddissertations,examinationpapersandarchivalresources.
UNAMisalsoworkingtowardssettingupane-journalcalledNamibiaDevelopmentJournal.
Installationoftheinstitutionalrepositorybeganin2004,withtrainingofUNAMusers.
TheBudapestOpenAccessInitiativepolicyhasbeenacceptedbytheSenateoftheUniversityofNamibia,aftergoingthroughalltheappropriatecommittees.
AllthatremainsistheformalsigningofauniversityOAIpolicy.
UNAMthenwantstoinvolveotherNamibianinstitutions,suchastheNationalMuseum,theNationalArchives,theMinistryofEducation.
Contact:RenateMorgensternrmorgenstern@unam.
naUniversityElectronicTheses&Dissertations(ETDs)DATAD–DatabaseofAfricanTheses&Dissertationshttp://www.
aau.
org/datad/AprojectoftheAssociationofAfricanUniversities(AAU)since2000,DATADaimstodevelopanelectronicindexofallAfricanthesesanddissertationspastandpresent–usingacommonformat--andtodisseminatethisindexaswidelyaspossibleviaInternetandCD-ROM,forthepurposeof"promotionandexchangeofknowledge"(Hailu,2002).
DATADalsoaimstoincreaseuniversities'capacitytorespondtorequestsfordatabasedontheindex,toencourageinstitutionstomakeentirethesesanddissertations–asopposedtoabstracts--availableon-line,andtoencouragethepublicationofpeer-reviewedarticlesbasedonAfricanthesisanddissertationresearch.
Linkedtothislatterobjectiveareattemptstodevelopcopyrightapproachesandarchivalregulationsappropriatetothedigitalon-linerealm.
ParticipatinginstitutionsareinCameroon,CoteD'Ivoire,Egypt,Ethiopia,Ghana,Mozambique,SouthAfrica,Senegal,Tanzania,UgandaandZimbabwe.
DATADissupportedbyboththeFordandRockefellerFoundationsaspartofthePartnershipforHigherEducationinAfrica,http://www.
foundation-partnership.
org/linchpin/introduction.
phpContact:MaryMateru-Behitsamary@aau.
orgUniversityGroupLicencesforDatabasesSASLI–SouthAfricanSiteLicencingInitiativehttp://www.
cosalc.
ac.
zaTheSouthAfricanSiteLicensingInitiative(SASLI)isaprojectofCoalitionofSouthAfricanLibraryConsortia(COSALC)andbringstogetherlibrariesofSouthAfricantertiaryeducationandresearchinstitutes,aswellaspublishers,contentaggregatorsandvendors.
A"sitelicence"inthiscasereferstoacountrylicencesharedbyanumberofinstitutionsinSouthAfrica.
Theprojectnegotiateswithelectronicdatabaseownersonbehalfof30tertiarylibrariesandresearchinstitutestosecurefavourableprices,licensetermsandconditions,andothercostbenefitsissuesincludingtraining.
SinceitsinceptioninMay2002,SASLIhasnegotiatedlicencesforaccessto53internationaldatabases,savinginstitutionsatotalofroughly180millionSARands(US$30million).
Thetotalspentbythe30institutionsonthe53databasessinceMay2002hasbeenaroundR100million,insteadoftheroughlyR380millionthey'dhavespentnegotiatingone-on-onedealswiththedatabasepublishers.
Aswell,SASLIhastrained370librariansinSouthAfricaintheusageofdatabaseproducts,andhastrainedanother120librariansinfourotherAfricancountries.
SASLIisalsostartingtoworktowardsgreateruseofreciprocalarrangementsbetweenlibraries,universitydevelopmentofinstitutionalrepositoriesandsharednationalstoragecapacity.
Contact:SusanVeldsmansasli@cosalc.
ac.
zaOn-lineJournals&ResearchPublicationsAJOL–AfricanJournalsOnLinehttp://www.
ajol.
info/Launchedin1998bytheUK-basedInternationalNetworkfortheAvailabilityofScientificPublications(INASP),this"GatewaytoAfricanPublishedResearch"willnow,startingin2005,bemanagedinGrahamstown,SouthAfricabytheNationalInquiryServicesCentre(NISC).
AJOLaimsistoincreasethevisibilityofAfricanjournalsamongresearchersandlibrariansthroughanonlinecatalogue.
TheAJOLwebsitenowlinkstoover195journalsfrom21countries,withmorethan13,000articleabstractsavailableonthesite.
It'sanon-commercialventurefundedbyUNESCOandotherdonors,andthereisnochargetothejournalsfortheirparticipation.
AJOLonlychargesfordocumentdeliveryrequestsfromdeveloped-countrylibrariansandresearchers.
AJOL'sfounder,INASP,wasestablishedbytheInternationalCouncilforSciencein1992,andisaninternationalcharity:http://www.
inasp.
info/ThenewmanagerofAJOL,NISC,hashadapresenceinSouthAfricasince1995.
ItalsohasofficesintheUSandIndia,andpublishesmorethan70worldinformationdatabasesandspecialistjournals.
Contact:MargaretCramptoninfo@nisc.
co.
zaHSRCPress,SouthAfricahttp://www.
hsrcpress.
ac.
zaSouthAfrica'spartially-state-fundedHumanSciencesResearchCouncil(HSRC)hasadoptedwhatitcallsa"dualpublishing"philosophy,sellingitsresearchpublicationsinhard-copyofflinewhileatthesametimeofferingthemfreefordownloadviaanopenaccesswebsite.
TheHSRCPresspublishesupto50titlesayearofpeer-reviewedworkondemocracy,governance,education,artsandculture.
ItspartialstatefundingcomesfromanannualParliamentarygrant.
AccordingHSRCPublishingDirectorGarryRosenberg,quotedinarecentHSRCmediarelease:"Atatimewhentheprivatisationofacademicpublishingisgrowingontheonehand,andeconomicsarelimitingindependentpublicationontheother,itisimportanttocreatesomethingthatisownedandheldcollectivelywithnorestrictiononaccess.
"Inthesamerelease,HSRCMarketingManagerKarenBrunssaysthat"Thecostoftraditionalacademicpublishinghasmeantthatlessandlessimportantresearch,particularlybynewerauthors,isbeingpublished–publishinghousestendtoplayitsafebystickingtorecognisednames,thusdiminishingtheactualamountofcriticaldebateontheshelves.
Butbyofferingseveralpublishingoptions,wehavebeenabletoextendourrangeofauthorsandmaintainahighstandardofqualitypublications.
"Contact:KarenBrunskbruns@hsrc.
ac.
zaE-LearningAfricanVirtualUniversity(AVU)http://www.
avu.
orgBasedinNairobisince1997,theAVUusesvideoandInternetplatforms,andnowvideooverInternet,toprovideinteractivedistanceeducation.
ItemploysbothsatelliteandlandlinedeliverymechanismstosendandreceivecontentandinputsbetweentheAVUandtheAVULearningCentres.
Theon-linelearningmanagementsystemistheproprietaryWebCTplatform,accessedviaInternetbystudentsatAVULearningCentres.
WebCTmakeuseofe-mail,chatanddiscussionforums.
AVUadoptedthe"campus-based"LearningCentremodelofdistanceeducationinordertoovercometheaccessproblemsitsstudentswouldfaceifneedingtosecureInternetaccessprivately.
ManyAVULearningCentresusean"asynchronous"systemofInternetconnectivity–high-bandwidthsatellitedownloadcoupledwithlow-bandwidthland-linereturn-path.
Coursematerials,invideoandwrittenform,aredownloadedandstoredinlocalserversforstudentuse,andtherelativelylow-bandwidthtrafficofstudentinteractionwithprofessorsandeachothergoesoutovertheland-lineInternetconnection,vialocalInternetServiceProviders.
TheWebCTlearningmanagementsystemis"mirrored"offlineattheAVULearningCentreLocalAreaNetworks(LANs),thuseliminatingtheneedforalearnertobeInternet-connectedallofthetime.
ThenextstepinInternetconnectivityforAVULearningCentreswillbetheuseofVSATsatellitetechnologies,whichallowformore"synchronous"(broadbanddownandup)Internetconnectivityandeliminatetheneedtouseland-linesandlocalISPs.
VSATisstillsubjecttoprohibitiveregulatoryrestrictionsinmanyAfricancountries.
VSATisattractivetotheAVUbecauseitwouldallowforthelocationofLearningCentresinruralareasthatarenotontheland-linephonegrid.
Atpresent,mostAVULearningCentresareontheurbancampusesofuniversities.
Theyear2005hasseenthelaunchoftheAVU's"InCountry"Strategy,"whichisdesigned,amongotherthings,toenhancethecapacityofuniversitiesbelongingtotheAVUtoparticipateincurriculumdevelopment.
TheAVUhasformedtwocommittees:theCurriculumCoordinationCommitteerepresentingtheAnglophoneAfricaninstitutionsandtheAcademiqueConseil,theFrancophoneequivalent.
ThesecommitteesaretobecalledupontoworktowardsgreatercontextualizationoflearningprogrammeswithaprimarilyWesternorigin.
TheAVUisalsointheprocessofdevelopinganewOpenDistanceandeLearning(ODeL)CapacityDevelopmentCenterinNairobi.
AVUcoursesareinEnglish,FrenchandPortuguese.
Contact:PaulineNgwimapngimwa@avu.
orgitrainOnlinehttp://www.
itrainonline.
org/Thisseriesofon-linetrainingcurriculaincomputerandInternetskillsisajointinitiativeofsevenorganisations:AssociationforProgressiveCommunications(APC),BellanetInternationalSecretariat,FoodandAgricultureOrganisation(FAO),InternationalInstituteforCommunicationandDevelopment(IICD),InternationalNetworkfortheAvailabilityofScientificPublications(INASP),OneworldNetworkandUNESCOThetrainingmodules–groupedintoBasicSkills,StrategicUse,WebDevelopment,Multimedia,Technical,ResourcesforTrainersandResourcesforWomen–arefully-availableontheitrainwebsite.
ThetargetiscivilsocietyusersintheSouth,andthematerialsareinEnglish,FrenchandSpanish.
Thecurriculaaremadeavailablefreeandas"opencontent,"allowinguserstoreproduce,translateanddisseminated"withoutrestriction.
"Someofthecontent/editorialpartnersindevelopingthecontentare:Alternatives(Canada),theWorldAssociationofCommunityRadioBroadcasters(AMARC),theAPCWomen'sNetworkingSupportProgramme,MakingITWorkforVolunteers(Canada),PanosInstituteWestAfrica,Wamani(Argentina),Women'sNet(SouthAfrica)andRadioforDevelopment(UK)Fundingforitraincomesfrom,amongotherstheWorldBankinfoDevprogramme,theUKDepartmentforInternationalDevelopment(DFID),DGISintheNetherlandsandtheOpenSocietyInstitute(OSI).
KEWL–KnowledgeEnvironmentforWeb-BasedLearning,UniversityoftheWesternCape,CapeTownhttp://kewl.
uwc.
ac.
zaTheKEWLopensourceon-linelearningmanagementsystemhasbeenindevelopmentsince1997attheUniversityoftheWesternCape(UWC)inCapeTown.
KEWLiscurrentlyusedatUWCforabout40coursesinlaw,socialworkandbiology,andhasbeenadoptedbyseveralotherinstitutionsande-learningprojects,includingtheUniversityofGhanaLegonandtheNettel@Africaproject.
ThelatestversionofKEWLiscurrentlybeingtestedbytheUniversityofMakerereinUganda.
UWC'sInformationandCommunicationServicesDepartmentisalsothemaindriveroftheAfrica-wideAVOIRopen-sourceproject,andhostedthefirstIdleloAfricanopensourceconferencein2004(seeseparateentriesonAVOIRandIdlelounderthe"Free&OpenSourceSoftware(FOSS)"section.
Contact:DerekKeatsdkeats@uwc.
ac.
zaNetTel@AfricaTrainingProjecthttp://www.
nettelafrica.
org/TheNetTelTrainingProject,aninternationalcollaborationbetweenUSandAfricanuniversities,aimstobuildICTpolicy,regulatoryandmanagementcapacityinAfricathoroughprovisionofe-learning.
NetTelseese-learningasacombinationofdigitalonlinematerialaccessedbystudentswithbothlocalandglobal/internationalon-linesupportfromprofessors.
StudentsaccessthecoursematerialviaInternet,usingprivateaccessoraccessprovidedonauniversitycampus,togainqualificationsatoneofthefollowingthreelevels:TheSeminarseriesofshort-courses,recognisedwithcertificatesofattendancePostGraduateDiploma,awardedforcompletionof10corecoursesoveraone-yearperiodAMaster'sDegree,buildingonthePostGraduateDiplomaandrequiringfouradditionaladvancedlevelcoursesandaresearchproject/thesis.
TheNetTel@AfricaprojectwasinitiatedbasedonarequestbytheTelecommunicationsRegulatorsAssociationofSouthernAfrica(TRASA),andthefollowinguniversitiesarecurrentlymembers:UniversityofBotswanaUniversityofWitwatersrandLINKCentreUniversityofDaresSalaamUniversityofZambiaUniversityofFortHare,SouthAfricaMakerereUniversity,UgandaUniversityofSouthAfricaUniversityoftheWesternCapeUniversityofColoradoUniversityofFloridaUniversityofMarylandWashingtonStateUniversityCurrentNetTelcoursesinclude:MacroEnvironment&ImplicationsofTelecommunicationsICTTechnologiesICTIndustry&MarketsSpectrumManagementFinancialAnalysisApproachestoRegulationUniversality&QualityofServiceRegulationServicePricingPolicy,Law&InstitutionsICTApplicationsThecurriculahavebeendevelopedcollaborativelybyUSandAfricanacademicsoveranumberofyears,andtheNetTel@AfricaheadquartersistheUniversityofDaresSalaaminTanzania.
ThemainfunderistheUSAgencyforInternationalDevelopment(USAID),whichhasfundedthecurriculumdevelopmentandprovidesbursariesawardedbyparticipatinguniversitiestostudentstakingthecourses.
Contact:HashimTwaakyondoNetTelAfrica@cs.
udsm.
ac.
tzOLS--OpenLearningSystem,UniversityofKZN,Durbanhttp://www.
ols.
ac.
zaThisfreeandopensourceon-linelearningmanagementsystem(LMS)wasdevelopedin2003attheUniversityofKwaZulu-Natal'sCentreforITinHigherEducation(ITEd).
Itisbasedon"constructivist"learningtheoriesandtargetedatprimary,secondaryandtertiaryeducationalinstitutionsandcorporatetrainingenvironments.
Thesystemisconstructivistinthatitisdesignedtoallowlearningtooccurthroughinteractionandproblem-solvingamongstudents.
Keymechanismsincludeon-linechats,on-linediscussionforums,andon-linepeer-reviewofwritteninputs.
Thesystemalsoprovideseasycourse-authoringapplicationsforprofessorsandlecturerstouseinputtingtogethere-learningprogrammes.
TheOLSwenton-linein2004,andaseriesofworkshopshasbeenheldwithprofessorsandlecturerstoironoutbugsandtomakethemfamiliarwiththesystemfrombothlearnerandcoursedeveloperperspectives.
InthefirsteightmonthsofOLSbeinglivein2004,230moduleswereputon-lineandtherewere3400uniqueusersofthesystem.
Themodulesputupincludeawidevarietyofofferings,allthewayfromfullcoursestocoursenotes.
Contact:AlanAmoryamory@ukzn.
ac.
zaRESAFAD--RéseauAfricaindeFormationàDistance,Dakarhttp://www.
snresafad.
orgThisproject,linkedtotheSenegaleseMinistryofEducationheadquartersinDakar,hassince2001beenfocussingonusingICTmultimédiacentrestosupportface-to-facetraining,contentdevelopmentande-learning.
Therearecurrentytwocentres,inDakarandThiès,andthecentresprovidetrainingforteachersinbasicsskillsforcomputerandInternetuse,aswellasforcurriculumintegrationande-learningapplications.
SeveraleducationalwebsiteshavebeendevelopedbyteachersthroughtheirparticipationinRESAFAD,including:http://sfc.
education.
snhttp://irempt.
education.
snhttp://www.
poledakar.
orghttp://www.
education.
snhttp://www.
examen.
snAlready20studentshavereceivedDUCMdiplomasviae-learningatthecentres,throughacurriculumdevelopedinpartnershipwithDakarUniversityandLeMansUniversityinFrance.
Thee-learningcoursesinprogressinclude:FADCE(trainingofprincipals)FADVAC(teachertraining,inpartnershipwithDakarUniversity,UNESCOandJapanCooperation)Contact:PapaYougaDiengp.
dieng@laposte.
netFADCE,Senegalhttp://fadce.
education.
snThise-learningprogrammeforsecondaryschoolprincipalsisaprojectofRESAFADSenegalandtheColectifdesChefsd'Etablissementdel'EnseignementMoyenetSecondaireduSénégal(COLEMS)Thise-learningproject,startedin2004andstillindevelopment,willtrainhighschoolprincipalsinschoolmanagement.
Initialtestingofthecourseisunderway.
TheLMSAtutorandAcollab(http:www.
atutor.
ca)learnermanagementtoolsarebeingused.
Contact:PapaYougaDiengp.
dieng@laposte.
netRiverbendLearningServices(RLS)&ReusableObjects,Johannesburghttp://www.
riverbendls.
comRiverbendanditsproductdevelopmentunitReusableObjectsareexperte-learningsystemprovidersinSouthAfrica.
Onerecentprojectwastheirdevelopmentofthedevelopment,deliveryandsupportoftheportalfortheThutongNationalEducationPortallaunchedinJanuary2005.
TheCONSTRUCTLearnerManagementSystem(LMS)canbeviewedat:http://hosting.
reusableobjects.
com/constructlms_thutong(login:guest;password:guestpassword).
Startingin2003,RLSandReusableObjectsdevelopedtheLMSanddidtheskillsdevelopmentworkwithcurriculumexperts,materialsdevelopers,programmersandwebdeveloperstoensuresupporttheportalintothefuture.
Theprojectdeveloped96web-enabledlearningobjects,inEnglish,seSothoandisiZulu,inthelearningareasMathematics,NaturalScienceandFirstAdditionalLanguage.
Contact:GundaSpingiesgundas@riverbendls.
comSchoolnetAfricaOn-LineCourseforTechnicalServiceCentreManagershttp://www.
schoolnetafrica.
net/fileadmin/1MillionPCsTraining/Index.
htmThise-courseforSchoolnetAfricaTechnicalServiceCentreManagers,developedwithfundingfromOSISA,hassixmodules,covering:AcquisitionofPCsLocatingpremisesandestablishingacentreDistributingPCsRefurbishingandmaintainingPCsDisposingofPCsatend-of-lifeBusiness-planningLearnersareexpectedtoparticipateinthecoursepart-timeonlineforonemonth,withongoinge-mailengagementwithon-linementorsandacommunityoftheirpeers.
Afteramonthon-line,thereisafivedayface-to-faceworkshop,andthentwomoremonthsofon-lineinteraction.
ThutongNationalEducationPortal,SouthAfricahttp://www.
thutong.
org.
za/Thisproject,whichhasbothschoolssupportande-learningcomponents,iscoveredinmoredetailinthenextsectionentitled"Schools–On-LineCurriculum&Support.
"Schools–On-LineCurriculum&SupportSchoolnetAfricaAEKW(AfricanEducationKnowledgeWarehouse)&ATN(AfricanTeachersNetwork)http://www.
schoolnetafrica.
net/index.
phpid=250http://www.
schoolnetafrica.
net/276.
0.
htmlSchoolnetAfrica'sAEKWisapan-AfricaneducationportalservicingAfricanSchoolNetpractitioners,policymakersandschool-basedcommunitiesonissuesofICTsineducation:SchoolnetAfrica'sATNconductsresearchononlineprofessionaldevelopmentcoursestargetedatAfricanteachers.
Contact:GirmaMitiku,ATNRegionalCoordinatorgirmamitiku@yahoo.
comCoL–CommonwealthofLearninghttp://www.
col.
org/lor/TheCommonwealthofLearning,anintergovernmentalorganisationbasedinVancouver,Canadawith18Africancountriesinitsmembership,hasaLearningObjectsRepository(LOR)projectaimedatsupportingaccesstoopencoursecontentbyteachers.
CoLhasdevelopedanopensourceplatformforschoolsandtertiaryinstitutionstouseinhostingtheLOR,andiscollaboratingwiththeAfricanVirtualUniversity,headquarteredinNairobi,touploadthecourseware.
Contact:PaulWestpwest@col.
orgDireqInternationalhttp://www.
direq.
orgBasedinSouthAfrica,theDireqInternationalconsultancyisinvolvedininnovativecollaborationswithSchoolnetNamibiaanSchoolnetNigeria(See"SchoolnetNamibia"below).
Contact:denis@direq.
orgExamen,Senegalhttp://www.
examen.
snStartedin2001,thisprojectisawebresourcethathelpshighschoolstudentsprepareforexaminationsandtomakecareerchoices.
Thefocussubjectsarethesciencesandmathematics.
Thesiteiswell-used,asevidencedbythefollowingstatisticsfromtheperiod4-10April2005:8850pagevisits(between750and1539pagevisitsperday)963sitevisits822distinctvisitorsSchoolnetNamibiahttp://www.
schoolnet.
na/haiti/SchoolnetNamibiahasestablisheditselfasapioneerinschoolsICTsupport,goingbeyondmerelysupportingconnectivityandpushingforopen-sourceuse,PCrefurbishmentskillsdevelopmentandotherinnovativeapproaches.
Oneofitslatestprojectsisanonline"opencontent"comiccalledHaiTi!
.
Thewords"haitai"mean"listenup"inthelocalNambianOshiwambodialects.
Thecomic'scontentaimstopromotethewaysthatcomputersandtheinternetcanempowerNamibianlearnersandteachers,usingadramaformatfeaturingtheSchoolNetNamibiateamandteachersandlearnersataremoteruralschool.
Thecomic,whichextolsthevirtuesofopen-source,isbeingputtogetherbySchoolnetNamibiastaffwiththehelpoftwoprivatefirms(StrikaandDireqInternational).
Thefirst20-pageissue,publishedinlateApril2005,looksatthestoriesofalearnerwhousestheinternettoprepareforadebate;ofafootballfanwhodecidestheinternetcanbeabettersourceforsportsthanthelocalbackyard"cucashop"tavern,andofayoungteacherlearningcomputerbasicswiththehelpofSchoolNettrainers.
EacheditionisbeingpublishedwithaCreativeCommonslicenceonSchoolnetNamibia'swebsiteforadaptationandusebyteachers,anddistributedasininsertinTheNamibianYouthPaper.
Contact:JorisKomenTheShuttleworthFoundation,CapeTownhttp://www.
shuttleworthfoundation.
comKnownmostlyforitsworkinsupportofopensourcesoftware,SouthAfrica'sShuttleworthFoundationisalsogettingintoschoolcurriculumsupportwork.
It's"On-lineTextBook"projectaimstodeliverfreescience&technologyandentrepreneurshipteachermaterialsonanonlineinteractivesite.
Thefoundationisalsosupportingdevelopmentofschool-levelcurriculumforteachingopensourceusageskills.
Theaimisforthematerialstobe"opencontent"–useableandadaptablebyteachersfreeofcharge.
Contact:KarienBezedenhoutkarien@shuttleworthfoundation.
orgThutongSouthAfricanEducationPortalhttp://www.
thutong.
org.
za/LaunchedinJanuary2005bytheSouthAfricanEducationMinister,thisInternetwebportaltakesitsnamefromtheseTswanaword"thutong,"meaning"placeoflearning.
"Itaims,inthewordsoftheEducationMinister,toprovide"astartingpointforyou(teachersandlearners)seekinginformationtouseinyourclassroomandinyourprojects.
"ThutongfitsinwiththepolicyobjectivesoftheDepartmentofEducation'se-EducationWhitePaperof2004,tosupportcurriculumthroughsoftware,electroniccontentandon-linelearningsystems.
Theportalincludesaccessto:curriculumandlearnersupportmaterialsprofessionaldevelopmentprogrammesforteachersadministrationandmanagementresourcesandtoolsforschoolseducationpolicydocumentsgeneralnewsandinformationonrecentdevelopmentsinSouthAfricaneducationTheteachingandresourcematerialsarecross-referencedtothenationally-approvedcurriculum"unitstandards"registeredwiththeSouthAfricanQualificationsAuthority(SAQA),makingiseasyforateachertoorlearnertofindthematerialspreciselymatchingthelearninggoalsofaparticularsubjectatacertainschoollevel.
Thutonghopestogetthecountry'steacherstonotonlydownloadcurriculummaterialstoprintoutanduseintheclassroom,butalsotocreatetheirownmaterialsandsharethemwithothers,andinteracton-linewithcolleagueselsewhereinthecountryandabroad.
Contact:CatherineMacDonaldcathymac@icon.
co.
zaFree&OpenSourceSoftware(FOSS)FOSSFA–FreeSoftware&OpenSourceSoftwareFoundationforAfricahttp://www.
fossfa.
netFOSSFA,launchedFebruary2003inGenevaduringaWSISPreparatoryCommitteemeeting,isbasedinNairobi.
Atitsfounding,FOSSFApledgedtofocusonencouraginguseofopensourceingovernment,healthandeducation.
ItalsosupportsresearchanddevelopmentaroundopensourcedeploymentinAfrica,uniformityinproductdevelopmentforthecontinentandlocalcapacity-building/jobcreationthroughopensource.
FOSSFAwillbehostingthesecondIdleloconferencein2006(See"Idlelo"section.
)Contact:BildadKagaifossfa@fossfa.
netAVOIR–AfricanVirtualOpenInitiatives&Resourceshttp://avoir.
uwc.
ac.
zaBasedattheDepartmentofInformationandCommunicationservicesattheUniversityoftheWesternCape(UWC)inCapeTown,AVOIRisacollaborativeinternationalprojecttotaketheexistingKnowledgeEnvironmentforWeb-basedLearning(KEWL)e-learningplatformdevelopedbyUWCandtakeittothe"nextgeneration"bymodularizingitandconvertingitentirelytoPHP.
AVOIRaimsbothtobuild"themostadvancedlearningmanagementsystemintheworld,"butalsoto"buildacoreofdevelopersinAfricaninstitutions,mainlyuniversitiesbutalsootherorganisationalstructures.
Programmingfor"KEWL.
NextGen"iscurrentlybeingcarriedoutbyAVOIRprojectmembersinSouthAfrica,Mozambique,Tanzania,UgandaandtheUK.
Contact:DerekKeatsdkeats@uwc.
ac.
zaFreeSoftwareInnovationUnit,UniversityoftheWesternCape,CapeTownThisisanotherinthefamilyofopensourceprojectsemanatingfromUWCinCapeTown.
Contact:DerekKeatsdkeats@uwc.
ac.
zaIdlelo:TheFirstAfricanConferenceontheDigitalCommons–CapeTown,2004Thisconference,attheUniversityoftheWesternCapeinCapeTown,wasaninitiativeofAVOIRandFOSSFAwithUNECA,aimedatbringingtogetheropensourceandopencontentpractitionersfromaroundthecontinent–inordertoexplorethepotentialoffreeandopensourcesoftware(FOSS)andfreeandopencontenttocontributetoeconomicdevelopmentinAfrica.
ThemainpushofIdleloistoseeopensourceandrelatedpracticesnotjustascost-saversbutalsoasenginesforskillsdevelopmentandjobcreation.
SixteenAfricancountrieswererepresentedamongthemorethan200delegates.
Contact:DerekKeatsdkeats@uwc.
ac.
zaIdlelo2–Nairobi2006CoordinatedbytheFOSSFAincollaborationwithUNECAandUNCTAD,thismeetingwilltakeplaceinNairobiinFebruary2006Contact:BildadKagaifossfa@fossfa.
netMerakaOpenSourceCentre,CouncilforScientific&IndustrialResearch(CSIR),SouthAfricahttp://floss.
meraka.
org.
za/EstablishedasaresultoftheSouthAfricangovernment'sdecisiontoprioritiseamigrationtoopen-sourcesoftware,thisproject,basedatoneofSouthAfricanlargestresearchinstitutions(theCSIR),takesitsnamefromtheSotho-languageterm"meraka,"whichreferstocommongrazingland.
Contact:NhlanhlaMabasonmabaso@csir.
co.
zaOpenCafé,SouthAfricahttp://www.
opencafe.
co.
za/Thisnon-profitInternetcaféspecialisesintheusage,distribution,trainingandtechnicalsupportforopensourcesoftware.
Allprofitsderivedfromtheserviceswillbeusedtosetupnewopencafesandopensourceschoollabs.
ThroughrunningprojectslikeArtMarketOnlineandPles(andthecafeitself),OpenCafédemonstratesthepracticalandhands-onuseofLinuxandapplicationslikeMozillaFireFox,OpenOffice.
org,TheGimpandothers.
Theprojectalsointroducesteachers,studentsandartiststotheuseofdatabasesoffreelyavailablehighqualitycontentliketheWikipediaorInternetArchive.
Visitorsareabletolearnabouttheprocessofpublishingtheirworkinopencontentdatabases,underappropriatelicenses.
Contact:info@opencafe.
co.
zaTheShuttleworthFoundation,SouthAfricahttp://www.
tsf.
org.
za/Billionaire"Afronaut"MarkShuttleworth,whomadehisnamethroughITentrepreneurialismandjoiningaRussianspaceexpedition,hasbecomeahugebackerofopensourceprojects,includingthefollowing:amassLPI(LinuxProfessionalInstitute)Level1certificationinFebruary2005,with196peoplewritingatotalof282LPIexamsinjustoneday.
the"GoOpenSource"awareness-raisingcampaign,whichincludesaweeklytelevisionprogrammethe"FreedomToaster"projectthatallowsuserstobringinblankdiscsandmakecopiesofopensourcesoftwarethe"tuXlab"programforschools,whichsupportsopensourceuseinschoolcomputerlabsTheFoundationisalsoafunderofotherprojectsmentionedinthisGuide,includingTranslate.
org.
zaandOpenCaféArchivesArquivoHistóricodeMocambique–HistoricalArchivesofMozambiquehttp://www.
ahm.
uem.
mz/home.
htmDigitisationofthecollectionsinthisarchiveisbeingsupportedbytheFordFoundation.
CAMA--ContemporaryAfricanMusicandArtsArchivehttp://www.
cama.
org.
zaBasedattheMontebelloDesignCentre,UniversityofCapeTown,CAMAhassince1995beenworkingonprojectsaroundinnovativeICTusetodocumentanddisseminateaudio-visualmaterialsonartistsandotherculture-creatorsinAfrica.
Contact:JohnTurest-Swartzcama@cama.
org.
zaCAN–CultureAfricaNetworkProjecthttp://www.
africa-can.
org/SpearheadedbytheCAMAprojectattheUniversityofCapeTown,CANnowhasthefollowingmembersitesaroundthecontinentGhana:ICAMD-InternationalCentreforAfricanMusic&DanceUniversityofGhanaatLegon,AccraKenya:KuonaTrust,NationalMuseumsofKenya,NairobiEthiopia:InstituteforEthiopianStudies,AddisAbabaUniversityMali:MuseeNationalduMali,BamakoSudan:TRAMA-TraditionalMusicArchive,InstituteforAfricanandAsianStudies,UniversityofKhartoumMozambique:ARPAC-SocialandCulturalResearchInstitute,Maputo;CNCD-NationalCompanyofSong&Dance,Maputo;andMuseuNacionaldeArte(NationalMuseumofArt),MaputoContact:JohnTurest-Swartzcama@cama.
org.
zaDIN--DevelopmentInitiativeNetwork,Nigeriahttp://www.
ashoka.
org/fellows/viewprofile3.
cfmreid=144130NigerianlawyerBolaFajemirokunisdevelopinganonlinedatabaseofproceedingsfromNigerianMagistrateCourtsandFederalandStateHighCourts,aswellfromappellatecourtssuchastheCourtofAppealsandtheSupremeCourt,asanaidtolawyers,judgesandresourceswhountilnowhavehadtorelyprimarilyonpaperfiles.
Contact:BolaFajemirokundinlagos@yahoo.
co.
ukmombolafag@yahoo.
co.
ukDISA–DigitalImagingSouthAfrica,UofKZN,Durbanhttp://aboutdisa.
ukzn.
ac.
za/index.
old.
htmlhttp://disa.
nu.
ac.
zaBasedattheUniversityofKwaZulu-NatalinDurban,DISAfocussesongettingSouthernAfricanhistoricalmaterialdigitisedandon-line.
It'sisanon-profitinitiativesponsoredbytheMellonFoundation.
DISAemphasisethedigitisationofmaterial"ofhighsocio-politicalinterest.
"Thefirstmajorproject,DISA1,iscalledSouthernAfrica'sStruggleforDemocracy:AntiApartheidPeriodicals,1960-1994.
Thison-linearchivebringstogetherthecontentsofaround40anti-apartheidperiodicalsrepresentingarangeofpoliticalviewsandcomingfromvarioussectorsincludingthetradeunionmovement,religion,health,cultureandgender.
DISA1containsabout55,000pagesoffully-searchabletext.
DISA2,calledSouthernAfricanFreedomStruggles,c.
1950–1994,isinvestigatingfurthercollectionsandmaterialsfordigitization,withworkunderwayatDISAheadquartersinDurban(CampbellCollections,UniversityofKwaZulu-Natal)andatothersiteswhererelevantmaterialsarecurrentlyhoused.
DISAhascloselinkswiththetheMellonFoundation-supportedIthakaandAlukaprojects,whichpromoteappropriateICTusefordeveloping-countryarchivedevelopment(see"Mellon"aboveunder"SomeKeyFunders").
Contact:DalePeterspetersd@ukzn.
ac.
zaLocalContent&LanguageOKN–OpenKnowledgeNetworkAfricahttp://www.
openknowledge.
netTheOKNhasitsoriginsintheG8DigitalOpportunityTaskForce(DOTForce)recommendationsof2000-02,whichemphasized,amongotherthings,theneedtosupportdevelopmentlocalcontentandlocalapplications.
TheOKNconcept,developedbyOneWorldInternationalinLondon,wasfirsttestedinIndiain2002bytheM.
S.
SwaminathanResearchFoundation,basedonthefollowingprinciples:buildingcapacityincommunitiestosupportknowledge-sharingcombiningbothofflineandInternet-basedworkpeer-to-peernetworkingbetween"knowledgeworkers"indifferentcommunitiesuseofXMLmetadatastandardsopencontentcopyrightlicensessustainablebusinessmodelsadaptedtodifferentcontextsOKN'sAfricaworkbeganin2003,andtherearenowOKN"hubs"inZimbabwe,Kenya,SenegalandMali.
TheZimbabweprojectiswiththeSouthernAllianceforIndigenousResources(SAFIRE),workingwithahubandfivecommunity"accesspoints"includingresourcecentres,aschool,arefugeecampandawomen'sorganisation.
Theaccesspointsaresharinginformationthroughthehub.
TheKenyanhubisattheheadquartersoftheAridLandsInformationNetwork(ALIN)inNairobi,withfiveaccesspoints.
TheSenegaleseprojectiswithENDACyberPOP,basedinDakar,whichislinkedwithsevenaccesspoints,includingruralwomen'ssavingscollectives,acraftmicro-entrepreneurssupportcentre,andtraditionalhealers.
InMali,theNGOJamanaisworkingtogetherwithanInternetServiceProvidernamedAfriboneonapilotthatwillhavesevenaccesspoints.
Contact:PeterBenjaminpeter.
benjamin@oneworld.
netSwahiliITglossaryproject,Tanzaniahttp://www.
kilinux.
org/kiblog/index.
htmlThisprojectdevelopsfreesoftwareinKiswahiliandEnglish.
Contact:Dr.
HashimTwaakyondohtwaaky@cs.
udsm.
ac.
tzTranslate.
org.
za,SouthAfricahttp://www.
translate.
org.
za/ThisPretoria-basedproject,begunin2001,aimstotranslatefreeandopensourcesoftwarepackagesintothe11officiallanguagesofSouthAfrica.
IthasalreadytranslatedOpenOffice.
organdFirefoxintoall11languages.
Itstages"Translate@thons"thatbringmanypeopletogetherandtranslateTheprojectreceivessupportfromtheSouthAfricanDepartmentofCommunications(DoC),theCSIR,theIDRC's"FirstMileFirstInchProject"andtheShuttleworthFoundation.
In2002,theprojecttranslatedKDEintoanumberoflanguages,andthenMozillaandGooglein2003.
Inearly2004,anAfrikaansspellcheckerwasdeveloped,andAugust2004sawtheofficialreleaseofOpenOffice.
orginAfrikaans,NorthernSothoandZulu.
InearlyMarch2005,theprojecthelda"ZuluTranslate-a-thon"inDurban,atwhich30ZuluspeakersfromtheDurbanInstituteofTechnologylearnedaboutsoftwaretranslationandtohelptranslateMozillaFirefoxintoZulu.
Anumberofotherlanguagespeakerswerealsopresent.
Duringthedaytranslatorstranslated:4000wordsofMozillaFirefoxintoZulu300wordsofFirefoxinXhosa400wordsofPootleinXhosa370wordsofPootleinZulu500wordsofPootleinAfrikaans150wordsofPootleinTswanaContact:DwayneBaileyDwayne@translate.
org.
zaBlogstheCallipygousCamelhttp://radbrad.
rucus.
netThispersonalwebsiteanduniversitystudiesrepository,startedinMarch2004byBradleyWhittington,featuresaweblog(includingmobileblogging)andphotogallery.
ItstartedasapersonalwebsitewhileWhittingtonwasstudyingatuniversity,whenheuseditasatoolforlearningwebdevelopment,specificallytheuseofPHP,htmlandapachewebserver.
Nowheusesittostorephotographs(withgalleriesforfriendstouse)andapersonalweblog(hand-crafted).
Whittingtonsaysitus"averygoodlearningtool"and"hasgrownasmallreadership.
"Hesupportsthe"hellkom"campaignagainstSouthAfricanincumbenttelcooperatorTelkomandisanadvocateofCreativeCommons,w3cwebstandardsandFLOSS(free/libreandopensourcesoftware)intheAfricancontext.
Contact:BradleyWhittingtonblog@radbrad.
rucus.
netWebsitesA2LMinSouthernAfrica–AccesstoLearningMaterialsinSouthernAfricaProject:http://www.
access.
org.
zaBoingBoing:ADirectoryofWonderfulThings:http://boingboing.
net/CampaignforDigitalRights:http://www.
eucd.
org/CenterforthePublicDomain:http://www.
centerpd.
org/CreativeCommons:http://creativecommons.
org/CRIS–CommunicationRightsintheInformationSociety:http://www.
crisinfo.
org/CPTech–ConsumerProjectonTechnology:http://www.
cptech.
org/EDRI–EuropeanDigitalRights:http://www.
edri.
org/EEF–ElectronicFrontierFoundation,http://eef.
orgeIFL--ElectronicInformationforLibraries:http://www.
eifl.
netFIPR–FoundationforInformationPolicyResearch:http://www.
fipr.
org/FreePress:http://www.
freepress.
net/IFLA–InternationalFederationofLibraryAssociations&Institutions:http://www.
ifla.
orgInformationCommons:http://www.
info-commons.
org/INCD–InternationalNetworkforCulturalDiversity:http://www.
incd.
net/IPCharter:http://www.
ipcharter.
org/IPJustice:http://www.
ipjustice.
orgIntellectualPropertyWatch:http://www.
ip-watch.
orgJamesBoyle'sHomePage:http://www.
james-boyle.
com/MediaTradeMonitor:http://www.
mediatrademonitor.
org/OpenArchivesInitiative:http://www.
openarchives.
org/SouthCentre:http://www.
southcentre.
org/TWN–ThirdWorldNetwork:http://www.
twnside.
org.
sgWIPOIGC–IntergovernmentalCommitteeonIntellectualProperty&GeneticResources,TraditionalKnowledge&Folklore:http://www.
wipo.
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Kumara,K(2005)"IndiaadoptsWTOpatentlawwithLeftFrontsupport,"WorldSocialistWebSite,16April,http://www.
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AcknowledgementsManythankstothefollowingpeoplewhoarehelping,inonewayoranother,tomaketheCommons-senseProjectpossible:APC:AnrietteEsterhuysenA2LMinSouthernAfricaProject:AchalPrabhalaCoL:PaulWestCPTech:JamieLove,ThiruBalasubramaniamCreativeCommons:AndrewRens,LawrenceLessig,PaulaleDieuEveGray&Associates:EveGrayIDRC:HeloiseEmdon,SteveSong,LaurentElder,AilouneCamaraILO:JohnMyersIPWatch:CarolynDeere,WilliamNewNigerianMission,Geneva:UsmanSarkiOLS,UofKZN:AlanAmoryOSISA:AshrafPatelParaffin:PhillipaMoorePhoenixInternational:CarolynAckermannSASLI:SusanVeldsmanSoros/OSI:MelissaHageman,VeraFranzStellenboschU:JenniferdeBeerTRALAC:TenuAvafiaUofCapeTown:CharlesMasango,HusseinSulemanSADeptofScience&Technology:AdiPaterson,BhaviniKalanSANationalResearchFoundation(NRF):AndrewKanikiSouthCentre:SisuleMusunguWIPOIGC:WendWendlandWitsP&DM:MoneerahIsmailWitsUniversityLINKCentre:LuciAbrahams,AlisonGillwald,TumiMolefeWitsUniversityLibrary:FelixUbogo,DeniseNicholson,DiManAppendix1–QuestionnaireCommons-sense:TowardsanAfricanDigitalInformationCommonshttp://www.
commons-sense.
orgResearchQuestionnaire(Pleaseonlyanswersectionsthatarerelevanttotheproject–don'tworryaboutleavingsomeorlotsoffieldsempty;brief,note-formanswersarefine–weknowyouareabusyperson!
)Nameofproject:Mainprojectpartner(s)/player(s):Physicallocationofprojectheadquarters:(institution,city/town,country):Weblink:Keycontactperson:E-mailofcontactperson:Mainprojectobjectives:Currentprojectinformation/knowledge/creativity/innovationactivities/outputs:Plannedfutureinformation/knowledge/creativity/innovationactivities/outputs:Languagesused:Maintargetaudience(s):Mainprojectincomesource(s),includingnamesofdonors:Yearofprojectbeginning:Briefprojecthistory:Digitalelement(s)oftheproject:On-lineelement(s)oftheproject:Mainprojectsuccesses:Mainprojectchallenges/difficulties:Projectparticipationinnationaladvocacy,lobbying&policydevelopment:Projectparticipationininternationaladvocacy,lobbying&policydevelopment:PleasereturncompletedquestionnairetoChrisArmstrong&SilviaHiranoat:armstrong.
c@pdm.
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